BASCAL

Lesson 7
Topic: Factorials and the Binomial Coefficient

We begin by defining the factorial of a natural number n, denoted n!, as the product of all natural numbers less
than or equal to n.
𝑛! = 𝑛 (𝑛 − 1) (𝑛 − 2) ... 3 · 2 · 1

For example,
7! = 7 · 6 · 5 · 4 · 3 · 2 · 1 = 5,040 Seven factorial
5! = 5 · 4 · 3 · 2 · 1 · = 120 Five factorial
3! = 3 · 2 · 1 = 6 Three factorial
1! = 1 = 1 One factorial

We define zero factorial to be equal to 1,

0! = 1 Zero factorial
The Factorial of a negative number is not defined.

Evaluate 12! / 6!
12! 12·11·10·9·8·7·6·5·4·3·2·1
Solution: 6!
= 6·5·4·3·2·1
12·11·10·9·8·7·6!
= 6!
= 12·11·10·9·8·7
= 665,280

Simplify: 17! / 14!3!

Solution:
Right away, I can cancel off the factors 1 through 14 that will be common to both 17! And 14!. Then i
can simplify what’s left to get:
17! 1·2·3·4·...·14·15·16·17 15·16·17
14!3!
= 1·2·3·4·...·14·1·2·3
= 1·2·3
= 5·8·17 = 680

𝑛
The binomial coefficient, denoted 𝑐 = ( 𝑘 ) is read is read “n choose k” and is given by the following formula:
𝑛 𝑘
𝑛 𝑛!
𝑐 = (𝑘)=
𝑛 𝑘 𝑘! (𝑛−𝑘)!

If n and k are integers greater than or equal to 0 with n > k.

The formula is very important in a branch of mathematics called combinatorics. It gives the number of ways k
elements can be chosen from a set of n elements where order doesn’t matter. In this section, we are
concerned with the ability to calculate this quantity.

Find each binomial coefficient

5
1. ( 3 )
9
2. ( 2 )
9
3. ( )
7
 𝑛!
𝑘! (𝑛−𝑘)!

𝑛 5 5!
𝑘
(3)= 3! (5−3)!
5!
= 3! 2!
5·4·3·2·1 5·4
= 3·2·1·2·1
= 2·1
= 10

𝑛 9 9!
𝑘
(2)= 2! (9−2)!
9!
= 2! 7!
9·8·7! 72
= 2·1·7!
= 2
= 36

𝑛 9 9!
𝑘
(7)= 7! (9−7)!
9!
= 7! 2!
9·8·7! 9·8
= 7!·2·1
= 2·1
= 36

Binomial Expansions Using Pascal’s Triangle

Next we study the coefficients of the expansions of (x+y)n starting with n = 0
0
(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 1
1
(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 𝑥 + 𝑦
2 2 2
(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦
3 3 2 2 3
(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 𝑥 + 3𝑥 𝑦 + 3𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦
4 4 3 2 2 3 4
(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 𝑥 + 4𝑥 𝑦 + 6𝑥 𝑦 + 4𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦

(x-1)6 = 1x6 (-1)0 + 6x5 (-1)1 + 15x4 (-1)2 + 20x3 (-1)3 + 15x2 (-1)4 + 6x1 (-1)5 + 1x0 (-1)6

(x-1)6 = x6 - 6x5 + 15x4 - 20x3 + 15x2 - 6x + 1

(2x-5)4 = 1(2x)4 (-5)0 + 4(2x)3 (-5)1 + 6(2x)2 (-5)2 + 4(2x)1 (-5)3 + 1(2x)0 (-5)4
= 16x4 · 1 + 4 · 8x3 (-5) + 6 · 4x2 · 35 + 4 · 2x (-125) + 1 · 625
= 16x4 - 160x3 + 600x2 - 1,000x + 625
Lesson 8
Topic: Binomial Theorem in Factorial Form

