Unit-3 DBMS Notes

Unit 3
SQL
o SQL stands for Structured Query Language. It is used for storing and
managing data in relational database management system (RDMS).
o It is a standard language for Relational Database System. It enables a user to
create, read, update and delete relational databases and tables.
o All the RDBMS like MySQL, Informix, Oracle, MS Access and SQL Server use
SQL as their standard database language.
o SQL allows users to query the database in a number of ways, using English-like
statements.
Rules:
SQL follows the following rules:
o Structure query language is not case sensitive. Generally, keywords of SQL are
written in uppercase.
o Statements of SQL are dependent on text lines. We can use a single SQL
statement on one or multiple text line.
o Using the SQL statements, you can perform most of the actions in a
database. o SQL depends on tuple relational calculus and relational algebra.
SQL process:
8. When an SQL command is executing for any RDBMS, then the system figure out
the best way to carry out the request and the SQL engine determines that how
to interpret the task.
9. In the process, various components are included. These components can
be optimization Engine, Query engine, Query dispatcher, classic, etc.
10. All the non-SQL queries are handled by the classic query engine, but SQL query
engine won't handle logical files.
Characteristics of SQL
o SQL is easy to learn.
o SQL is used to access data from relational database management
systems. o SQL can execute queries against the database.
o SQL is used to describe the data.
o SQL is used to define the data in the database and manipulate it when needed.
o SQL is used to create and drop the database and table.
o SQL is used to create a view, stored procedure, function in a database.
o SQL allows users to set permissions on tables, procedures, and views.
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Advantages of SQL
There are the following advantages of SQL:
High speed
Using the SQL queries, the user can quickly and efficiently retrieve a large amount of
records from a database.
No coding needed
In the standard SQL, it is very easy to manage the database system. It doesn't require a
substantial amount of code to manage the database system.
Well defined standards

Long established are used by the SQL databases that are being used by ISO and ANSI.
Portability
SQL can be used in laptop, PCs, server and even some mobile phones.
Interactive language
SQL is a domain language used to communicate with the database. It is also used
to receive answers to the complex questions in seconds.
Multiple data view
Using the SQL language, the users can make different views of the database structure.
SQL Datatype
o SQL Datatype is used to define the values that a column can contain.
o Every column is required to have a name and data type in the database table.
Datatype of SQL:
1. Binary Datatypes
There are Three types of binary Datatypes which are given below:
Data Type Description
binary It has a maximum length of 8000 bytes. It contains

fixed-length binary data.
varbinary It has a maximum length of 8000 bytes. It contains

variable-length binary data.
image It has a maximum length of 2,147,483,647 bytes. It

contains variable-length binary data.
2. Approximate Numeric Datatype :

The subtypes are given below:
Data From To Description
type
float -1.79E + 1.79E + It is used to specify a floating-

308 308 point value e.g. 6.2, 2.9 etc.
real -3.40e + 3.40E + It specifies a single precision

38 38 floating point number
3. Exact Numeric Datatype

Data Description
type
int It is used to specify an integer value.
smallint It is used to specify small integer value.
bit It has the number of bits to store.
decimal It specifies a numeric value that can have a decimal

number.
numeric It is used to specify a numeric value.
4. Character String Datatype

Data Description
type
char It has a maximum length of 8000 characters. It contains

Fixed-length non-unicode characters.
varchar It has a maximum length of 8000 characters. It contains

variable-length non-unicode characters.
text It has a maximum length of 2,147,483,647 characters. It
contains variable-length non-unicode characters.
5. Date and time Datatypes

Datatype Description
date It is used to store the year, month, and days value.
time It is used to store the hour, minute, and second

values.
timestamp It stores the year, month, day, hour, minute, and the
second value.
SQL Commands
o SQL commands are instructions. It is used to communicate with the database.
It is also used to perform specific tasks, functions, and queries of data.
o SQL can perform various tasks like create a table, add data to tables, drop the
table, modify the table, set permission for users.
Types of SQL Commands

Thre are five types of SQL commands: DDL, DML, DCL, TCL, and DQL.
1. Data Definition Language (DDL)
o DDL changes the structure of the table like creating a table, deleting a
table, altering a table, etc.
o All the command of DDL are auto-committed that means it permanently save all
the changes in the database.
Here are some commands that come under DDL:
11. CREATE
12. ALTER
13. DROP
14. TRUNCATE
a. CREATE It is used to create a new table in the database.
Syntax:
10. CREATE TABLE TABLE_NAME (COLUMN_NAME DATATYPES[, .....]);

Example:
o CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE(Name VARCHAR2(20), Email VARCHAR2(100), DOB

DATE); b. DROP: It is used to delete both the structure and record stored in the
table.
Syntax
5. DROP TABLE
; Example
o DROP TABLE EMPLOYEE;

c. ALTER: It is used to alter the structure of the database. This change could be either to
modify the characteristics of an existing attribute or probably to add a new attribute.
Syntax:
To add a new column in the table
5. ALTER TABLE table_name ADD column_name COLUMN-

definition; To modify existing column in the table:
o ALTER TABLE MODIFY(COLUMN

DEFINITION. ..); EXAMPLE
5. ALTER TABLE STU_DETAILS ADD(ADDRESS VARCHAR2(20));

6. ALTER TABLE STU_DETAILS MODIFY (NAME VARCHAR2(20));
d. TRUNCATE: It is used to delete all the rows from the table and free the space
containing the table.
Syntax:
o TRUNCATE TABLE
table_name; Example:
3. TRUNCATE TABLE EMPLOYEE;
2. Data Manipulation Language

o DML commands are used to modify the database. It is responsible for all form
of changes in the database.
o The command of DML is not auto-committed that means it can't
permanently save all the changes in the database. They can be rollback.
Here are some commands that come under DML:
3. INSERT
4. UPDATE
5. DELETE
a. INSERT: The INSERT statement is a SQL query. It is used to insert data into the
row of a table.
Syntax:
2. INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME

3. (col1, col2, col3,. ... col N)
4. VALUES (value1, value2, value3, ......valueN);

Or
o INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME

o VALUES (value1, value2, value3, ......valueN);
For example:
o INSERT INTO javatpoint (Author, Subject) VALUES ("Sonoo", "DBMS");

b. UPDATE: This command is used to update or modify the value of a column in
the table.
Syntax:
o UPDATE table_name SET [column_name1= value1,...column_nameN = valueN]

[WHERE CONDITION]
For example:
2. UPDATE students
3. SET User_Name = 'Sonoo'
4. WHERE Student_Id = '3'

c. DELETE: It is used to remove one or more row from a table.
Syntax:
2. DELETE FROM table_name [WHERE

condition]; For example:
1. DELETE FROM javatpoint

2. WHERE Author="Sonoo";
3. Data Control Language

DCL commands are used to grant and take back authority from any database user.
Here are some commands that come under DCL:
o Grant
o Revoke
a. Grant: It is used to give user access privileges to a
database. Example
1. GRANT SELECT, UPDATE ON MY_TABLE TO SOME_USER, ANOTHER_USER;

b. Revoke: It is used to take back permissions from the user.
Example
o REVOKE SELECT, UPDATE ON MY_TABLE FROM USER1, USER2;
4. Transaction Control Language

TCL commands can only use with DML commands like INSERT, DELETE and
UPDATE only.
These operations are automatically committed in the database that's why they cannot
be used while creating tables or dropping them.
Here are some commands that come under TCL:
o COMMIT o
ROLLBACK o
SAVEPOINT
a. Commit: Commit command is used to save all the transactions to the database.
Syntax:
1. COMMIT;
Example:
o DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS

o WHERE AGE = 25;
o COMMIT;
b. Rollback: Rollback command is used to undo transactions that have not already
been saved to the database.
Syntax:
o
ROLLBACK
; Example:
o DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS

o WHERE AGE = 25;
o ROLLBACK;
c. SAVEPOINT: It is used to roll the transaction back to a certain point without
rolling back the entire transaction.
Syntax:
o SAVEPOINT SAVEPOINT_NAME;
5. Data Query Language

