Music Production Grade 4

Music
PRODUCTION
COURSEWORK EDITION
GRADE 4
All accompanying and supporting audio can be downloaded from: www.rslawards.com/downloads
Input the following code when prompted: C98NGTSPUV
For more information, turn to page 5
Cover Artist: Björk
www.rslawards.com
Acknowledgements
Published by Rockschool Ltd. © 2016, 2018

Catalogue Number: RSK200084
ISBN: 978-1-78936-040-0
Initial Release | Errata details can be found at www.rslawards.com
SYLLABUS
Syllabus revised by Tim Bennett-Hart
Syllabus authoring by Ash Preston, Antony Greaves, Nik Preston and Max Wheeler
Syllabus advisors: Joe Rubel, Chad Jackson, Sam Vasanth and Hannah V
Edited by Simon Troup, Abbie Thomas, Zoe Woodroffe, Nik Preston and Grace Roberts
PUBLISHING
Cover design and artwork: Phil Millard
Original illustrations: Simon Troup
Typesetting and design: Simon Troup and Jennie Troup
Front cover photography: Björk by AFP © Getty/AFP
AUDIO
Audio composition: Ash Preston and Max Wheeler
Audio mixing and mastering: Ash Preston
EXECUTIVE PRODUCERS
Norton York
John Simpson
IMAGES & ILLUSTRATIONS

Copyright info and credits for images and illustrations can be found below the image or in the image rights summary at the
back of the book.
SPECIAL THANKS
Ableton, Alesis, Apple, Audio-Technica, Avid, Drawmer, Fluid Mastering, Magix (Sequoia), Merging (Pyramix), Miditech,
MOTU, Neumann, Prismsound (SADiE), RME, RØDE, Samson Technologies, Sennheiser, Shure, Sound Technology,
Steinberg, TL Audio and Universal Audio.
PRINTING
Printed and bound in the United Kingdom by Caligraving Ltd.
CONTACT
RSL, Harlequin House, Ground Floor, 7 High Street, Teddington, Middlesex, TW11 8EE
Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition
Tel: +44 (0)345 460 4747

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Email: info@rslawards.com
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2
Table of Contents
Introductions & Information
1 Title Page
2 Acknowledgements
3 Table of Contents
4 Welcome to Music Production – Grade 4
6 Entering Rockschool Exams
6 Marking Scheme
Section A | Music Production Theory
7 Summary
8 Music Production Terminology
18 Sound and Audio Fundamentals
Section B | Listening Skills
27 Summary
28 Sonic Fidelity
29 Music Theory & Harmony
30 Stylistic Awareness
Section C | Coursework Task
33 Summary
34 Technical Skills
35 Coursework Task
Sample Paper
37 Rockschool Music Production Grade 4 Exam – Sample Paper
Additional Information

46 Glossary
71 Useful Information (Non-assessed)
72 Image Copyright Information
3
Welcome to Music Production – Grade 4
1991 saw a paradigm shift in UK music education with the inception of Rockschool graded syllabi and now, some
25 years later, over 350,000 contemporary musicians, performers and artists have been awarded Rockschool qualifications.
Subsequently, contemporary music education provision has seen universal acceptance from all areas of education and truly
phenomenal growth the world over.
In keeping with our history of innovation, Rockschool’s 25 year anniversary sees the release of the world’s first ever music
production graded syllabus. A syllabus that has been devised to afford opportunities to all aspiring producers, engineers,
composers and performers that has not previously been available in an accredited, graded syllabus. All students can now
develop their skills and knowledge in what is currently the fastest growing area of the music education industry whilst
earning a globally recognised qualification.
As with all Rockschool syllabi, academic rigour and industry relevance are crucial and the 2018 Music Production
Coursework Edition syllabus is no exception. The syllabus has seen contributions from hugely respected producers,
engineers, composers, performers and educators from a diverse range of backgrounds. Amongst their glowing list of
achievements, these industry experts can count credits such as:
■■ Blockbuster movie soundtracks

■■ Production and engineering duties for iconic, global artists
■■ Top ten singles
■■ Games soundtracks
■■ Conservatoire & university lecturing
■■ Degree programme authoring
■■ World DJ championships
Upon successful completion of Grade 8, all students will have demonstrated the skills and knowledge to progress to both
higher education and ultimately the professional ranks.
Whatever your desire, be it music producer, recording engineer, mix or mastering engineer, editor, electronic music
composer or merely to improve your knowledge of traditional and contemporary production techniques, this syllabus will
ensure you gain the most comprehensive range of skills and knowledge currently available.
Nik Preston – Head of Product Development and Publishing
Book Contents
The book is divided into a number of sections:
■■ Music Production Theory

Rockschool’s Music Production syllabus provides you with the necessary material needed to achieve an understanding of
key music production terminology, as well as sound and audio fundamentals, in relation to modern music production.
■■ Listening Skills
Using audio examples provided, you will learn how to demonstrate effective listening skills relevant to modern music
production. In this section, Rockschool’s Music Production syllabus looks at sonic fidelity, music theory & harmony
and stylistic awareness.
■■ Coursework Task
In order to enhance your technical skills, you will be asked to complete a coursework task which will demonstrate
your ability to use the digital audio workstation (DAW) of your choice.
You must complete the coursework task before your exam and will be asked to upload your task and screen shots
during the exam.
In this section you will be given the opportunity to demonstrate both your skills and creativity in a simulated
professional situation. You will be assessed on your ability to resolve industry standard scenarios using appropriate
4 techniques and your DAW of choice.
Audio
In addition to the grade book, we have also provided audio to support both curriculum content and the sample exam paper.
This can be downloaded from RSL directly at www.rslawards.com/downloads
You will need to input this code when prompted: C98NGTSPUV
The audio files are supplied in MP3 and/or WAV format(s). Once downloaded you will be able to play them on any
compatible device.
You can find further details about Rockschool’s Music Production syllabus by downloading the syllabus specification from
our website: www.rslawards.com
All candidates should download and read the accompanying syllabus specification when using this grade book.
5
Entering Rockschool Exams
Entering a Rockschool exam is easy, just go online and follow our simple process. All details for entering online, dates, fees
and regulations can be found at www.rslawards.com
ll candidates should ensure they bring the hard copy of their Grade syllabus book or their proof of digital purchase, their
A
coursework task and screen shots, and headphones to the exam.
All Grade 6–8 candidates must ensure that they bring valid photo ID to their exam.
Marking Scheme
MUSIC PRODUCTION GRADES 1–8
ELEMENT Pass Merit Distinction
PART A:
15–18 out of 25 19–20 out of 25 21–25 out of 25
TERMINOLOGY & FUNDAMENTALS
PART B:
LISTENING SKILLS
PART C:
COURSEWORK TASK
TOTAL MARKS 60%+ 75%+ 85%+

6
© OSABEE/Shutterstock
SUMMARY
SECTION (Current section highlighted) MARKS
> Theoretical Written Exam 25 [25%]
Listening Test 15 [15%]
Coursework Task 60 [60%]
The Theoretical Written Exam section of Rockschool Music Production Examinations covers the following:
■■ Music Production Terminology