- Binomial theorem provides a method of expanding binomials raised to powers without directly
multiplying each factor:
(𝑥 + 𝑦) =
𝑛
( )𝑥 𝑦 + ( )𝑥
𝑛
0
𝑛 0 𝑛
1
𝑛−1 1
𝑦 + ( )𝑥 𝑛
2
𝑛−2 2
𝑦 +... + ( 𝑛−1
𝑛
)𝑥 𝑦
1 𝑛−1
+ ( )𝑥 𝑦
𝑛
𝑛
0 𝑛

More compactly we can write

𝑛
(𝑥 + 𝑦) = ∑
𝑛

𝑘=0
( )𝑥𝑛
𝑘
𝑛−𝑘 𝑘
𝑦

Use the binomial formula to find the expansion of (x + y)4

Start by substituting n = 4 into the binomial formula:

(𝑥 + 𝑦) =
4
( )𝑥 𝑦 + ( )𝑥 𝑦 + ( )𝑥 𝑦 + ( )𝑥
4
0
4−0 0 4
1
4−1 1 4
2
4−2 2 4
3
4−3 3
𝑦 + ( )𝑥
4
4
4−4 4
𝑦

=( )𝑥 + ( )𝑥 + ( )𝑥 𝑦 + ( )𝑥 𝑦 + ( )𝑦
4 4 4 3 4 2 2 4 1 3 4 4
0 1 2 3 4

Recall that ( ) and ( ) are both equivalent to 1, as there is only one way to choose either 0 or 4 objects
4
0
4
4
from among 4. Therefore, we have:
=𝑥 +
4
( )𝑥 𝑦 + ( )𝑥 𝑦 + ( )𝑥𝑦
4
1
3 4
2
2 2 4
3
3
+𝑦
4

Now we must evaluate each of the remaining combinations:

( )=4
1
4!
1! (4−1)!
=
4!
1!3!
=4

( )=4
2
4!
2! (4−2)!
=
4!
2!2!
=6

( )=4
3
4!
3! (4−3)!
=
4!
3!1!
=4

Substitute these integers into the expansion, we have:

(x+y)4 = x4 + 4x3y + 6x2y2 + 4xy3 + y4

Expand using binomial theorem:

(x + 2)5

Solution:
Use the binomial theorem where n = 5 and y = 2.

= ( )𝑥 2 + ( )𝑥 2 + ( )𝑥 2 + ( )𝑥 2 + ( )𝑥 2 + ( )𝑥 2
5
0
5 0 5
1
4 1 5
2
3 2 5
3
2 3 5
4
1 4 5
5
0 5

=𝑥 +
5
( )2𝑥 + ( )4𝑥 + ( )8𝑥 + ( )16𝑥
5
1
4 5
2
3 5
3
2 5
4
+ 32
= x5 + 10x4 + 40x3 + 80x2 + 80x + 32

Finding a Specific Term

Note that in the binomial theorem gives us the ( )𝑎 𝑏 1st term, ( )𝑎
𝑛
0
𝑛 0 𝑛
1
𝑛−1 1
𝑏 gives us the 2nd term,

( )𝑎𝑛
2
𝑛−2 2
𝑏 gives us the 3rd term, and so on. This can be generalized as follows.
The (k + 1)-st term of (a + b)n is ( )𝑎
𝑛
𝑘
𝑛−𝑘 𝑘
𝑏

Find the 5th term in the expansion of (2x - 5y)6.