DQL is used to fetch the data from the database.
It uses only one command:
o SELECT
a. SELE a. SELECT: This is the same as the projection operation of relational

algebra. It isused to select the attribute based on the condition described by
WHERE clause.
Syntax:
o SELECT expressions
o FROM TABLES
o WHERE conditions;
For example:
o SELECT emp_name
o FROM employee
o WHERE age > 20;
SQL Operator
There are various types of SQL operator:
SQL Arithmetic Operators

Let's assume 'variable a' and 'variable b'. Here, 'a' contains 20 and 'b' contains 10.
Operator Description Example
+ It adds the value of both operands. a+b will

give 30
- It is used to subtract the right-hand a-b will
operand from the left-hand operand. give 10
* It is used to multiply the value of both a*b will

operands. give 200
/ It is used to divide the left-hand operand a/b will

by the right-hand operand. give 2
% It is used to divide the left-hand operand a%b will

by the right-hand operand and returns give 0
reminder.
SQL Comparison Operators:

Let's assume 'variable a' and 'variable b'. Here, 'a' contains 20 and 'b' contains 10.
Operator Description Example
= It checks if two operands values are (a=b) is

equal or not, if the values are queal then not true
condition becomes true.
!= It checks if two operands values are (a!=b) is

equal or not, if values are not equal, then true
<> It checks if two operands values are (a<>b) is

equal or not, if values are not equal then true
> It checks if the left operand value is (a>b) is

greater than right operand value, if yes not true
then condition becomes true.
< It checks if the left operand value is less (a<b) is
than right operand value, if yes then true
>= It checks if the left operand value is (a>=b) is

greater than or equal to the right not true
operand value, if yes then condition
becomes true.
<= It checks if the left operand value is less (a<=b) is

than or equal to the right operand value, true
if yes then condition becomes true.
!< It checks if the left operand value is not (a!=b) is

less than the right operand value, if yes not true
then condition becomes true.
!> It checks if the left operand value is not (a!>b) is

greater than the right operand value, if true
yes then condition becomes true.
SQL Logical Operators

There is the list of logical operator used in SQL:
Operator Description
ALL It compares a value to all values in another value set.
AND It allows the existence of multiple conditions in an SQL

statement.
ANY It compares the values in the list according to the

condition.
BETWEEN It is used to search for values that are within a set of

values.
IN It compares a value to that specified list value.
NOT It reverses the meaning of any logical operator.
OR It combines multiple conditions in SQL statements.
EXISTS It is used to search for the presence of a row in a

specified table.
LIKE It compares a value to similar values using wildcard

operator.
SQL Table
o SQL Table is a collection of data which is organized in terms of rows and columns.
In DBMS, the table is known as relation and row as a tuple.
o Table is a simple form of data storage. A table is also considered as a convenient
representation of relations.
Let's see an example of the EMPLOYEE table:
EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY PHONE_NO
1 Kristen Washington 7289201223
2 Anna Franklin 9378282882
3 Jackson Bristol 9264783838
4 Kellan California 7254728346
5 Ashley Hawaii 9638482678

In the above table, "EMPLOYEE" is the table name, "EMP_ID", "EMP_NAME", "CITY",
"PHONE_NO" are the column names. The combination of data of multiple columns
forms a row, e.g., 1, "Kristen", "Washington" and 7289201223 are the data of one row.
Operation on Table
o Create table
o Drop table o
Delete table o
Rename table
SQL Create Table

SQL create table is used to create a table in the database. To define the table, you should
define the name of the table and also define its columns and column's data type.
Syntax
15. create table "table_name"

16. ("column1" "data type",
17. "column2" "data type",

18. "column3" "data type",
19. ...
20. "columnN" "data type");
Example
11. SQL> CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE (

12. EMP_ID INT NOT NULL,
13. EMP_NAME VARCHAR (25) NOT NULL,

14. PHONE_NO INT NOT NULL,
15. ADDRESS CHAR (30),

16. PRIMARY KEY (ID)
17. );
If you create the table successfully, you can verify the table by looking at the message
by the SQL server. Else you can use DESC command as follows:
SQL> DESC EMPLOYEE;
Field Type Null Key Default Extra

EMP_ID int(11) NO PRI NULL
EMP_NAME varchar(25) NO NULL
PHONE_NO NO int(11) NULL
ADDRESS YES NULL char(30)
o 4 rows in set (0.35 sec)
Now you have an EMPLOYEE table in the database, and you can use the
stored information related to the employees.
Drop table
A SQL drop table is used to delete a table definition and all the data from a table.
When this command is executed, all the information available in the table is lost
forever, so you have to very careful while using this command.
Syntax
6. DROP TABLE "table_name";
Firstly, you need to verify the EMPLOYEE table using the following command:
o SQL> DESC EMPLOYEE;
Field Type Null Key Default Extra
EMP_ID int(11) NO PRI NULL
EMP_NAME varchar(25) NO NULL
PHONE_NO NO int(11) NULL
ADDRESS YES NULL char(30)
6. 4 rows in set (0.35 sec)
This table shows that EMPLOYEE table is available in the database, so we can drop it
as follows:
o SQL>DROP TABLE EMPLOYEE;
Now, we can check whether the table exists or not using the following command:
7. Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.01 sec)
As this shows that the table is dropped, so it doesn't display it.
SQL DELETE table

In SQL, DELETE statement is used to delete rows from a table. We can use WHERE
condition to delete a specific row from a table. If you want to delete all the records
from the table, then you don't need to use the WHERE clause.
Syntax
o DELETE FROM table_name WHERE

condition; Example
Suppose, the EMPLOYEE table having the following records:
EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY PHONE_NO SALARY
1 Kristen Chicago 9737287378 150000
2 Russell Austin 9262738271 200000
3 Denzel Boston 7353662627 100000
4 Angelina Denver 9232673822 600000
5 Robert Washington 9367238263 350000
6 Christian Los angels 7253847382 260000
The following query will DELETE an employee whose ID is 2.
4. SQL> DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE

5. WHERE EMP_ID = 3;
Now, the EMPLOYEE table would have the following records.
2 Russell Austin 9262738271 200000
Washington
5 Robert 9367238263 350000
If you don't specify the WHERE condition, it will remove all the rows from the table.
o DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE;
Now, the EMPLOYEE table would not have any records.
SQL SELECT Statement

In SQL, the SELECT statement is used to query or retrieve data from a table in the
database. The returns data is stored in a table, and the result table is known as result-
set.
Syntax
o SELECT column1, column2, ...

o FROM table_name;
Here, the expression is the field name of the table that you want to select data from.
Use the following syntax to select all the fields available in the table:
o SELECT * FROM table_name;

Example:
EMPLOYEE

2 Russell Austin 9262738271 200000
To fetch the EMP_ID of all the employees, use the following query:
21. SELECT EMP_ID FROM
EMPLOYEE; Output
EMP_ID
To fetch the EMP_NAME and SALARY, use the following query:
18. SELECT EMP_NAME, SALARY FROM EMPLOYEE;
EMP_NAME SALARY
Kristen 150000
Russell 200000
Angelina 600000
Robert 350000
Christian 260000
To fetch all the fields from the EMPLOYEE table, use the following query:
o SELECT * FROM
EMPLOYEE Output
2 Russell Austin 9262738271 200000
SQL INSERT Statement

The SQL INSERT statement is used to insert a single or multiple data in a table. In SQL,
You can insert the data in two ways:
o Without specifying column

name o By specifying column name
Sample Table
EMPLOYEE
EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE
1 Angelina Chicago 200000 30
2 Robert Austin 300000 26
3 Christian Denver 100000 42
4 Kristen Washington 500000 29
5 Russell Los angels 200000 36
1. Without specifying column name

If you want to specify all column values, you can specify or ignore the column values.
Syntax
o INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME

o VALUES (value1, value2, value 3, ..... Value N);
Query
22. INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE VALUES (6, 'Marry', 'Canada', 600000, 48);
Output: After executing this query, the EMPLOYEE table will look like:

6 Marry Canada 600000 48
2. By specifying column name

To insert partial column values, you must have to specify the column names.
Syntax
19. INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME

20. [(col1, col2, col3,. ... col N)]
21. VALUES (value1, value2, value 3, ..... Value N);
Query
o INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE (EMP_ID, EMP_NAME, AGE) VALUES (7, 'Jack',

40); Output: After executing this query, the table will look like:
7 Jack null null 40
SQL Update Statement

The SQL UPDATE statement is used to modify the data that is already in the database.
The condition in the WHERE clause decides that which row is to be updated.
Syntax
o UPDATE table_name
o SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2, ...
o WHERE condition;
Sample Table
EMPLOYEE
Updating single record

Update the column EMP_NAME and set the value to 'Emma' in the row where SALARY is
500000.
Syntax
o UPDATE table_name
o SET column_name = value
o WHERE condition;
Query
23. UPDATE EMPLOYEE

24. SET EMP_NAME = 'Emma'
25. WHERE SALARY = 500000;
4 Emma Washington 500000 29
Updating multiple records

If you want to update multiple columns, you should separate each field assigned with a
comma. In the EMPLOYEE table, update the column EMP_NAME to 'Kevin' and CITY to
'Boston' where EMP_ID is 5.
Syntax
22. UPDATE table_name

23. SET column_name = value1, column_name2 = value2
24. WHERE condition;
Query
o UPDATE EMPLOYEE
o SET EMP_NAME = 'Kevin', City = 'Boston'
o WHERE EMP_ID = 5;
Output

5 Kevin Boston 200000 36
Without use of WHERE clause

If you want to update all row from a table, then you don't need to use the
WHERE clause. In the EMPLOYEE table, update the column EMP_NAME as 'Harry'.
Syntax
7. UPDATE table_name
8. SET column_name = value1;
Query
o UPDATE EMPLOYEE
o SET EMP_NAME = 'Harry';
Output
1 Harry Chicago 200000 30
2 Harry Austin 300000 26
3 Harry Denver 100000 42
4 Harry Washington 500000 29
5 Harry Los angels 200000 36

6 Harry Canada 600000 48
SQL DELETE Statement

The SQL DELETE statement is used to delete rows from a table. Generally, DELETE
statement removes one or more records form a table.
Syntax
o DELETE FROM table_name WHERE some_condition;
Sample Table
EMPLOYEE
Deleting Single Record

Delete the row from the table EMPLOYEE where EMP_NAME = 'Kristen'. This will
delete only the fourth row.
Query
o DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE

o WHERE EMP_NAME = 'Kristen';
Deleting Multiple Record

Delete the row from the EMPLOYEE table where AGE is 30. This will delete two
rows(first and third row).
Query
26. DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE AGE= 30;
Delete all of the records

Delete all the row from the EMPLOYEE table. After this, no records left to display. The
EMPLOYEE table will become empty.
Syntax
25. DELETE * FROM table_name;
26. or
27. DELETE FROM
table_name; Query
o DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE;
Views in SQL
o Views in SQL are considered as a virtual table. A view also contains rows
and columns.
o To create the view, we can select the fields from one or more tables present
in the database.
o A view can either have specific rows based on certain condition or all the rows
of a table.
Sample table:
Student_Detail
STU_ID NAME ADDRESS
1 Stephan Delhi
2 Kathrin Noida
3 David Ghaziabad
4 Alina Gurugram
Student_Marks
STU_ID NAME MARKS AGE
1 Stephan 97 19
2 Kathrin 86 21
3 David 74 18
4 Alina 90 20
5 John 96 18
1. Creating view
A view can be created using the CREATE VIEW statement. We can create a view from a
single table or multiple tables.
Syntax:
o CREATE VIEW view_name AS

o SELECT column1, column2.....
o FROM table_name
o WHERE condition;
2. Creating View from a single table

In this example, we create a View named DetailsView from the table Student_Detail.
Query:
27. CREATE VIEW DetailsView AS

28. SELECT NAME, ADDRESS
29. FROM Student_Details

30. WHERE STU_ID < 4;
Just like table query, we can query the view to view the data.
28. SELECT * FROM DetailsView;

Output:
NAME ADDRESS
Stephan Delhi
Kathrin Noida
David Ghaziabad
3. Creating View from multiple tables
View from multiple tables can be created by simply include multiple tables in the
SELECT statement.
In the given example, a view is created named MarksView from two

tables Student_Detail and Student_Marks.
Query:
o CREATE VIEW MarksView AS

o SELECT Student_Detail.NAME, Student_Detail.ADDRESS, Student_Marks.MARKS
o FROM Student_Detail, Student_Mark

o WHERE Student_Detail.NAME = Student_Marks.NAME;
To display data of View MarksView:
9. SELECT * FROM MarksView;
NAME ADDRESS MARKS
Stephan Delhi 97
Kathrin Noida 86
David Ghaziabad 74
Alina Gurugram 90
4. Deleting View
A view can be deleted using the Drop View statement.
Syntax
o DROP VIEW view_name;

Example:
If we want to delete the View MarksView, we can do this as:
7. DROP VIEW MarksView;
SQL Index
o Indexes are special lookup tables. It is used to retrieve data from the
database very fast.
o An Index is used to speed up select queries and where clauses. But it shows
down the data input with insert and update statements. Indexes can be created
or dropped without affecting the data.
o An index in a database is just like an index in the back of a book.
o For example: When you reference all pages in a book that discusses a certain
topic, you first have to refer to the index, which alphabetically lists all the topics
and then referred to one or more specific page numbers.
1. Create Index statement

It is used to create an index on a table. It allows duplicate value.
Syntax
o CREATE INDEX index_name

o ON table_name (column1, column2,
...); Example
31. CREATE INDEX idx_name

32. ON Persons (LastName, FirstName);
2. Unique Index statement

It is used to create a unique index on a table. It does not allow duplicate
value. Syntax
29. CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name

30. ON table_name (column1, column2,
...); Example
o CREATE UNIQUE INDEX websites_idx

o ON websites (site_name);
3. Drop Index Statement

It is used to delete an index in a table.
Syntax
10. DROP INDEX

index_name; Example
o DROP INDEX websites_idx;
SQL Sub Query

A Subquery is a query within another SQL query and embedded within the
WHERE clause.
Important Rule:
o A subquery can be placed in a number of SQL clauses like WHERE clause, FROM
clause, HAVING clause.
o You can use Subquery with SELECT, UPDATE, INSERT, DELETE statements along
with the operators like =, <, >, >=, <=, IN, BETWEEN, etc.
o A subquery is a query within another query. The outer query is known as the
main query, and the inner query is known as a subquery.
o Subqueries are on the right side of the comparison
operator. o A subquery is enclosed in parentheses.
o In the Subquery, ORDER BY command cannot be used. But GROUP BY
command can be used to perform the same function as ORDER BY command.
1. Subqueries with the Select Statement

SQL subqueries are most frequently used with the Select statement.
Syntax
o SELECT column_name
o FROM table_name
o WHERE column_name expression operator

o ( SELECT column_name from table_name WHERE ... );
Example
Consider the EMPLOYEE table have the following records:
ID NAME AGE ADDRESS SALARY
1 John 20 US 2000.00
2 Stephan 26 Dubai 1500.00
3 David 27 Bangkok 2000.00
4 Alina 29 UK 6500.00
5 Kathrin 34 Bangalore 8500.00
6 Harry 42 China 4500.00
7 Jackson 25 Mizoram 10000.00

The subquery with a SELECT statement will be:
33. SELECT *
34. FROM EMPLOYEE
35. WHERE ID IN (SELECT ID

36. FROM EMPLOYEE
37. WHERE SALARY > 4500);
This would produce the following result:
4 Alina 29 UK 6500.00
2. Subqueries with the INSERT Statement