■■ Sound & Audio Fundamentals
At Grade 4 the theory content covered will include subject areas such as describing equipment controls, Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition
surround formats, wireless connectivity, backing up files, plugin concepts, stereo microphone techniques,
nonlinear editing, software instruments, sidechaining and sound propagation.
7
Music Production Terminology

Compressors
A compressor is used to reduce the dynamic range of a recording. It will make the loud parts and quiet parts closer in
level. This can be very useful if the level of a recording is inconsistent or if you want to make the recording sound louder
and fuller.
The controls you will find on a compressor are:
Threshold
This is the level at which the compressor will start to act. When the signal level is below the threshold, it does nothing
but as soon as the signal level is higher than the threshold it will reduce the level proportionally, defined by the ratio.
Ratio
This is the amount of compression that will be applied when the threshold is passed. For example, if the ratio is set to
5:1, then for every 5dB of signal that goes over the threshold at the input, only 1dB will be heard from the output.
Threshold
1:1
2:1
Output
Level
(dB)
4:1
∞:1
Input Level (dB)
Attack
This is how quickly the compressor reacts when the signal passes the threshold. Adjusting this setting to make the attack
slower makes it possible to allow signals with fast transients (such as drums) to pass through the compressor unaffected.
Release
8 This is how quickly the compressor returns to it’s normal state after the signal level returns below the threshold.
Music Production Theory | Section A
Knee
This adjusts how harshly the compressor reacts when the threshold is passed. A ‘hard knee’ causes the compressor to
immediately apply the ratio as soon as the threshold is passed, whereas a soft knee will gently ease from no compression
to the full ratio as the signal increases. A soft knee can be useful for natural instruments where you want the
compression effect to be subtle.
Threshold
Hard Knee
Soft Knee
Output
Level
(dB)
Input Level (dB)
Sidechain
The Sidechain is an insert loop on a compressor which can be used to send the signal for further processing. See
‘Sidechains and Key Inputs’ (p.22).
Bypass
This is a very useful button as it enables you to quickly switch the compressor on and off. Using this function you’ll be
able to check whether you’re actually improving the sound.
Example Compressor:
Alesis 3630 Compressor (showing single channel in detail).
9
Limiters
A limiter is very similar to a compressor but with a much harsher effect on the dynamics of the recording due to it’s very
high compression ratio.
The controls you will find on a limiter are:
Threshold
This is the level at which the limiter will start to act. When the signal level is below the threshold, it does nothing but as
soon as the signal level is higher than the threshold it will limit the output level.
Ratio
This is generally fixed at a ratio of 80–100:1, but some limiters may provide some flexibility.
Attack
This is how quickly the limiter reacts when the signal passes the threshold. Adjusting this setting to make the attack
slower makes it possible to allow signals with fast transients (such as drums) to pass through the limiter unaffected.
Release
This is how quickly the limiter returns to it’s normal state after the signal level returns below the threshold.
Knee
This adjusts how harshly the limiter reacts when the threshold is passed. A ‘hard knee’ causes the limiter to immediately
limit the signal as soon as the threshold is passed, whereas a soft knee will gently ease from no limiting to the full ratio
limiting as the signal increases. A soft knee can be useful for natural instruments where you want the limiting effect to
be a little more subtle.
Bypass
This is a very useful button as it enables you to quickly switch the limiter on and off. Using this function you’ll be able to
check that you’re actually improving the sound.
Example Limiter:
Universal Audio 1176LN
10
Gates
A gate is used to remove unwanted sound from a recording, it works by listening to the sound level of the recording and
removing anything that is quieter than the wanted signal.
Here are the controls you will find on a gate:
Threshold
This is the level at which the gate will start to act. When the signal level is below the threshold, the gate ‘closes’, stopping
any signal getting through. When the signal level is above the threshold, the gate opens allowing all the signal through.
Range
Rather than having a ratio control like a compressor, a gate will have a range control which specifies the amount the
output signal is to be reduced by when the gate is closed. This is an absolute value in decibels which can be adjusted all
the way down to minus infinity, meaning the gate is completely closed.
Attack
This is how quickly the gate reacts when the signal passes the threshold. Adjusting this setting to make the attack slower
makes it possible to allow signals with fast transients (such as drums) to pass through the gate unaffected.
Hold
In addition to attack and release, a gate will also include a hold control. This determines how long the gate will stay open
once the threshold has been passed. Once the hold time has elapsed, the release phase will start.
Release
This is how quickly the gate returns to it’s normal state after the signal level returns to above the threshold.
Key Input
It is possible to use a signal other than the one you are affecting to make the gate react by feeding that signal into the key input.
Duck
The duck control on a gate reverses the way it responds to the key input. Normally if a signal is quieter than the
threshold it will reduce the level. However, with the duck function active, the gate reduces the volume when the signal
is louder than the threshold. This is a common function used by DJs to make the music reduce in level when they are
speaking over the top.
Bypass
This is a very useful button as it enables you to quickly switch the gate on and off. Using this function you’ll be able to
check that you’re actually improving the sound. Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition
Example Gate:
Drawmer Powergate DS501 (channel 1 shown in detail).
11
Expanders
An expander is very similar to a gate and uses many of the same controls, but rather than use a range control it uses a ratio
like a compressor. This means that when the gate is closed the signal is reduced by the ratio, rather than an absolute number
of decibels. This enables the effect to be a little more natural sounding.
Example Expander:
Dedicated hardware expanders are rare as the feature tends to be incorporated with other units such as gates and
compressors. Most DAWs include a dedicated expander such as the one shown below found in Logic Pro X.
Sound Formats
You’re no doubt already familiar with the two most common audio formats, mono (one channel) and stereo (two channels).
However, there are numerous other formats out there for enhancing the listening experience.
2.1 Sound
The next most basic format is known as 2.1. This features the usual stereo left and right channels but adds a subwoofer.
This ‘.1’ reference to a subwoofer is a common convention which you will see in numerous other formats.
In addition to the above, more channels can be added to enhance the experience for the listener. These formats can
collectively be grouped as ‘surround sound’:
4.0 Quadraphonic Sound

This is a format which uses four equally spaced speakers, located in the corners of a room. This made it very convenient for
the home listener and some albums including the classic ‘Dark Side of the Moon’ by Pink Floyd were released in this format.
Quad (as it’s sometimes abbreviated) was an early version of surround sound, which remains to this day, but has largely
been superseded by the following surround sound formats.
12
5.1 Surround Sound

This has become the most common form of surround sound for the home user. 5.1 surround sound kits are available as
standard packages from electrical retailers, including cinema receivers which help distribute the surround sound as it’s
played back from a DVD or other digital medium.
This format is most widely used for film and TV sound, however, there have been many live show DVDs mixed in 5.1
surround sound, so it is certainly a format to be familiar with.
The standard channels of a 5.1 surround system are:

■■ Left
■■ Centre
■■ Right
■■ Rear left
■■ Rear right
■■ Subwoofer
The speakers are arranged in the room as follows:
Left
Rear Left
Centre