Solution:
First, we note that 5 = 4 + 1. Thus, k = 4 a = 2x, b = -5y, and n = 6. Then the 5th term of the expansion is…

( )(2𝑥)
6
4
6−4
(− 5𝑦)
4

6! 2 4
= 4! 2!
(2𝑥) (− 5𝑦)
= 15 (4x2)(625y4)
= 37500x2y4

Find the 8th term in the expansion of (3x - 2)10

Solution:
First, we note that 8 = 7 + 1. Thus, k = 7 a = 3x b= -2 and n = 10. Then the 8th term of the expansion is

( )(3𝑥)
10
7
10−7
(− 2)
7

10! 3 7
= 7! 3!
(3𝑥) (− 2)
=120 (27x3)(-128)
= -414720x3
Lesson 9
Topic: All About Calculus

All About Calculus

- Calculus is the study of change and motion. It is the culmination of algebra, geometry, and
trigonometry, which makes the next step in a logical progression of mathematics.
- The term “Calculus” was derived from a latin word “calx” which means “stone” and from the greek
word “chalis” which means “limestone”.
- The discovery of calculus is often attributed to two men, Isaac Newton and Gottfried Leibniz, who
independently developed its foundations
- Although they both were instrumental in its creation, they thought of the fundamental concepts in very
different ways.

Isaac Newton
- Considered variables changing with time.
- On the other hand, Newton used quantities x’ and y’, which were finite velocities, to compute the
tangent.
-
Gottfried Leibniz
- Thought of the variables x and y as ranging over sequence of infinitely close values.
- He introduced dx and dy as differences between successive values of these sequences.
- Leibniz knew that dy/dx gives the tangent but he did not use it as a defining property.

Neither Leibniz nor Newton thought in terms of functions, but both always thought in terms of graphs. For
Newton the calculus was geometrical while Leibniz took it towards analysis.

The subject calculus is divided into four areas namely:

● Differential Calculus,
● Integral Calculus,
● Differential Equations, and
● Calculus of Variations

Differentiation and the Derivative

𝑓(𝑥+∆𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓'(𝑥) = lim ∆𝑥
∆𝑥 → 0
Differentiation is the algebraic method of finding the derivative for a function at any point
The derivative of a function is rate change of Y axis with X(or slope at a point)

How to Understand Calculus Integration

DIfferential Equations
Exact Differential Equation
If M & N are functions of x & y and
∂𝑀 ∂𝑁
∂𝑦
= ∂𝑥
Solution is given by

∫ 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑁𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐

Keep y Term free

Const in M from x

Calculus of Variations
The function that satisfies this differential equation:
2 2
∂𝑧 ∂𝑁 2 (𝑦−05)
2 2 + 2 = (2 + 𝑥 ) 𝑒
∂𝑥 ∂𝑥
Minimizes this integral (this must be proved for each equation):
2 2
1
2
⎣
( ) ( )
∫⎡⎢ ∂𝑥 + ∂𝑦 ⎤⎥𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 + ∫ 𝑧 2 + 𝑥 𝑒
∂𝑧 ∂𝑧
⎦
2 (𝑦−05)
[( )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 ]
The same approach can be taken: to satisfy the differential equation, one approximates the integral on the
finite element blocks and finds the minimum

Calculus actively used in…

● Calculating the slope of the tangent line to a curve at any point along its length.
● Determining the velocity and acceleration of an object given a function describing its position
● Calculating arc lengths and volume and surface area of solids.
● Calculating the relative and absolute extreme of objects, especially projectiles.
● Credit card companies use calculus to set the minimum payments due on credit card statements at
the exact time the statements is processed by.
● Biologists use differential calculus to determine the exact rate of growth in a bacterial culture when
different variables such as temperature and food source are changed.
● Electrical Engineer uses integration to determine the exact length of power cable needed to connect
two substations that are miles apart.
● Architect will use integration to determine the amount of materials necessary to construct a curved
dome over a new sports arena
● Space Flight Engineers frequently use calculus when planning lengthy missions.
● Statisticians will use calculus to evaluate survey data to help develop business plans for different
companies.
● A Physicist uses calculus to find the center of mass of a sports utility vehicle to design appropriate
safety features that must adhere to federal specifications on different road surfaces and at different
speeds
● An Operations Research Analyst will use calculus when observing different processes at a
manufacturing corporation.
● Graphic Artist uses calculus to determine how different three-dimensional models will behave when
subjected to rapidly changing conditions. This can create a realistic environment for movies or video
games.
Lesson 10
Topic: Evaluating Limits Analytically