31. SQL subquery can also be used with the Insert statement. In the insert statement,
data returned from the subquery is used to insert into another table.
32. In the subquery, the selected data can be modified with any of the
character, date functions.
Syntax:
o INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, column3. .. )

o SELECT *
o FROM table_name
o WHERE VALUE OPERATOR
Example
Consider a table EMPLOYEE_BKP with similar as EMPLOYEE.
Now use the following syntax to copy the complete EMPLOYEE table into
the EMPLOYEE_BKP table.
11. INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE_BKP

12. SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEE
13. WHERE ID IN (SELECT ID

14. FROM EMPLOYEE);
3. Subqueries with the UPDATE Statement

The subquery of SQL can be used in conjunction with the Update statement. When a
subquery is used with the Update statement, then either single or multiple columns in
a table can be updated.
Syntax
o UPDATE table
o SET column_name = new_value

o (SELECT COLUMN_NAME
o FROM TABLE_NAME
o WHERE condition);
Example
Let's assume we have an EMPLOYEE_BKP table available which is backup of EMPLOYEE

table. The given example updates the SALARY by .25 times in the EMPLOYEE table for
all employee whose AGE is greater than or equal to 29.
8. UPDATE EMPLOYEE
9. SET SALARY = SALARY * 0.25
10. WHERE AGE IN (SELECT AGE FROM CUSTOMERS_BKP

11. WHERE AGE >= 29);
This would impact three rows, and finally, the EMPLOYEE table would have the
following records.
1 John 20 US 2000.00
4 Alina 29 UK 1625.00
6 Harry 42 China 1125.00
4. Subqueries with the DELETE Statement

The subquery of SQL can be used in conjunction with the Delete statement just like
any other statements mentioned above.
Syntax
o DELETE FROM TABLE_NAME

o (SELECT COLUMN_NAME
o FROM TABLE_NAME
o WHERE condition);
Example
Let's assume we have an EMPLOYEE_BKP table available which is backup of EMPLOYEE

table. The given example deletes the records from the EMPLOYEE table for all EMPLOYEE
whose AGE is greater than or equal to 29.
8. DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE

9. WHERE AGE IN (SELECT AGE FROM EMPLOYEE_BKP
10. WHERE AGE >= 29 );
This would impact three rows, and finally, the EMPLOYEE table would have the
following records.
1 John 20 US 2000.00

SQL Clauses
The following are the various SQL clauses:
1. GROUP BY
o SQL GROUP BY statement is used to arrange identical data into groups. The
GROUP BY statement is used with the SQL SELECT statement.
o The GROUP BY statement follows the WHERE clause in a SELECT statement
and precedes the ORDER BY clause.
o The GROUP BY statement is used with aggregation function.
Syntax
o SELECT column
o FROM table_name
o WHERE conditions
o GROUP BY column
o ORDER BY column
Sample table:
PRODUCT_MAST
PRODUCT COMPANY QTY RATE COST
Item1 Com1 2 10 20
Item2 Com2 3 25 75
Item3 Com1 2 30 60
Item4 Com3 5 10 50
Item5 Com2 2 20 40
Item6 Cpm1 3 25 75
Item7 Com1 5 30 150
Item8 Com1 3 10 30
Item9 Com2 2 25 50
Item10 Com3 4 30 120
Example:
38. SELECT COMPANY, COUNT(*)

39. FROM PRODUCT_MAST
40. GROUP BY COMPANY;
Output:
Com1 5
Com2 3
Com3 2
2. HAVING
33. HAVING clause is used to specify a search condition for a group or an aggregate.
34. Having is used in a GROUP BY clause. If you are not using GROUP BY clause
then you can use HAVING function like a WHERE clause.
Syntax:
o SELECT column1, column2

o FROM table_name
o WHERE conditions
o GROUP BY column1, column2
o HAVING conditions
o ORDER BY column1, column2;
Example:

17. GROUP BY COMPANY

18. HAVING COUNT(*)>2;
Output:
Com1 5
Com2 3
3. ORDER BY
o The ORDER BY clause sorts the result-set in ascending or descending order.
o It sorts the records in ascending order by default. DESC keyword is used to sort
the records in descending order.
Syntax:
12. SELECT column1, column2

13. FROM table_name
14. WHERE condition

15. ORDER BY column1, column2... ASC|DESC;
Where
ASC: It is used to sort the result set in ascending order by expression.
DESC: It sorts the result set in descending order by expression.

Example: Sorting Results in Ascending Order
Table:
CUSTOMER
CUSTOMER_ID NAME ADDRESS
12 Kathrin US
23 David Bangkok
34 Alina Dubai
45 John UK
56 Harry US
Enter the following SQL statement:
o SELECT *
o FROM CUSTOMER
o ORDER BY NAME;
Output:
34 Alina Dubai
23 David Bangkok
56 Harry US
45 John UK
12 Kathrin US
Example: Sorting Results in Descending Order
Using the above CUSTOMER table
11. SELECT *
12. FROM CUSTOMER
13. ORDER BY NAME DESC;
Output:
12 Kathrin US
45 John UK
56 Harry US
23 David Bangkok
34 Alina Dubai
SQL Aggregate Functions

o SQL aggregation function is used to perform the calculations on multiple rows of
a single column of a table. It returns a single value.
o It is also used to summarize the data.
Types of SQL Aggregation Function
1. COUNT FUNCTION
o COUNT function is used to Count the number of rows in a database table. It can
work on both numeric and non-numeric data types.
o COUNT function uses the COUNT(*) that returns the count of all the rows in
a specified table. COUNT(*) considers duplicate and Null.
Syntax
41. COUNT(*)
42. or
43. COUNT( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )

Sample table:
PRODUCT_MAST
PRODUCT COMPANY QTY RATE COST
Item1 Com1 2 10 20
Item2 Com2 3 25 75
Item3 Com1 2 30 60
Item4 Com3 5 10 50
Item5 Com2 2 20 40
Item6 Cpm1 3 25 75
Item7 Com1 5 30 150
Item8 Com1 3 10 30
Item9 Com2 2 25 50
Item10 Com3 4 30 120
Example: COUNT()
35. SELECT COUNT(*)

36. FROM PRODUCT_MAST;
Output:
10
Example: COUNT with WHERE
o SELECT COUNT(*)
o FROM PRODUCT_MAST;
o WHERE RATE>=20;
Output:
7
Example: COUNT() with DISTINCT
19. SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT COMPANY)

Output:
3
Example: COUNT() with GROUP BY
o SELECT COMPANY, COUNT(*)

o FROM PRODUCT_MAST
o GROUP BY COMPANY;
Output:
Com1 5
Com2 3
Com3 2
Example: COUNT() with HAVING

18. GROUP BY COMPANY

19. HAVING
COUNT(*)>2; Output:
Com1 5
Com2 3
2. SUM Function
Sum function is used to calculate the sum of all selected columns. It works on numeric
fields only.
Syntax
o SUM()
o or
o SUM( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )

Example: SUM()
14. SELECT SUM(COST)

Output:
670
Example: SUM() with WHERE
o SELECT SUM(COST)
o FROM PRODUCT_MAST
o WHERE QTY>3;
Output:
320
Example: SUM() with GROUP BY
6. SELECT SUM(COST)
8. WHERE QTY>3
9. GROUP BY COMPANY;
Output:
Com1 150
Com2 170
Example: SUM() with HAVING
o SELECT COMPANY, SUM(COST)

o FROM PRODUCT_MAST
o GROUP BY COMPANY
o HAVING SUM(COST)>=170;
Output:
Com1 335
Com3 170
3. AVG function
The AVG function is used to calculate the average value of the numeric type.
AVG function returns the average of all non-Null values.
Syntax
6. AVG()
7. or
8. AVG( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression

) Example:
5. SELECT AVG(COST)
Output:
67.00
4. MAX Function
MAX function is used to find the maximum value of a certain column. This
function determines the largest value of all selected values of a column.
Syntax
o MAX()
o or
o MAX( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )

Example:
o SELECT MAX(RATE)
o FROM PRODUCT_MAST;
30
5. MIN Function
MIN function is used to find the minimum value of a certain column. This function
determines the smallest value of all selected values of a column.
Syntax
o MIN()
o or
o MIN( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )

Example:
5. SELECT MIN(RATE)
Output:
10
SQL JOIN
As the name shows, JOIN means to combine something. In case of SQL, JOIN means "to
combine two or more tables".
In SQL, JOIN clause is used to combine the records from two or more tables in a
database.
Types of SQL JOIN

o INNER JOIN
o LEFT JOIN o
RIGHT JOIN o
FULL JOIN
Sample Table
EMPLOYEE

PROJECT
PROJECT_NO EMP_ID DEPARTMENT
101 1 Testing
102 2 Development
103 3 Designing
104 4 Development
1. INNER JOIN
In SQL, INNER JOIN selects records that have matching values in both tables as long
as the condition is satisfied. It returns the combination of all rows from both the tables
where the condition satisfies.
Syntax
o SELECT table1.column1, table1.column2, table2.column1,....

o FROM table1
o INNER JOIN table2

o ON table1.matching_column = table2.matching_column;
Query
44. SELECT EMPLOYEE.EMP_NAME, PROJECT.DEPARTMENT

45. FROM EMPLOYEE
46. INNER JOIN PROJECT

47. ON PROJECT.EMP_ID = EMPLOYEE.EMP_ID;
Output
EMP_NAME DEPARTMENT
Angelina Testing
Robert Development
Christian Designing
Kristen Development
2. LEFT JOIN
The SQL left join returns all the values from left table and the matching values from the
right table. If there is no matching join value, it will return NULL.
Syntax
37. SELECT table1.column1, table1.column2, table2.column1,....

38. FROM table1
39. LEFT JOIN table2

40. ON table1.matching_column = table2.matching_column;
Query
o SELECT EMPLOYEE.EMP_NAME,
PROJECT.DEPARTMENT o FROM EMPLOYEE
o LEFT JOIN PROJECT

o ON PROJECT.EMP_ID = EMPLOYEE.EMP_ID;
Output
EMP_NAME DEPARTMENT
Angelina Testing
Robert Development
Christian Designing
Kristen Development
Russell NULL
Marry NULL
3. RIGHT JOIN
In SQL, RIGHT JOIN returns all the values from the values from the rows of right table
and the matched values from the left table. If there is no matching in both tables, it
will return NULL.
Syntax

22. FROM table1
23. RIGHT JOIN table2

Query
o RIGHT JOIN PROJECT

Output
EMP_NAME DEPARTMENT
Angelina Testing
Robert Development
Christian Designing
Kristen Development
4. FULL JOIN
In SQL, FULL JOIN is the result of a combination of both left and right outer join. Join
tables have all the records from both tables. It puts NULL on the place of matches
not found.
Syntax

21. FROM table1
22. FULL JOIN table2

Query
o FULL JOIN PROJECT

Output
EMP_NAME DEPARTMENT
Angelina Testing
Robert Development
Christian Designing
Kristen Development
Russell NULL
Marry NULL
SQL Set Operation

The SQL Set operation is used to combine the two or more SQL SELECT statements.
Types of Set Operation
o Union
o UnionAll
o Intersect
o Minus
1. Union
o The SQL Union operation is used to combine the result of two or more
SQL SELECT queries.
o In the union operation, all the number of datatype and columns must be same in
both the tables on which UNION operation is being applied.
o The union operation eliminates the duplicate rows from its resultset.
Syntax
48. SELECT column_name FROM table1
49. UNION
50. SELECT column_name FROM
table2; Example:
The First table
ID NAME
1 Jack
2 Harry
3 Jackson
The Second table
ID NAME
3 Jackson
4 Stephan
5 David
Union SQL query will be:
41. SELECT * FROM First

42. UNION
43. SELECT * FROM Second;
The resultset table will look like:
ID NAME
1 Jack
2 Harry
3 Jackson
4 Stephan
5 David
2. Union All
Union All operation is equal to the Union operation. It returns the set without removing
duplication and sorting the data.
Syntax:
o SELECT column_name FROM

table1 o UNION ALL
o SELECT column_name FROM table2;
Example: Using the above First and Second table.
Union All query will be like:

26. UNION ALL
ID NAME
1 Jack
2 Harry
3 Jackson
3 Jackson
4 Stephan
5 David
3. Intersect
o It is used to combine two SELECT statements. The Intersect operation returns
the common rows from both the SELECT statements.
o In the Intersect operation, the number of datatype and columns must be the
same.
o It has no duplicates and it arranges the data in ascending order by default.
Syntax
24. SELECT column_name FROM table1

25. INTERSECT
26. SELECT column_name FROM
table2; Example:
Using the above First and Second table.
Intersect query will be:
o SELECT * FROM First

o INTERSECT
o SELECT * FROM Second;
ID NAME
3 Jackson
4. Minus
16. It combines the result of two SELECT statements. Minus operator is used to
display the rows which are present in the first query but absent in the
second query.
17. It has no duplicates and data arranged in ascending order by default.
Syntax:

table1 o MINUS
table2; Example
Using the above First and Second table.
Minus query will be:

11. MINUS
ID NAME
1 Jack
2 Harry
What is PL/SQL
PL/SQL is a block structured language. The programs of PL/SQL are logical blocks that
can contain any number of nested sub-blocks. Pl/SQL stands for "Procedural
Language extension of SQL" that is used in Oracle. PL/SQL is integrated with Oracle
database (since version 7). The functionalities of PL/SQL usually extended after each
release of Oracle database. Although PL/SQL is closely integrated with SQL language,
yet it adds some programming constraints that are not available in SQL.
PL/SQL Functionalities
PL/SQL includes procedural language elements like conditions and loops. It allows
declaration of constants and variables, procedures and functions, types and variable of
those types and triggers. It can support Array and handle exceptions (runtime errors).
After the implementation of version 8 of Oracle database have included features
associated with object orientation. You can create PL/SQL units like procedures,
functions, packages, types and triggers, etc. which are stored in the database for reuse
by applications.
With PL/SQL, you can use SQL statements to manipulate Oracle data and flow of
control statements to process the data.
The PL/SQL is known for its combination of data manipulating power of SQL with
data processing power of procedural languages. It inherits the robustness, security,
and portability of the Oracle Database.
PL/SQL is not case sensitive so you are free to use lower case letters or upper case
letters except within string and character literals. A line of PL/SQL text contains
groups of characters known as lexical units. It can be classified as follows:
o Delimeters
o Identifiers o
Literals
o Comments
PL/SQL Variables
A variable is a meaningful name which facilitates a programmer to store data
temporarily during the execution of code. It helps you to manipulate data in
PL/SQL programs. It is nothing except a name given to a storage area. Each
variable in the PL/SQL has a specific data type which defines the size and layout of
the variable's memory.
A variable should not exceed 30 characters. Its letter optionally followed by more letters,
dollar signs, numerals, underscore etc.
1. It needs to declare the variable first in the declaration section of a PL/SQL

block before using it.
2. By default, variable names are not case sensitive. A reserved PL/SQL
keyword cannot be used as a variable name.
How to declare variable in PL/SQL

You must declare the PL/SQL variable in the declaration section or in a package as a
global variable. After the declaration, PL/SQL allocates memory for the variable's value
and the storage location is identified by the variable name.
Syntax for declaring variable:
Following is the syntax for declaring variable:
o variable_name [CONSTANT] datatype [NOT NULL] [:= | DEFAULT initial_value]
Here, variable_name is a valid identifier in PL/SQL and datatype must be valid

PL/SQL data type. A data type with size, scale or precision limit is called a
constrained declaration. The constrained declaration needs less memory than
unconstrained declaration.
Naming rules for PL/SQL variables
The variable in PL/SQL must follow some naming rules like other
programming languages.
o The variable_name should not exceed 30 characters.