Rear Right
Right
Subwoofer
13
7.1 Surround Sound

This is the next most common format for surround sound which slightly enhances the 5.1 standard. The difference
being the addition of two more side speakers to make the experience even more realistic for the listener.
The standard channels featured in 7.1 surround sound system are:

■■ Left
■■ Centre
■■ Right
■■ Left surround
■■ Right surround
■■ Rear left surround
■■ Rear right surround
■■ Subwoofer
The speakers are arranged in the room as follows:
Left Surround
Left
Rear Left
Surround
Centre
Rear Right
Surround
Right
Right Surround
Subwoofer
14
Wireless Technology
While this is generally more of computer technology than a sound technology, it is very relevant to the modern recording
studio. Physical connectivity is being replaced by wireless connection in many fields and it’s only a matter of time until this
becomes more common in audio.
RF – Radio Frequency
Some wireless audio technologies have been around for a long time, such as radio frequency communication. This is a
series of electromagnetic waves which travel long distances, as used in early radio broadcasting. Similar technology is
still used today, although it’s fast being superseded by internet based communication.
Bluetooth
Whereas the above RF technology is used for long distance communication, a much more modern technology used for
short distances is Bluetooth.
Bluetooth is most commonly associated with mobile telephone handsfree kits, but can also be used for streaming music
from devices to bluetooth speakers and connecting computers with peripherals such as keyboards and mice.
Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi is a wireless technology that uses radio communication to share data.
As Wi-Fi and its associated technologies have developed, the speed of the data transfer has increased greatly, meaning
with a good connection it is as useful as wired networking for the majority of situations.
The most common use of Wi-Fi is to enable laptops and devices such as smartphones and tablets to connect to an
internet enabled network. It can also be used peer to peer, to enable users to connect to other users without the need for
the internet. This can be very useful in the studio when wishing to share large files from one laptop to another, without
the potential for the intenet connection to slow the transfer down.
A common misconception is that Wi-Fi is an abbreviation of ‘wireless fidelity’, but this is not the case. It is simply a now
familiar term used by the Wi-Fi Alliance to name WLANs (wireless local area networks).
Wi-Fi is currently broadcast at two radio frequencies:

■■ 2.4GHz
■■ 5GHz
The 5GHz system is the more recent standard and offers the advantage of reduced interference and a more stable
connection. The trade off is that the functional range of 5GHz Wi-Fi is not as far as the older 2.4GHz system.

This technology is constantly developing, so expect new Wi-Fi formats to become available soon.
15
File Management
In the old days, which aren’t really that long ago, music was recorded to physical media such as reels of magnetic tape. At
that time, it would be someone’s responsibility to label the tapes, make a copy and file them in a safe and secure place for
future access.
In the modern era of music production, the physical media are less widely used and we have moved on to digital storage –
i.e. files stored on hard disks.
While the technology has moved on, the same organisation and safety principles are just as relevant, if a tape goes missing
then several days in the studio are wasted. If a hard disk goes missing, it could be hundreds of days in the studio that are lost!
Therefore, the naming and organisation of files is just as important so that you know which files are saved and where, but
even more important is making a copy. This copying process in the modern digital world is known as ‘backing up’.
It can be said that the data on a hard disk only exists once it exists in two places. But that’s getting a little philosophical.
Here’s the scenario, you work on an album, spending 10 days in the studio recording guitars, vocals, drums, then many
overdubs, make many edits, you then mix and master the tracks while the band fly back to Los Angeles. Then the hard disk
fails, it’s dead and all the data on it is gone.
The band has gone, so you can’t re-record all the parts and even if you could, the deadline for delivering the project to the
record label is tomorrow. You’ve spent all their money and now have nothing to show for it.
If you had made a backup of the files by copying them all to a second hard disk, then all you would need to do when the
hard disk fails is move over to the other disk and carry on as if nothing has happened.
As backing up is so critical and one of those tasks which are boring and easily forgotten, there are numerous utilities
available to do the job for you automatically. The Apple OSX operating system includes a function called ‘Time Machine’,
which does exactly this. It will save a copy of your whole hard drive and update the backup at regular intervals (normally
hourly but this can be changed). If the worst happens, you can simply enter the ‘Time Machine’ and jump back to when your
file was last available – or even previous versions if you’ve made changes that you wish you hadn’t.
Windows systems use something similar called ‘Backup & Restore’, and other 3rd party software is available which offers
additional functionality. The basic service offered by the operating system is the absolute minimum you should use.
When you have created a backup disk, try and get into the habit of keeping it somewhere different to where your primary
hard disk is. For example, don’t keep it in your laptop bag with you laptop – if your bag is lost or stolen, you have lost your
primary and backup drives at the same time.
The same principle applies to desktop machines, if you can keep your backup in a different location then you reduce the risk
of fires or floods ruining both sets of files.
The most effective modern solution for backing up is to use cloud storage, where your files are located on a server
somewhere on the other side of the world and automatically backed up for you. However, this can be expensive and relies on
a fast internet connection.
16
Plugins
Plugins are optional packages of software which can be installed into applications, enhancing their functionality in some way.
In DAWs it’s common for some plugins to be included as standard, however, many 3rd party plugins can also be purchased
which offer different functions or improved interpretations of the standard functions.
Plugins can be split into two areas:
Software Instruments
(See ‘digital audio workstations’ in the Sound and Audio Fundamentals section.)
Effects Plugins
Effects plugins offer facilities such as EQ, compression, reverbs, delays, chorus, flange, phase and many other special effects or
processing. When a plugin is applied to a DAW channel, it processes the sound on that channel with the selected effect.
The DAW you are using will define which format of plugin you need. There are several formats available, including legacy
formats which may not be compatible with your system. Always check which versions are compatible before purchasing plugins.
Here are some examples of plugin formats:

■■ Audio Units
■■ RTAS
■■ AAX
■■ VST
■■ TDM
■■ DirectX
Audio Units, AAX and VST are currently the most common formats. However, technology is constantly moving on and the
software companies may introduce new formats at any point.
Solo
When making changes to any settings, it can sometimes be difficult to hear what effect you’re actually having on the audio
because it’s hidden in the mix.
For this reason, mixing desks and DAWs all offer a solo function which mutes all the channels but the one you’re working on.
There are three types of solo function:

Pre-Fade Listen (PFL)
This enables you to listen to just the selected channel at the point just before the fader in the signal path. This is useful
for checking the level in the channel to ensure it is loud enough and isn’t distorting.
After Fade Listen (AFL)

This enables you to listen to just the selected channel at the point just after the fader in the signal path. This enables you
to listen to the output of the channel.
Solo In Place (SIP)

This enables you to listen to just the selected channel, exactly how it sounds within the mix. This is the most common
form of solo used by DAWs.
Not all mixing desks have all the above options, so check the specifications and look out for PFL, AFL or SIP on the switch labels.
17
Sound and Audio Fundamentals