- The limit is one of the tools that we use to describe the behavior of a function as the values of x
approach, or become closer and closer to, some particular number.
- lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎
- “L is the limit of function of x as x approaches a”

● Limits of a Constant
● Limits Obtained by Direct Substitution
● Limits of Sum or Difference
● Limit of a Product and Quotient
● Limit of a Radical Expression
● Limit at Infinity

The limit of a constant is the same as constant.

lim 𝑐 = 𝑐
𝑥→𝑎
Example:
lim 1 = 1 lim 24 = 24
𝑥 → −4 𝑥→0

Limits Obtained by Direct Substitution:

- In finding the limit of a given expression, the first step usually done is by substituting the value of a.
- If the computed value is defined, then that is the limit, if not, then other property may be tried.
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑥→𝑎
Example:
3
lim (2𝑥 − 𝑥 + 5) = -9
𝑥 → −2
3
[ ]
lim 2(− 2) − (− 2) + 5 = 2(− 8) + 2 + 5 = − 16 + 7 =− 9
𝑥 → −2

𝑥−1
lim 2
𝑥→2 𝑥 +4
2−1 1
lim 2 = 8
𝑥→2 (2) + 4

Limits of Sum or Difference:

- The limit of a sum or difference is equal to the sum or difference of their limits.
lim [𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)]
𝑥→𝑎
lim 𝑓(𝑥) ± lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎𝑥→𝑎
Example:
3 2 2
lim (𝑥 − 3) = lim (− 2) − lim 3 = (− 2) − 3 = 1
𝑥 → −2 𝑥 → −2 𝑥 → −2
 3
lim (2𝑥 + 𝑥 − 4)
𝑥→1
3
lim 2(1) + lim 1 − lim 4
𝑥→1 𝑥→1 𝑥→1
2(1)3 + 1 - 4 = -1

Limit of a Product:
- A product is equal to the product of their limits.
lim [𝑓(𝑥) • 𝑔(𝑥)]
𝑥→𝑎
lim 𝑓(𝑥) • lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

Example:
2
[
lim (3𝑥 )(2𝑥 − 7) ]
𝑥→4
2
[ lim 3𝑥 ][ lim (2𝑥 − 7)]
𝑥→4 𝑥→4
2
[3(4) ][2(4)-7] = 48

Limit of a Quotient:
- The limit of a quotient is equal to the quotient of their limits provided the limit of the denominator is not
equal to zero.
𝑓(𝑥)
lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎
lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑠
lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑖𝑓 lim 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
Example:
3
𝑥 −4
lim ⎡⎢ 2𝑥−1 ⎤⎥
𝑥→3 ⎣ ⎦
3
lim (𝑥 −4) 3
𝑥→3 (3) −4 23
lim (2𝑥−1)
= 2(3)−1
= 5
𝑥→3

Limit of a Radical Expression:

- The limit of the nth root of a function is equal to the nth root of the limit.
𝑛
lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎

𝑛 lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎
Example:
2
lim 3𝑥 + 4
𝑥 → −2

2
lim 3𝑥 + 4
𝑥 → −2

2
3(− 2) + 4 = 4
Limit at Infinity
- The limit of c/x or in general of c/xn where n is a positive integer, as x approaches infinity, is zero.
𝑐
lim 𝑛 = 0
𝑥→∞ 𝑥

n is positive integer
Example:
3
lim 4 = 0
𝑥→∞ 𝑥

Indeterminate Forms
- It occur when substitution in the limit results in 0/0. In such cases either factor or rationalize the
expressions.