o The name of the variable must begin with ASCII letter. The PL/SQL is not case
sensitive so it could be either lowercase or uppercase. For example: v_data
and V_DATA refer to the same variables.
o You should make your variable easy to read and understand, after the first
character, it may be any number, underscore (_) or dollar sign ($).
o NOT NULL is an optional specification on the variable.
Initializing Variables in PL/SQL

Evertime you declare a variable, PL/SQL defines a default value NULL to it. If you
want to initialize a variable with other value than NULL value, you can do so during
the declaration, by using any one of the following methods.
51. The DEFAULT keyword

52. The assignment operator
44. counter binary_integer := 0;

45. greetings varchar2(20) DEFAULT 'Hello JavaTpoint';
You can also specify NOT NULL constraint to avoid NULL value. If you specify the
NOT NULL constraint, you must assign an initial value for that variable.
You must have a good programming skill to initialize variable properly

otherwise, sometimes program would produce unexpected result.
Example of initilizing variable

Let's take a simple example to explain it well:
o DECLARE
o a integer := 30;
o b integer := 40;
o c integer;
o f real;
o BEGIN
o c := a + b;
o dbms_output.put_line('Value of c: ' || c);
o f := 100.0/3.0;
o dbms_output.put_line('Value of f: ' || f);
o END;
After the execution, this will produce the following result:
28. Value of c: 70
29. Value of f: 33.333333333333333333
30.
31. PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
Variable Scope in PL/SQL:

PL/SQL allows nesting of blocks. A program block can contain another inner block. If
you declare a variable within an inner block, it is not accessible to an outer block. There
are two types of variable scope:
o Local Variable: Local variables are the inner block variables which are not
accessible to outer blocks.
o Global Variable: Global variables are declared in outermost block.
Example of Local and Global variables

Let's take an example to show the usage of Local and Global variables in its simple form:
27. DECLARE
28. -- Global variables
29. num1 number := 95;

30. num2 number := 85;
31. BEGIN
32. dbms_output.put_line('Outer Variable num1: ' || num1);
33. dbms_output.put_line('Outer Variable num2: ' || num2);

34. DECLARE
35. -- Local variables

36. num1 number := 195;
37. num2 number := 185;

38. BEGIN
39. dbms_output.put_line('Inner Variable num1: ' || num1);

40. dbms_output.put_line('Inner Variable num2: ' || num2);
41. END;
42. END;
43. /
After the execution, this will produce the following result:
o Outer Variable num1: 95

o Outer Variable num2: 85
o Inner Variable num1: 195

o Inner Variable num2: 185
o
o PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
PL/SQL If
PL/SQL supports the programming language features like conditional statements
and iterative statements. Its programming constructs are similar to how you use in
programming languages like Java and C++.
Syntax for IF Statement:
There are different syntaxes for the IF-THEN-ELSE statement.
Syntax: (IF-THEN statement):
o IF condition
o THEN
o Statement: {It is executed when condition is true}

o END IF;
This syntax is used when you want to execute statements only when condition is TRUE.
Syntax: (IF-THEN-ELSE statement):
o IF condition
o THEN
o {...statements to execute when condition is TRUE...}

o ELSE
o {...statements to execute when condition is FALSE...}

o END IF;
This syntax is used when you want to execute one set of statements when condition is
TRUE or a different set of statements when condition is FALSE.
Syntax: (IF-THEN-ELSIF statement):

53. IF condition1
54. THEN
55. {...statements to execute when condition1 is TRUE...}

56. ELSIF condition2
57. THEN
59. END IF;
This syntax is used when you want to execute one set of statements when condition1
is TRUE or a different set of statements when condition2 is TRUE.
Syntax: (IF-THEN-ELSIF-ELSE statement):
46. IF condition1
47. THEN

49. ELSIF condition2
50. THEN
52. ELSE
53. {...statements to execute when both condition1 and condition2 are FALSE...}
54. END IF;
It is the most advance syntax and used if you want to execute one set of statements
when condition1 is TRUE, a different set of statement when condition2 is TRUE or a
different set of statements when both the condition1 and condition2 are FALSE.
PL/SQL Loop
The PL/SQL loops are used to repeat the execution of one or more statements for
specified number of times. These are also known as iterative control statements.
Syntax for a basic loop:
o LOOP
o Sequence of statements;
o END LOOP;
Types of PL/SQL Loops

There are 4 types of PL/SQL Loops.
o Basic Loop / Exit
Loop o While Loop
o For Loop
o Cursor For Loop
PL/SQL Loop
The PL/SQL loops are used to repeat the execution of one or more statements for
specified number of times. These are also known as iterative control statements.
Syntax for a basic loop:
o LOOP
o Sequence of statements;
o END LOOP;
Types of PL/SQL Loops

There are 4 types of PL/SQL Loops.
o Basic Loop / Exit

Loop o While Loop
o For Loop
o Cursor For Loop
PL/SQL While Loop

PL/SQL while loop is used when a set of statements has to be executed as long as a
condition is true, the While loop is used. The condition is decided at the beginning
of each iteration and continues until the condition becomes false.
Syntax of while loop:
o WHILE <condition>
o LOOP statements;
o END LOOP;
Example of PL/SQL While Loop

Let's see a simple example of PL/SQL WHILE loop.
o DECLARE
o i INTEGER := 1;
o BEGIN
o WHILE i <= 10 LOOP
o DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(i);
o i := i+1;
o END LOOP;
o END;
After the execution of the above code, you will get the following result:
10
Note: You must follow these steps while using PL/SQL WHILE Loop.
60. Initialize a variable before the loop body.

61. Increment the variable in the loop.
62. You can use EXIT WHEN statements and EXIT statements in While loop but it
is not done often.
PL/SQL WHILE Loop Example 2

55. DECLARE
56. VAR1 NUMBER;
57. VAR2 NUMBER;

58. BEGIN
59. VAR1:=200;
60. VAR2:=1;
61. WHILE (VAR2<=10)

62. LOOP
63. DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE (VAR1*VAR2);

64. VAR2:=VAR2+1;
65. END LOOP;
66. END;
PL/SQL FOR Loop

PL/SQL for loop is used when when you want to execute a set of statements for a
predetermined number of times. The loop is iterated between the start and end integer
values. The counter is always incremented by 1 and once the counter reaches the
value of end integer, the loop ends.
Syntax of for loop:
o FOR counter IN initial_value .. final_value LOOP

o LOOP statements;
o END LOOP;
o initial_value : Start integer value

o final_value : End integer value
PL/SQL For Loop Example 1

Let's see a simple example of PL/SQL FOR loop.
63. BEGIN
64. FOR k IN 1..10 LOOP
65. -- note that k was not declared

66. DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(k);
67. END LOOP;

68. END;
After the execution of the above code, you will get the following result:
1
2
9
10
Note: You must follow these steps while using PL/SQL WHILE Loop.
67. You don't need to declare the counter variable explicitly because it is
declared implicitly in the declaration section.
68. The counter variable is incremented by 1 and does not need to be incremented
explicitly.
69. You can use EXIT WHEN statements and EXIT statements in FOR Loops but it
is not done often.
PL/SQL For Loop Example 2

o DECLARE
o VAR1 NUMBER;
o BEGIN
o VAR1:=10;
o FOR VAR2 IN 1..10

o LOOP
o DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE (VAR1*VAR2);
o END LOOP;
o END;
Output:
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
PL/SQL For Loop REVERSE Example 3

Let's see an example of PL/SQL for loop where we are using REVERSE keyword.
32. DECLARE
33. VAR1 NUMBER;
34. BEGIN
35. VAR1:=10;
36. FOR VAR2 IN REVERSE 1..10