Microphones
Polar Patterns
Microphones are designed to be able to pick up sound in different ways whether that be from every direction or focused on
some directions and not others. The area that the microphone is sensitive to is known as its polar pattern.
The ability to choose which polar pattern is needed makes them far more practical in a recording situation.
The most common polar patterns are:
Omnidirectional Figure of 8
A microphone with this polar pattern is sensitive to A figure of 8 microphone (sometimes abbreviated to
sound from every direction equally. Remember that fig-8) is most sensitive to sound from both infront and
this is through three dimensions: Up, down, left, right, behind, creating a number 8 style pattern around the
forwards and backwards. capsule. It rejects sound from the sides.
0° 0°
-5dB -5dB
-10dB -10dB
-15dB -15dB
-20dB -20dB
-25dB -25dB
270° 90° 270° 90°
180° 180°
Example Omnidirectional Microphone: Example Figure of 8 Microphone:

The Shure KSM44A is a large multi-pattern microphone The AKG C414 is another multi-pattern microphone
that can be configured for omnidirectional work. capable of working in a figure of 8 configuration.
18
Cardioid Hypercardioid
A microphone with a cardioid polar pattern is more A hypercardioid microphone is very similar to a cardioid,
sensitive to sound from in front of its capsule, i.e. whatever except that the front focus is exaggerated, causing it to
the microphone is pointed at is loudest. This is probably reject even more sound from the sides. This makes it
the kind of microphone you are most familiar with. very useful in situations where you need to record a very
specific sound source where there is lots of unwanted
A side effect of the cardioid design is proximity effect. sound around it, e.g. a lead violin in an orchestra or when
When a cardioid microphone is placed close to the sound recording dialogue for a film in a noisy street location.
source, the bass frequencies are emphasised. This can be
a good or bad thing, depending on what you’re trying to There is a trade off for having a microphone that’s this
achieve. Remember that it is there and exploit the effect focused and that’s that it is also sensitive to some sound
when you want something to sound a little warmer or from behind.
fuller. This can be good for ‘breathy’ vocals’
0° 0°
-5dB -5dB
-10dB -10dB
-15dB -15dB
-20dB -20dB
270° 90° 270° 90°
180° 180°
Example Cardioid Microphone: Example Hypercardioid Microphone:

Sennheiser MD421 Audio-Technica AT4053b
19
Microphone Technique
Microphone techniques can be separated into three areas:
■■ ‘Close Miking’
■■ ‘Multi-Miking’
■■ ‘Stereo Miking’
Close Miking
This is where you place a microphone close to the source with the intention being that you record only the desired
source and as little as possible of anything else in the room. This technique is very common in modern recording,
particularly in rock and pop music where a tight sound is required.
Multi-Miking
This is where more than one microphone is used to record a source with the intention that the microphones are mixed
together later. This could be a combination of close miking and stereo miking techniques, although the result is not
necessarily mixed in stereo.
When using more than one microphone, a good rule of thumb for placement is to use the 3:1 rule. When using more
than one microphone, you should ensure that the distance between two microphones is at least three times the distance
to the source.
1 ft
3 ft
20
Stereo Miking
This is where two microphones are used to record a sound source with the intention being to create a stereo
representation of what that instrument sounds like in the environment that it is recorded in. This is achieved using two
microphones, one of which will normally be panned hard left and the other panned hard right.
For example, you may choose to record an acoustic guitar or string section in a nice sounding chamber with wooden
panels to create a live reverberant sound.
By using a stereo microphone technique you can better capture more of what the instruments sounded like in that nice
sounding space, providing the listener with a more realistic auditory experience.
There are numerous tried and tested stereo microphone techniques. Here are some examples:
Space Pair / Spaced Omnis (also known as AB) Coincident Pair (also known as XY)
This is a technique which requires two omnidirectional This technique requires two cardioid microphones
microphones although cardioids can also be used if which should be placed with the capsules directly
omnis aren’t available. above each other. They should then be directed
in different directions to each other at an angle of
The two microphones are placed at a similar distance between 90 and 135 degrees.
to the source but with a distance between them. For
best effect, that distance should adhere to the 3:1 rule This technique results in a controlled stereo image with
(see p.18). the sound source still in focus.
This microphone technique results in a spacious You might choose to use this technique for recording
sound in which the room is very apparent and the acoustic guitar or for drum overheads.
stereo image is quite wide. As a result, this can
cause problems with phase cancellation between the
two microphones, so adjust the positioning of the
microphones until you get the best sounding result
and check that it still sounds good when in mono by
panning the two microphones to the centre or using a
mono switch on the mixing desk if you have one.
Source
4 ft 4 ft
12 ft Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition
Left Mic Right Mic Right Left
21
Mid-Side (also known as MS)

This technique requires one cardioid microphone and one figure of 8 microphone.
The two microphones are placed with the cardioid facing the desired sound source and the figure of 8 placed at a 90
degree perpendicular so that the front is pointing to the left and the rear is pointing to the right.
The combination of the two microphones is now picking up sound from both the sound source and the room around it.
The trick with this technique is in how the signals are handled at the mixing desk. The cardioid microphone is
panned to the centre, while the figure of 8 microphone’s signal is split, panned left and right with the polarity
inverted on one side.
As the left and right will then be cancelled out when summed to mono, this makes the technique very good for
mono compatibility.
Mid
0°
Side Side
+ -
+ =
Cardioid Figure 8
22
Digital Audio Workstations

As you become more familiar with the functionality of the digital audio workstation, more and more concepts will become
relevant to you. Here are some explanations of some of those concepts:
Nonlinear Editing (NLE)

The technology used in a DAW is known as a non-linear editing system, as opposed to a linear editing system such as
tape. In a linear system the edits are made in a destructive way, i.e. any changes are applied to the original medium by
cutting and reattaching pieces of tape.
In a nonlinear system, the original medium (in this case an audio file) is not touched. The DAW uses computer trickery
to make changes to what is heard from the file but without needing to change it permanently. This makes it possible to
use the same piece of audio again and again, or to undo mistaken edits. This same technology is also heavily used in the
video industry.
As nonlinear editing leaves the original file unaffected – this is also known as non-destructive editing.
Destructive Editing Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

Some functions within a DAW can be set to make destructive edits. While still being used in a nonlinear system, you can
override the nondestructive functionality to force the DAW to make permanent edits to the original file. This should be
reserved for when you are 100% certain that you want to make the change.
Software Instruments
Software instruments are a kind of DAW plugin which are used to create sound much like a synthesiser or
sound generator.
Some software instruments emulate traditional instruments such as pianos, stringed instruments, horns or drumkits
while other instruments known as soft synths create sound in an original way, much like a hardware synthesiser would.
There is a huge variety of software instruments available which are in many cases more cost effective than buying the
real instrument.
The settings for all these effects and instruments can be altered to taste and saved along with the rest of the session.
23
Sidechains & Key Inputs
Sidechain
The Sidechain is an insert loop on a compressor which can be used to send the signal for further processing. The signal
received at the sidechain return is used as the trigger for the compressor but not sent to the output of the compressor –
so it’s never heard.
This makes it possible to make the compressor react in a different way. For example, if you want a compressor
to compress more of the ‘S’s and ‘T’s in a vocal performances, you can use an EQ in the sidechain to boost those
frequencies. This will make the compressor compress the sound more when those frequencies occur.
Sidechain Listen
Similar to a solo, this function allows you to hear what the compressor is reacting to at the sidechain return which may
help you adjust the settings more accurately.
Key Input
The key input is similar to the sidechain of a compressor, except that it is just an input and not a loop.
It is therefore possible to use a signal other than the one you are affecting to make the gate react by feeding that signal
into the key input. For example, you could feed a kick drum into the key input of a gate on a bass guitar so that the bass
guitar is only heard when the kick drum triggers it.
Key Listen
Like a solo, this function allows you to hear what the gate is reacting to which may help you adjust the settings more
accurately.
24
Sound & Acoustics