-
Example:

( )=
2
4−𝑥 (2+𝑥)(2−𝑥)
lim 2 3 2
𝑥 → −2 2𝑥 +𝑥 𝑥 (2+𝑥)
2−𝑥 2−(−2) 2+2 4
= 2 = 2 = 4
= 4
=1
𝑥 (−2)

( )
2
𝑥−3 𝑥−3 𝑥+3 ( 𝑥) −3 𝑥−9 1 1 1 1
lim 𝑥−9
= 𝑥−9
· = = = = = 3+3
= 6
𝑥+3 (𝑥−9)( 𝑥+3) (𝑥−9)( 𝑥+3) 𝑥+3 9+3
𝑥→9
Lesson 11
Topic: Derivative by Limit Process

- The following problems require the use of the limit definition of a derivative, which is given by
! 𝑓(𝑥+∆𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 (𝑥) lim ∆𝑥
∆𝑥 → 0
- The derivative of y with respect to x is the limit of the ratio ∆y/∆x when ∆x approaches zero.

Here are the steps using the limit of process ∆y/∆x:

1. Replace x by x + ∆x, and y by y + ∆y

(1) y=f(x)
(2) y + ∆y = f(x+∆x)
2. By subtraction, eliminate y, between (1) and (2), thus obtaining a formula for ∆y in terms of x and ∆x :
(3) ∆y = f(x + ∆x) - f(x)
3. By some suitable transformation. Throw the right member (3) into a form which contains ∆x explicitly as
a factor.
4. Divide through by ∆x:
∆𝑦 𝑓 (𝑥+∆𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥)
∆𝑥
= ∆𝑥
5. Determine the limit as ∆x approaches to zero.

Differentiate the function y = x Differentiate the function y = x + 5 Differentiate the function y = x2 + 2

y + ∆y = (x + ∆x) y + ∆y = (x + ∆x) +5 y + ∆y = (x + ∆x)2 + 2
∆y = (x + ∆x) - y ∆y = (x + ∆x) +5 - y ∆y = (x + ∆x)2 + 2 - y
∆y = (x + ∆x) - x ∆y = (x + ∆x) +5 - x (x + 5) ∆y = (x + ∆x)2 + 2 - (x2 + 2)
∆y = x + ∆x - x ∆y = x + ∆x +5 - x - 5 ∆y = x2 + 2x∆x + (∆x)2 + 2 - x2 -
2
∆y = ∆x ∆y/∆x = 1 ∆y = ∆x ∆y/∆x = 1 ∆y/∆x = 2x∆x + ∆x2
∆y/∆x = 2x + ∆x
∆y/∆x = 2x ∆y/∆x = 2x

Differentiate the function y = 3x2 + 5 Differentiate the function y = 5x2 + 8x

y + ∆y = 3(x + ∆x)2 + 5 y + ∆y = 5(x + ∆x)2 + 8(x + ∆x)
∆y = 3(x2 + 2x∆x + ∆x2 ) - 5 - (3x2 + 5) ∆y = 5(x2 +2x∆x + ∆x2) + 8x + 8∆x - (5x2 + 8x)
∆y = 3x2 + 6x∆x +3∆x2 + 5 - 3x2 - 5 ∆y = 5x2 + 10x∆x + 5∆x2 + 8x + 8∆x - 5x2 - 8x
2 2
∆𝑦 6𝑥∆𝑥 + 3∆𝑥 10𝑥∆𝑥 + 5∆𝑥 +8∆𝑥
∆𝑥
= ∆𝑥
∆y/∆x = ∆𝑥
∆𝑦 ∆𝑦
∆𝑥
= 6x + 3∆x ∆𝑥
= 6x ∆y/∆x = 10x + 5∆x + 8 ∆y/∆x = 10x + 8

1 3
Differentiate the function: f(x) = 2
𝑥− 5
y + ∆y = 1/2 (x + ∆x) - 3/5
∆y = 1/2 (x + ∆x) - 3/5 - (1/2x - 3/5)
∆y = 1/2x + 1/2∆x - 3/5 - 1/2x + ⅗
1/2∆𝑥
∆y/∆x = ∆𝑥
∆y/∆x = 1/2
Lesson 12
Topic: Basic Differentiation Rules