37. LOOP
38. DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE (VAR1*VAR2);

39. END LOOP;
40. END;
Output:
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
PL/SQL Procedure
The PL/SQL stored procedure or simply a procedure is a PL/SQL block which performs one
or more specific tasks. It is just like procedures in other programming languages.
The procedure contains a header and a body.
o Header: The header contains the name of the procedure and the parameters or
variables passed to the procedure.
o Body: The body contains a declaration section, execution section and exception
section similar to a general PL/SQL block.
How to pass parameters in procedure:
When you want to create a procedure or function, you have to define parameters .There
is three ways to pass parameters in procedure:
o IN parameters: The IN parameter can be referenced by the procedure or

function. The value of the parameter cannot be overwritten by the procedure or
the function.
o OUT parameters: The OUT parameter cannot be referenced by the procedure or
function, but the value of the parameter can be overwritten by the procedure
or function.
o INOUT parameters: The INOUT parameter can be referenced by the procedure
or function and the value of the parameter can be overwritten by the procedure
or function.
A procedure may or may not return any value.
PL/SQL Create Procedure

Syntax for creating procedure:
69. CREATE [OR REPLACE] PROCEDURE procedure_name

70. [ (parameter [,parameter]) ]
71. IS
72. [declaration_section]
73. BEGIN
74. executable_section
75. [EXCEPTION
76. exception_section]
77. END [procedure_name];
Create procedure example

In this example, we are going to insert record in user table. So you need to create
user table first.
Table creation:
70. create table user(id number(10) primary key,name varchar2(100));
Now write the procedure code to insert record in user table.
Procedure Code:
o create or replace procedure
"INSERTUSER" o (id IN NUMBER,
o name IN VARCHAR2)
o is
o begin
o insert into user values(id,name);
o end;
o/
Output:
Procedure created.
PL/SQL program to call procedure

Let's see the code to call above created procedure.
41. BEGIN
42. insertuser(101,'Rahul');
43. dbms_output.put_line('record inserted successfully');

44. END;
45. /
Now, see the "USER" table, you will see one record is inserted.
ID Name
101 Rahul
PL/SQL Drop Procedure

Syntax for drop procedure
o DROP PROCEDURE procedure_name;
Example of drop procedure

44. DROP PROCEDURE pro1;
PL/SQL Function
The PL/SQL Function is very similar to PL/SQL Procedure. The main difference between
procedure and a function is, a function must always return a value, and on the other
hand a procedure may or may not return a value. Except this, all the other things
of PL/SQL procedure are true for PL/SQL function too.
Syntax to create a function:
o CREATE [OR REPLACE] FUNCTION function_name

o [parameters] [(parameter_name [IN | OUT | IN OUT] type [,
...])]
o
o RETURN return_datatype
{IS | AS}
o
o BEGIN
< function_body >
o
END [function_name];
Here:
o Function_name: specifies the name of the function.

o [OR REPLACE] option allows modifying an existing function.
o The optional parameter list contains name, mode and types of the parameters.
o IN represents that value will be passed from outside and OUT represents that
this parameter will be used to return a value outside of the procedure.
The function must contain a return statement.

78. RETURN clause specifies that data type you are going to return from the function.
79. Function_body contains the executable part.
80. The AS keyword is used instead of the IS keyword for creating a
standalone function.
PL/SQL Function Example

Let's see a simple example to create a function.
71. create or replace function adder(n1 in number, n2 in number)

72. return number
73. is
74. n3 number(8);
75. begin
76. n3 :=n1+n2;
77. return n3;

78. end;
79. /
Now write another program to call the function.
o DECLARE
o n3 number(2);
o BEGIN
o n3 := adder(11,22);
o dbms_output.put_line('Addition is: ' || n3);

o END;
o /
Output:
Addition is: 33
Statement processed.
0.05 seconds
PL/SQL Cursor
When an SQL statement is processed, Oracle creates a memory area known as context
area. A cursor is a pointer to this context area. It contains all information needed for
processing the statement. In PL/SQL, the context area is controlled by Cursor. A
cursor contains information on a select statement and the rows of data accessed by it.
A cursor is used to referred to a program to fetch and process the rows returned by the
SQL statement, one at a time. There are two types of cursors:
o Implicit Cursors
o Explicit Cursors
1) PL/SQL Implicit Cursors

The implicit cursors are automatically generated by Oracle while an SQL statement is
executed, if you don't use an explicit cursor for the statement.
These are created by default to process the statements when DML statements
like INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE etc. are executed.
Orcale provides some attributes known as Implicit cursor's attributes to check the
status of DML operations. Some of them are: %FOUND, %NOTFOUND, %ROWCOUNT
and %ISOPEN.
For example: When you execute the SQL statements like INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE
then the cursor attributes tell whether any rows are affected and how many have been
affected. If you run a SELECT INTO statement in PL/SQL block, the implicit cursor
attribute can be used to find out whether any row has been returned by the SELECT
statement. It will return an error if there no data is selected.
The following table soecifies the status of the cursor with each of its attribute.
Attribute Description
%FOUND Its return value is TRUE if DML statements like

INSERT, DELETE and UPDATE affect at least one
row or more rows or a SELECT INTO statement
returned one or more rows. Otherwise it returns
FALSE.
%NOTFOUND Its return value is TRUE if DML statements like

INSERT, DELETE and UPDATE affect no row, or a
SELECT INTO statement return no rows. Otherwise
it returns FALSE. It is a just opposite of %FOUND.
%ISOPEN It always returns FALSE for implicit cursors,

because the SQL cursor is automatically closed
after executing its associated SQL statements.
%ROWCOUNT It returns the number of rows affected by DML

statements like INSERT, DELETE, and UPDATE or
returned by a SELECT INTO statement.
PL/SQL Implicit Cursor Example

Create customers table and have records:
1 Ramesh 23 Allahabad 20000
2 Suresh 22 Kanpur 22000
3 Mahesh 24 Ghaziabad 24000
4 Chandan 25 Noida 26000

5 Alex 21 Paris 28000
6 Sunita 20 Delhi 30000
Let's execute the following program to update the table and increase salary of each
customer by 5000. Here, SQL%ROWCOUNT attribute is used to determine the number
of rows affected:
Create procedure:
o DECLARE
o total_rows number(2);
o BEGIN
o UPDATE customers
o SET salary = salary +

5000; o IF sql%notfound THEN
o dbms_output.put_line('no customers
updated'); o ELSIF sql%found THEN
o total_rows := sql%rowcount;
o dbms_output.put_line( total_rows || ' customers updated ');
o END IF;
o END;
o /
Output:
6 customers updated
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
Now, if you check the records in customer table, you will find that the rows are updated.
81. select * from customers;

2) PL/SQL Explicit Cursors

The Explicit cursors are defined by the programmers to gain more control over the
context area. These cursors should be defined in the declaration section of the
PL/SQL block. It is created on a SELECT statement which returns more than one row.
Following is the syntax to create an explicit cursor:
Syntax of explicit cursor

Following is the syntax to create an explicit cursor:
80. CURSOR cursor_name IS select_statement;;
Steps:
You must follow these steps while working with an explicit cursor.
o Declare the cursor to initialize in the memory.

o Open the cursor to allocate memory.
o Fetch the cursor to retrieve data.
o Close the cursor to release allocated memory.
1) Declare the cursor:

It defines the cursor with a name and the associated SELECT statement.
Syntax for explicit cursor decleration
46. CURSOR name IS

47. SELECT statement;
2) Open the cursor:

It is used to allocate memory for the cursor and make it easy to fetch the rows
returned by the SQL statements into it.
Syntax for cursor open:

o OPEN cursor_name;
3) CT: This Open the cursor:

It is used to allocate memory for the cursor and make it easy to fetch the rows
returned by the SQL statements into it.
Syntax for cursor open:

o OPEN cursor_name;
4) Fetch the cursor:

It is used to access one row at a time. You can fetch rows from the above-opened cursor
as follows:
Syntax for cursor fetch:
45. FETCH cursor_name INTO variable_list;
5) Close the cursor:

It is used to release the allocated memory. The following syntax is used to close
the above-opened cursors.
Syntax for cursor close:
o Close cursor_name;
PL/SQL Explicit Cursor Example