Sound is a series of vibrations caused by the oscillation of an object such as a speaker. When the speaker moves in and out it
causes the air in front of it to compress and expand.
When the speaker moves outwards, it creates a high pressure by compressing the air. When the speaker moves back again, it
creates a low pressure rarefaction of the air.
Support
Chassis Cone
Suspension
N
Permanent
Magnet
Air Sound
S Movement Wave
Moving
Voice
Coil
N
Input
Voltage Electrical
Signal leads
As the speaker moves in and out at high speed, these compressions and rarefactions create waves in the air which move out in
every direction. This is how sound travels until it reaches a receiver that can interpret the waves such as a microphone or our ears.
25
It’s not just air that is affected by these sound waves. The same effect happens in liquids and solids too. In fact, sound travels
faster in water and even faster in solids because the molecules are packed more tightly together enabling the waves to travel
faster and further. Whales can talk to each other through hundreds of miles of water.
Whale noises may not be particularly relevant to the production of music but it’s good to have an understanding of how
sound moves around and how it is affected by what gets in its way.
If you place your monitor speakers on a desk, you will not only hear the sound that comes from the speaker directly to your
ears through the air but you will also hear the desk being resonated as well. This can be solved by placing the speakers on
isolation pads or using heavy speaker stands filled with sand.
26
© OSABEE/Shutterstock
SUMMARY
Theoretical Written Exam 25 [25%]
> Listening Test 15 [15%]
Coursework Task 60 [60%]
The Listening Test section of Rockschool Music Production Examinations covers the following:
■■ Sonic Fidelity
■■ Music Theory & Harmony
■■ Stylistic Awareness
At Grade 4 the aural content covered will include subject areas such as identifying the use of compression on
instruments and mixes; identifying semitones and tones and compound time; and identifying specific genres.
27
Sonic Fidelity
Objective: Identify Compressed and Uncompressed Audio
As a producer or sound engineer, your aural skills are extremely important as they enable you to hear both the music
and its production values, so be mindful to always look after them. Avoid listening to music too loud and always be
cautious of listening for too long. If you find yourself unavoidably subjected to high volume levels, be prepared to wear
hearing protection.
Whilst it is difficult to improve your hearing per se, there are ways you can improve your aural skills. This can be achieved
by training your ears and brain to identify the sounds that you hear.
Your aural skills are associative in nature i.e. by associating particular labels to particular sounds your brain will associate the
label with the sound and subsequently you’ll stand a greater chance of identifying (and ultimately using) these sounds in the
future. Always be prepared to listen intently and be aware that the producer’s analytical ear is one of his/her greatest tools.
Compression is one of the most useful tools to music producers and engineers. It can be used for a multitude of different
applications, but compression principally controls the dynamic range of a signal.
Effective use of compression can make an instrument, vocal and even a full mix, sound smoother, warmer, fuller, smoother
and richer. In certain instances, it can be used for more extreme effect.
The only way you can improve your ability to hear the subtle changes in dynamic range is to practise listening to compressed
and uncompressed material so that you can learn to identify the difference.
Experiment with applying compression to both single instruments and full mixes, tweaking settings and allowing your ears
to identify when compression is being applied. As your ears develop, you will be able to hear smaller changes.
As part of the Grade 4 examination, you will be required to identify both instruments and mixes that have
compression applied.
■■ In audio example LSG4SF1.wav you will hear an uncompressed bass guitar

■■ In audio example LSG4SF2.wav you will hear a heavily compressed bass guitar
■■ In audio example LSG4SF3.wav you will hear an uncompressed band recording
■■ In audio example LSG4SF4.wav you will hear a heavily compressed band recording
Please note, Rockschool uses the term ‘sonic fidelity’ to define anything of an audible nature, but it would be just as likely for this
to be referenced as ‘audio fidelity’ and subsequently both terms should be learnt.
28
Listening Skills | Section B
Music Theory & Harmony

Objective: Identifying Semi Tones and Tones
Every chord, scale and arpeggio is constructed of two simple building blocks. One of these blocks is called a SEMITONE
and the other, a TONE – but let’s call them ‘S’ and ‘T’ for short. You can think of the S block as a small cube and the T block
as being twice as tall, like a rectangle standing on its end.
■■ In audio example LSG4H1.mp3, you will hear a root note followed by a semitone higher and then both notes will
be played simultaneously. This is then followed by a two bar melodic phrase which consists predominantly
of semi tones.
■■ In audio example LSG4H2.mp3, you will hear a root note followed by a whole tone higher and then both notes will be
played simultaneously. This is then followed by a two bar melodic phrase consisting predominantly of whole tones.
29
Objective: Compound Time Signature Recognition

Much of Western popular music is written in time which we discussed in Grade 2. We learned that
f f means 4 quarter
notes to the bar and means 3 quarter notes to the bar.
d
These time signatures are referred to as ‘simple time’ as each beat of the bar is divisible by 2.
Another form of a time signature is compound time. In compound time signatures the top number i.e. the amount of beats
in a bar, is always a multiple of 3, but not 3 itself. The bottom number of the time signature is more often 4 or 8, but could
in certain instances be a 2 or 16. The top number is always divisible by 3 which makes compound time extremely useful
for writing triplet-based rhythms. The resulting effect of compound time signatures is that the strongest beats in a bar have
three note values between them, whereas in simple time signatures there are more commonly two. Common compound
time signatures are and .
y W
In W we have 12 eight notes making up the full bar. That equates to 3 eight notes per standard quarter note (3 x 4 = 12).
■■ In audio example LSG4R1.mp3, you will hear a drum groove being played in W.
30
Listening Skills | Section B
Stylistic Awareness
Country
Country originated in the south of the USA in the 1920s, a blend of the styles that preceded it containing influences from
cowboy songs, gospel, blues and European folk. Country is often characterised by eight-bar song structures and title-based
choruses that encourage community singing. Like many folk music styles, country makes extensive use of (particularly
major) pentatonic scales in its melodies, sometimes with a chromatic passing note. Songs are often harmonically diatonic,
sometimes using only the basic I, IIm, IIIm, IV, V and VIm triads and progressions typically begin and end on the home key
chord. Country songs usually feature a chorus, although there are some written in AABA form (verse-verse-bridge-verse),
notably Willie Nelson’s ‘You Are Always On My Mind’ and Hank Williams Jr’s ‘Your Cheatin’ Heart’. Because country grew
out of American folk music, its roots are in portable stringed instruments, particularly the acoustic guitar. Country bands
rely on high-quality musicianship and virtuoso solos (typically violin, mandolin, guitar or banjo) are common. Country
lyrics often deal with themes of home, love, commitment and rural life and the simple harmony underscores core ideas of
sincerity, nostalgia and loyalty.
Typical Country Progressions

All of these progressions are examples of simple country harmony in a major key. The changes are all diatonic and
the chords are not extended beyond the octave.
44 G C G D G C G D G
44
4
4
Fiddle Doublestops with Telecaster-Style Licks

The guitar features prominently in country music. Acoustic guitars have long been used for accompaniment by singer/
songwriters, while electric guitars are a staple of the country band. Some of the signature sounds of country guitar are
actually imitations of other instruments. Players such as Jerry Donahue and Albert Lee helped to popularise double
stopping techniques reminiscent of fiddle playing, along with elaborate string bending influenced by the sound of the
steel guitar.