The constant Rule

𝑑
The derivative of a constant function is 0. That is, if c is a real number, then 𝑑𝑥
[𝑐] = 0

Example:
Function Derivative
a. y = 7 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑥 = 0
b. f(x) = 0 𝑓'(𝑥) = 0
c. s(t) = -3 𝑠'(𝑡) = 0
d. y = kπ2,k is constant 𝑦' = 0

The Power Rule

𝑑 𝑛 𝑛−1
- If n is a rational number, then the function 𝑓(𝑥) = xn is differentiable and 𝑑𝑥
[𝑥 ] = 𝑛𝑥
- For 𝑓 to be differentiable at x = 0, n must be a number such that xn - 1 is defined on an interval containing
0.
- When using Power Rule, the case for which n = 1 is best thought of as a separate differentiation rule.
𝑑
That is, 𝑑𝑥
[𝑥] = 1.
Example:
Function Derivative
3 2
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑓'(𝑥) = 3𝑥
3 𝑑 1/3 1 −2/3 1
b. 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑔'(𝑥) = 𝑑𝑥
[𝑥 ] = 3
𝑥 = 2/3
3𝑥
1 𝑑𝑦 𝑑 −2 −3 2
c. 𝑦 = 2 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑑𝑥
[𝑥 ] = (− 2)𝑥 =− 3
𝑥 𝑥

The Constant Multiple Rule

- If 𝑓 is a differentiable function and c is a real number, then c 𝑓 is also differentiable and
𝑑
𝑑𝑥
[𝑐𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑐𝑓'(𝑥).
- Informally, the Constant Multiple Rule states that constants can be factored out the differentiation
process, even if the constants appear in the denominator.
- The Constant Multiple Rule and the Power Rule can be combined into one rule. The combination rule is
𝑑 𝑛 𝑛−1
𝑑𝑥
[𝑐𝑥 ] = 𝑐𝑛𝑥 .
Example:
Function Derivative
2 𝑑𝑦 𝑑 2−1 𝑑 −1 −2 2
a. 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑑𝑥
[2𝑥 ]= 2 𝑑𝑥
[𝑥 ] = 2(− 1)𝑥 =− 2
𝑥
2
4𝑡 𝑑 2 2
b. 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑓'(𝑡) = ⎡4𝑡 ⎤= 4 𝑑
[𝑡 ] =
4
(2𝑡) =
8
𝑡
5 ⎣5 ⎦ 5
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 5 5

c. 𝑦 = 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 1/2
= 𝑑𝑥 [2𝑥 ] = 2 ( 1
2
𝑥
−1/2
)= 𝑥 −1/2
=
1
𝑥
Function Derivative
d. 𝑦 =
1
3
2 𝑥
2
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
=
𝑑
𝑑𝑥
⎡1𝑥
⎣2
−2/3
⎤=
⎦
1
2 (− ) 𝑥
2
3
−5/3
=−
1
5/3
3𝑥
3𝑥 𝑑 3 3 3
e. 𝑦 =− 2 𝑦' = ⎡− 𝑥⎤ =− (1) =−
𝑑𝑥 ⎣ 2 ⎦ 2 2

Sum and Difference Rule

- The sum (or difference) of two differentiable functions 𝑓 and g is differentiable. The derivative of 𝑓 + g
(or 𝑓 + g) is the sum (or difference) of the derivatives of 𝑓 and g.
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
- 𝑑𝑥
[𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑑𝑥
[𝑓(𝑥)] ± 𝑑𝑥
[𝑔(𝑥)]
- The Sum and Difference Rules can be extended to any finite number of functions. For instance, if F(x)
= 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) − ℎ(𝑥),then F’(x) = 𝑓'(x) + g’(x) - h’(x)

Example:
Function Derivative
3 2
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 5 𝑓'(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 4
4
𝑥 3 2 2
b. 𝑔(𝑥) =− 2
+ 3𝑥 − 2𝑥 𝑔'(𝑥) =− 2𝑥 + 9𝑥 − 2