Explicit cursors are defined by programmers to gain more control over the context
area. It is defined in the declaration section of the PL/SQL block. It is created on a
SELECT statement which returns more than one row.
Let's take an example to demonstrate the use of explicit cursor. In this example, we
are using the already created CUSTOMERS table.
Create customers table and have records:

Create procedure:
Execute the following program to retrieve the customer name and address.
18. DECLARE
19. c_id customers.id%type;
20. c_name customers.name%type;

21. c_addr customers.address%type;
22. CURSOR c_customers is

23. SELECT id, name, address FROM customers;
24. BEGIN
25. OPEN c_customers;
26. LOOP
27. FETCH c_customers into c_id, c_name, c_addr;
28. EXIT WHEN c_customers%notfound;

29. dbms_output.put_line(c_id || ' ' || c_name || ' ' || c_addr);
30. END LOOP;

31. CLOSE c_customers;
32. END;
33. /
Output:
1 Ramesh Allahabad
2 Suresh Kanpur
3 Mahesh Ghaziabad
4 Chandan Noida
5 Alex Paris
6 Sunita Delhi
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
PL/SQL Trigger
Trigger is invoked by Oracle engine automatically whenever a specified event
occurs.Trigger is stored into database and invoked repeatedly, when specific
condition match.
Triggers are stored programs, which are automatically executed or fired when
some event occurs.
Triggers are written to be executed in response to any of the following events.

o A database manipulation (DML) statement (DELETE, INSERT, or UPDATE). o
A database definition (DDL) statement (CREATE, ALTER, or DROP).
o A database operation (SERVERERROR, LOGON, LOGOFF, STARTUP, or
SHUTDOWN).
Triggers could be defined on the table, view, schema, or database with which the event
is associated.
Advantages of Triggers
These are the following advantages of Triggers:
o Trigger generates some derived column values

automatically o Enforces referential integrity
o Event logging and storing information on table access
o Auditing
o Synchronous replication of tables
o Imposing security authorizations
o Preventing invalid transactions
Creating a trigger:
Syntax for creating trigger:
82. CREATE [OR REPLACE ] TRIGGER trigger_name

83. {BEFORE | AFTER | INSTEAD OF }
84. {INSERT [OR] | UPDATE [OR] | DELETE}

85. [OF col_name]
86. ON table_name
87. [REFERENCING OLD AS o NEW AS n]
88. [FOR EACH ROW]

89. WHEN (condition)
90. DECLARE
91. Declaration-statements
92. BEGIN
93. Executable-statements
94. EXCEPTION
95. Exception-handling-statements
96. END;
Here,
81. CREATE [OR REPLACE] TRIGGER trigger_name: It creates or replaces an existing

trigger with the trigger_name.
82. {BEFORE | AFTER | INSTEAD OF} : This specifies when the trigger would be
executed. The INSTEAD OF clause is used for creating trigger on a view.
83. {INSERT [OR] | UPDATE [OR] | DELETE}: This specifies the DML operation.
84. [OF col_name]: This specifies the column name that would be updated.
85. [ON table_name]: This specifies the name of the table associated with
the trigger.
86. [REFERENCING OLD AS o NEW AS n]: This allows you to refer new and old
values for various DML statements, like INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE.
87. [FOR EACH ROW]: This specifies a row level trigger, i.e., the trigger would be
executed for each row being affected. Otherwise the trigger will execute just
once when the SQL statement is executed, which is called a table level trigger.
88. WHEN (condition): This provides a condition for rows for which the trigger
would fire. This clause is valid only for row level triggers.
PL/SQL Trigger Example

Let's take a simple example to demonstrate the trigger. In this example, we are using
the following CUSTOMERS table:
Create table and have records:
Create trigger:
Let's take a program to create a row level trigger for the CUSTOMERS table that would fire
for INSERT or UPDATE or DELETE operations performed on the CUSTOMERS table. This
trigger will display the salary difference between the old values and new values:
o CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER display_salary_changes

o BEFORE DELETE OR INSERT OR UPDATE ON customers
o FOR EACH ROW

o WHEN (NEW.ID > 0)
o DECLARE
o sal_diff number;
o BEGIN
o sal_diff := :NEW.salary - :OLD.salary;
o dbms_output.put_line('Old salary: ' || :OLD.salary);

o dbms_output.put_line('New salary: ' || :NEW.salary);
o dbms_output.put_line('Salary difference: ' || sal_diff);

o END;
o /
After the execution of the above code at SQL Prompt, it produces the following result.
Trigger created.
Check the salary difference by procedure:
Use the following code to get the old salary, new salary and salary difference after
the trigger created.
48. DECLARE
49. total_rows number(2);
50. BEGIN
51. UPDATE customers
52. SET salary = salary + 5000;

53. IF sql%notfound THEN
54. dbms_output.put_line('no customers updated');

55. ELSIF sql%found THEN
56. total_rows := sql%rowcount;

57. dbms_output.put_line( total_rows || ' customers updated ');
58. END IF;

59. END;
60. /
Output:
Old salary: 20000
New salary: 25000
Salary difference: 5000
Old salary: 22000
New salary: 27000
Old salary: 24000
New salary: 29000
Old salary: 26000
New salary: 31000
Old salary: 28000
New salary: 33000
Old salary: 30000
New salary: 35000
6 customers updated

Unit-3 DBMS Notes

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Unit 3

Well defined standards

Data Type Description

binary It has a maximum length of 8000 bytes. It contains

varbinary It has a maximum length of 8000 bytes. It contains

image It has a maximum length of 2,147,483,647 bytes. It

2. Approximate Numeric Datatype :

float -1.79E + 1.79E + It is used to specify a floating-

real -3.40e + 3.40E + It specifies a single precision

3. Exact Numeric Datatype

int It is used to specify an integer value.

smallint It is used to specify small integer value.

bit It has the number of bits to store.

decimal It specifies a numeric value that can have a decimal

numeric It is used to specify a numeric value.

4. Character String Datatype

char It has a maximum length of 8000 characters. It contains

varchar It has a maximum length of 8000 characters. It contains

5. Date and time Datatypes

date It is used to store the year, month, and days value.

time It is used to store the hour, minute, and second

Types of SQL Commands

Here are some commands that come under DDL:

a. CREATE It is used to create a new table in the database.

10. CREATE TABLE TABLE_NAME (COLUMN_NAME DATATYPES[, .....]);

o CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE(Name VARCHAR2(20), Email VARCHAR2(100), DOB

o DROP TABLE EMPLOYEE;

To add a new column in the table

5. ALTER TABLE table_name ADD column_name COLUMN-

o ALTER TABLE MODIFY(COLUMN

5. ALTER TABLE STU_DETAILS ADD(ADDRESS VARCHAR2(20));

3. TRUNCATE TABLE EMPLOYEE;

2. Data Manipulation Language

Here are some commands that come under DML:

2. INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME

4. VALUES (value1, value2, value3, ......valueN);

o INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME

o INSERT INTO javatpoint (Author, Subject) VALUES ("Sonoo", "DBMS");

o UPDATE table_name SET [column_name1= value1,...column_nameN = valueN]

4. WHERE Student_Id = '3'

2. DELETE FROM table_name [WHERE

1. DELETE FROM javatpoint

3. Data Control Language

Here are some commands that come under DCL:

a. Grant: It is used to give user access privileges to a

1. GRANT SELECT, UPDATE ON MY_TABLE TO SOME_USER, ANOTHER_USER;

o REVOKE SELECT, UPDATE ON MY_TABLE FROM USER1, USER2;

4. Transaction Control Language

Here are some commands that come under TCL:

o DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS

o DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS

5. Data Query Language

It uses only one command:

a. SELE a. SELECT: This is the same as the projection operation of relational

o WHERE age > 20;

SQL Arithmetic Operators

Operator Description Example

+ It adds the value of both operands. a+b will

* It is used to multiply the value of both a*b will

/ It is used to divide the left-hand operand a/b will

% It is used to divide the left-hand operand a%b will

SQL Comparison Operators:

Operator Description Example

= It checks if two operands values are (a=b) is