Bass Simplicity
The role of the bass in country music is to underpin the harmony and it often does this as simply as possible. This classic
country root-fifth bassline follows the chords harmonically and rhythmically does not deviate from the first and third
beats of the bar.
Country Scale
The so-called ‘country scale’ is a modal inversion of the blues scale and consists of all of the notes of the major
pentatonic scale with the addition of a minor 3rd. Typically the minor 3rd is used as a chromatic passing note,
immediately followed by the major 3rd. The scale can be used by any melodic instrument when improvising in a
major key.
■■ In audio example LSG4SA1.mp3 you will hear a country recording
31
Funk
James Brown may have been the Godfather of Soul but he was also the Father of Funk. In the late 1960s, songs like ‘Cold
Sweat’ emphasised the first beat of the bar and sported roving basslines, percussive guitar and horn parts woven around
a vocal. By the 1970s, acts like Sly and The Family Stone and Parliament/ Funkadelic (P-Funk) developed Brown’s sound.
Funk is characterised by its lack of chord changes; instead, the extended chords of bebop feature overextended, single chord
jams. Plenty of genres have co-opted the techniques of funk, most notably disco and to a lesser extent, jazz. In the 1980s,
funk returned in updated guise via the likes of Prince and Red Hot Chili Peppers. The stripped-back, rhythmic style of
classic funk can be achieved with bass, drums and guitar but it’s at its best when supplemented by keys and a brass section,
typically consisting of saxophone, trumpet and trombone. More modern, 1980s funk-influenced music replaced the horns
with synths. Funk has its fair share of virtuoso soloists, such as guitarists Eddie Hazel and Ernie Isley, but don’t forget the all-
important rhythm section with drummers such as Joseph ‘Zigaboo’ Modeliste (The Meters) and Clyde Stubblefield (James
Brown) and bass players like Bootsy Collins (James Brown) counted among funk’s greats.
Extended Chords
Funk often makes use of extended chords where notes beyond the octave are added to underlying 7 chords (e.g.
major 7s, minor 7s, dominant 7s) to create more advanced harmony. The essence of funk is the combination of
extended harmony and rhythmic sophistication. In this example, this major-key progression is extended so that
the chords are all major 9s, dominant 9s or dominant 11s. Parliament and Funkadelic supremo George Clinton.
44 .. ..
Horn Parts
In funk bands, the core rhythm section – typically drums, electric bass, guitar and keyboards – can be augmented with
additional instrumentation including percussion, backing vocals and horns. The horn part shown here would typically
be played as an accompaniment under a vocal part because it features staccato ‘stabs’ in time with the snare drum.
Funk-Style Rhythm Guitar

The guitar’s rhythmic possibilities were taken to extremes with the pioneering players of the funk movement. Palm
muting, extended chords, fast changes through three-string triads and metronomic right-hand rhythmic control are all
key to a great funk part.
Funk Drum Grooves with Snare Displacement

Most funk tracks are based around a 16th-note groove. This allows for substantial syncopation. In this example,
the snare and bass drum are placed on weaker beats of the bar, creating rhythmic interest and establishing, through
repetition of the pattern, a funk groove.
■■ In audio example LSG4SA2.mp3 you will hear a funk recording
32
© Menna/Shutterstock
SUMMARY
Theoretical Written Exam 25 [25%]
Listening Test 15 [15%]
> Coursework Task 60 [60%]
At Grade 4 the Technical Skills will centre around use of equalisation (EQ) for corrective/creative purposes. The
Coursework Task will require candidates to remove any unwanted noise from a recording using appropriate
techniques, such as manual editing, gating and crossfades.

Candidates must complete the Coursework Task before their exam and will be asked to upload the Task and
screen shots during their exam.
33
Technical Skills
Once you have mastered the ability to identify frequencies, it’s time to put that into action.
The Technical Skills portion of the Grade 4 examination will focus on practical use of EQ. You will be presented with a
recording which requires some equalisation to balance it out.
Using the skills you have developed, listen to the recording, identify the problem frequencies and use the EQ in your DAW
to make the recording sound more natural.
This is something that you can and should practise over and over, as your ears will develop slowly over time.
Tip: It’s good practice to use reference material. The world’s top sound engineers often have pieces of music which they
listen to before they start recording or mixing as a way of ‘resetting’ their ears. These pieces of music will be commercially
released audio that has a good balance of levels and frequencies.
34
Coursework Task | Section C
Coursework Task
Following on with the theme of enhancing music and using your ears, you should now focus on ensuring that your mixes
only include the sound that you want them to include.
It’s very easy to record some audio and have a little background noise become apparent. When you mix together twenty or
thirty tracks of audio that all have a little background noise, it can quickly become distracting and ruin the production.
Therefore, listen to your recordings and where there is background noise, either re-record it or remove it.
In the Grade 4 Coursework Task, you will be presented with some audio which requires cleaning up.
To prepare for this you should practise cleaning up your own recordings. Start by listening critically to what you have
recorded, listen to everything that you can hear in between the instruments playing.
Some things you might want to listen out for:

■■ Little creaks from floor boards
■■ Is the singer breathing particularly close to the microphone?
■■ Is the guitarist tapping his foot on the mic stand?
■■ Is there noise from the air conditioning or fans?
■■ Is a window open letting traffic noise in?
These are just a few examples of what you might experience.
There are two ways you can deal with these problems if you’re unable to re-record the parts.
■■ Noise gates
■■ Manual editing
Each scenario might require a different solution, depending on how intrusive the noise is. Practise using a gate to allow the
wanted signal through while preventing the noise from passing.
If the unwanted noise is too loud, then a better result may be achieved by manually removing the problem areas. Use your
DAW’s editing functions such as select, separate and delete to completely remove the noise. Be careful not to delete any of
the parts you want to keep and you may like to use fade ins and outs to make the transitions a little smoother.
Of course, in an ideal world you would get a good recording the first time around, so be critical of your recording technique
when you are in the studio and always evaluate whether it’s as good as it can be.
Don’t rely on being able to fix it in the mix.
[continued on next page] Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition
35
Coursework Task 60 Marks [60%]

Assets for this task can be found
in the book’s downloadable files
Your client is excited about their new track but their record label has sent it back saying it sounds ‘flat’ and ‘noisy’. You
realise that it needs to be properly mixed to give it a more professional sound. Work your way through each track of the
recording using EQ to remove unwanted frequencies, prevent tracks from masking each other, and try to bring out the
excitement in the performance.
You also notice some noisy ‘hiss’ that needs to be removed from the vocal track before it can be sent back to the label.
Using EQ as well as appropriate techniques such as gating, manual editing and crossfades, work through this repair, get the
track to a useable professional standard and save the file ready to send back to your stressed-out artist.
Once you are happy with the final composition, render it to a stereo WAV/AIF file (16bit / 44.1kHz) and upload, also
include screenshots of the EQ settings you have used labelled for each track so that the client can reproduce them in future
if necessary.
Submission during your exam:
1. Submit a WAV/AIF file (16bit / 44.1kHz) of your finished work

2. Upload a screen shot of your main arrangement view including crossfades, EQ plugins and mixer view
36
Sample Paper
© Evgeny Drablenkov/Shutterstock
The following pages contain examples of the types of questions you will find in the Rockschool Music
Production Grade 4 exam. They give an indication of the content, format, layout and level at this grade.
You will see the sample paper has been split into the same three sections that have been presented earlier in
this workbook:
■■ Part A: Theory
■■ Part B: Listening
■■ Part C: Coursework Task
Please visit www.rslawards.com for detailed information on all Rockschool examinations, including syllabus
specifications, marking schemes and examination entry information.
37
Grade 4 | Sample Paper
Part A: Theory (25%)
Section 1 | Music Production Terminology Total marks for this section: 10
Mark:
Q 1.01 | Which control on a compressor adjusts the level at which the compressor starts to react? 1
Your answer:
Q 1.02 | Which control on a noise gate controls how quickly the gate opens? 1
Your answer:
Q 1.03 | What name is given to any arrangement of three or more speakers, arranged around the listener? 1
Your answer:
Q 1.04 | Which popular surround format uses 8 speakers? 1
Your answer:
Q 1.05 | What name is given to the wireless data transfer system which allows computers, phones and other 1
smart devices to transfer data to each other?
Your answer:
Q 1.06 | What is RF? 1
Your answer:
38
Sample Paper | Grade 4
Q 1.07 | What name is given to the process of copying your files to an additional storage location? 1
Your answer:
Q 1.08 | Why should you backup your audio files? 1
Your answer:
Q 1.09 | What name is given to an optional piece of software which can be added to the signal path in a 1
DAW, offering compression, EQ and other effects?
Your answer:
Q 1.10 | What does AFL stand for? 1
Your answer:
39
Section 2: Sound & Audio Fundamentals Total marks for this section: 10
Mark:
Q 2.01 | Which stereo microphone technique requires two cardioid microphones placed with adjacent 1
capsules at a 90–130 degree angle?
Your answer:
Q 2.02 | Which polar pattern accepts sound equally from all directions? 1
Your answer:
Q 2.03 | What does NLE stand for? 1
Your answer:
Q 2.04 | What name is given to the editing process which makes permanent changes to the original 1
recorded music?
Your answer:
Q 2.05 | What name is given to a type of plugin which enables the user to create sound? 1
Your answer:
Q 2.06 | What is the difference between a software instrument and a soft synth? 1
Your answer:
40
Q 2.07 | What name is given to the process of sending a signal from a compressor for further processing in 1
order to change the way the compressor reacts?
Your answer:
Q 2.08 | What does the key listen function on a gate do? 1
Your answer:
Q 2.09 | How does sound move through the air? 1
Your answer:
Q 2.10 | What happens to the air in front of a speaker cone when it is moving outwards? 1
Your answer:
41
Section 3: Glossary Total marks for this section: 5
Mark:
Q 3.01 | Which type of connector is used for 8 channels of balanced analogue audio? 1
Your answer:
Q 3.02 | What name is given to the rate at which something vibrates? 1
Your answer:
Q 3.03 | What does MADI stand for? 1
Your answer:
Q 3.04 | What does MS stand for? 1
Your answer:
Q 3.05 | Which manufacturer makes the U87 microphone? 1

Your answer:
42
Part B: Listening (15%)
Section 4: Listening Skills Total marks for this section: 15
Mark:
Q 4.01 | In audio example EXLSG4SF1.wav you will hear two solo instrument recordings. Which one 3
features the heaviest compression use? (Tick one box)
§A
§B
Q 4.02 | In audio example EXLSG4SF2.wav you will hear two full mix recordings. Which one features the 3
heaviest compression use?
(Tick one box)
§A
§B
Q 4.03 | In audio example EXLSG4SF3.wav, which audio clip features compression being controlled by a 3
sidechain? (Tick one box)
§A
§B
Q 4.04 | In audio example EXLSG4H1.mp3 you will hear a melodic phrase played on the piano. Identify 1
whether the phrase is made up of either: (Tick one box)
§ Semitones Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

§ Whole tones
Q 4.05 | In audio example EXLSG4H2.mp3 you will hear a melodic phrase played on the piano. Identify 1
whether the phrase is made up of either: (Tick one box)
§ Semitones
§ Whole tones
43
Q 4.06 | Identify the time signature of the drum groove in audio example EXLSG4R1.mp3: (Tick one box) 1
§d
§f
§W
Q 4.07 | Identify the time signature of the drum groove in audio example EXLSG4R2.mp3: (Tick one box) 1
§d
§f
§W
Q 4.08 | In which genre would you classify audio example EXLSG4SA1.mp3? (Tick one box) 2
§ Country
§ Pop
§ Funk
§ Blues
44
Part C: Coursework Task (60%)
Section 5: Coursework Task Total marks for this section: 60

15
Mark:
Q 5.01 | Bring your coursework task and screen shots to your exam – you will be asked to upload these 60
during the exam. There will also be a number of questions for you to answer regarding the task.
These will focus on:
■■ The skills used to complete the task

■■ How you approached the professional nature of the task
■■ How you interpreted the creative elements
45
Glossary
1/4" Jack
A kind of jack connector with a diameter of approximately 1/4”.
2.1 Sound
An audio format which uses the traditional left and right of stereo but adds a subwoofer. The subwoofer does not have
its own discrete channel, but rather is fed the lower frequencies of the left and right signal via a crossover.
3.5mm Jack
Also known as mini-jack. A kind of jack connector with a diameter of approximately 3.5mm. Most commonly used by
consumer headphones.
5.1 Surround Sound

A surround sound format which uses 6 speakers: left, centre, right, left surround, right surround and subwoofer.
7.1 Surround Sound

A surround sound format which uses 8 speakers: left, centre, right, left surround, right surround, left back surround,
right back surround and subwoofer.
AB
A stereo microphone technique where two omnidirectional microphones are placed apart from each other, adhering to
the 3:1 rule. This technique provides a very wide stereo image.
Ableton Live
A digital audio workstation which is very popular with electronic musicians due to its focus on real time interaction.
Acoustic Instrument
A musical instrument which creates sound without the need for electrical power. For example, an acoustic guitar, drum
or piano.
ADAT Lightpipe
An optical digital data transfer connection capable of transferring 8 channels of high quality audio at once.
AFL
An initialism of ‘after fade listen’, used to solo a channel after the fader.
.aif
A file suffix (also known as .aiff) used for AIFF files.
AIFF
An acronym of ‘audio interchange file format’. This file format is considered high quality as it is a lossless format. It has
largely been superseded by Wav in the interest of compatibility.
AKG C1000
A rugged condenser microphone, often used in live situations to amplify drum kits.
46
Glossary
AKG C414
A high quality large diaphragm condenser microphone with a switchable polar pattern, mainly used in studio situations
for instruments such as acoustic guitars, pianos and vocals.
AKG C451 \ AKG C451B

A small condenser microphone with good balance between quality and price. Often used for stereo miking acoustic
guitars or drum kits.
AKG D112
An industry standard dynamic microphone most commonly used for recording kick drums.
Amp/Amplifier
An electrical or electronic device which increases the amplitude of a signal.
Analogue
Constantly varying. Refers to audio devices which are not digital.
App Store
An abbreviation of ‘application store’, an online cloud based service which provides access to new applications. Many
software companies use an application store, such as Apple, Microsoft and Google.
Arrange Window
The main area of a DAW which enables the user to organise and edit audio clips.
Artist Manager
The person or company who looks after the interests of the artist. This might include negotiating their contracts,
managing finances, organising transport and other logistics or managing their diary to ensure they are in the right place
at the right time.
Attenuate
To make quieter.
Audio File

An audio recording in digital format, most commonly on a computer system.
Audio Interface
The computer peripheral which enables the user to input and output audio from a computer, converting the analogue
sound into digital when recording and the digital back into audio when played back.
Audio Track
A type of channel in a DAW which is used for recording or playing back audio files.
Automation Track/Lane
A type of channel view in a DAW which shows the automation recorded to that channel. In most DAWs the automation
is overlayed on top of the recorded audio or other channel content.
47
Glossary
Aux
An abbreviation of ‘auxiliary’.
Auxiliary
This refers to the function of a mixing desk which can send part of a signal in a channel to an additional destination.
Often used for sending a varying amount of signal to a reverb or other effects.
Auxiliary Track
A type of channel in a DAW which is used purely for routing and processing audio.
Backup
A copy of the materials from a project created to ensure that nothing is lost if the originals are damaged.
Bandwidth
The range of audio frequencies which directly influence the fidelity of a sound.
Bass Guitar
A kind of guitar with a register that is one octave below a traditionally pitched guitar. In its most common 4-string
format, the pitching mirrors the lowest four strings of a traditional guitar.
Bluetooth
A wireless connection technology, mainly used for consumer peripherals such as connecting mice or keyboards to
computers or connecting mobile telephones to handsfree devices.
Boost
To raise the level of an audio signal or part of an audio signal in the case of equalisation.
Bounce
The creation of a new mix file from the audible elements of a session.
Cable
A wire which connects two devices, normally coated in rubber or plastic for durability.
.caf
A file suffix used for CAF files.
CAF
An acronym of ‘core audio format’. This is a file format developed by Apple, to enable users to create large file sizes for
example, long audio recordings.
Cardioid
A microphone polar pattern. Cardioid pattern mics are most sensitive to sounds in front of the mic, rejecting sounds
from the rear.
48
Glossary
CD
An abbreviation of ‘compact disc’.
CD-ROM
An acronym of ‘compact disc read only memory’. CDs can store both audio for playback on consumer CD players or
data for retrieval by computers using a CD-ROM drive.
Cello
A wooden stringed-instrument with four tuned strings. Commonly used in classical music as well as many other genres.
It is larger than a viola, giving it a deeper sound and lower pitch.
Channel (MIDI)
One of 16 different paths of data that can be used to carry MIDI messages.
Channel (Mixing Desk)

A default signal path through a mixing desk. A mixing desk will have a set number of channels, each of which will be
numbered.
Chord
A musical collection of notes played at the same time to form harmony.
Chord Progression
A sequence of chords.
Chrome
An internet browser created and developed by Google.
Coincident Pair
A type of XY stereo microphone technique where the capsules are as close together as possible.
Collaboration
A method of working which involves working with others with the shared goal of achieving something greater than what
may have been achieved in isolation.

Compact Disc
An optical digital audio medium used for sharing music. Compact disc was the largest selling music medium from the
late 80’s to early 2000s and remains widely used. A CD can hold 74 minutes of stereo audio or up to 700MB of data.
Compressor
An audio device which reduces the dynamic range of a signal.
Computer
The hardware which hosts the DAW software, typically an Apple Macintosh or Windows PC.
49
Glossary
Computer Keyboard
A computer peripheral used for entering letters into a computer. It can also be used with certain software applications to
trigger shortcut functions.
Condenser
A microphone design which uses a capacitor and requires 48v phantom power. Achieves a crisp and clear sound.
Console
Also known as mixing desk or mixing console.
Contrabass
It is larger than a cello, giving it a deeper sound and lower pitch. It is commonly transposed up an octave due to the
notes it is capable of, requiring excessive ledger lines making it difficult to read.
Control Room
The part of a recording studio where the sound engineer will operate the equipment such as the mixing desk.
Controller Keyboard
An emulation of the piano which is unable to generate sounds on its own. It will generally be MIDI enabled so will use
the MIDI protocol to trigger sounds on a synthesiser.
Copy
A computer software function, common to most software which takes a selected proportion and copies it to the
clipboard (RAM).
CPU
An abbreviation of ‘central processing unit’. A silicon chip that performs calculations and acts as the ‘brain’ of a
computer.
Crossover
An electronic device which divides up the frequency spectrum so that the different frequency ranges can be sent to
different speakers. For example, a tweeter for high frequencies and woofer for lower frequencies.
Cubase
A digital audio workstation (DAW) created and developed by Steinberg.
Cut
Another name used for mute, used to silence signal paths on a mixing desk, e.g. channel or auxiliaries. Also used to refer
to a reduction in level when using equalisation.
Cut
A computer software function, common to most software which takes a selected proportion and copies it to the
clipboard (RAM) while simultaneously deleting it from its original location.
50
Glossary
D-Sub
A kind of connector used in computing and audio applications which has multiple pins. There are numerous sizes,
the most common of which in audio technology would be the DB-25 which has twenty five pins capable of carrying 8
channels of balanced analogue audio (either 8 in one direction or 4 in and 4 out). It may also be used in digital audio
applications using the TDIF standard.
DAT
An abbreviation of ‘digital audio tape’.
DAW
An abbreviation of ‘digital audio workstation’.
De-esser
A device which is used to balance out the sibilance in a performance. It combines a compressor and EQ in one device.
The EQ is used to boost the sibilant frequencies of the input (normally a vocal) which causes the compressor to
compress these frequencies more than the others.
Delete
A computer software function, common to most software which removes a selected portion.
Destructive Editing
The editing of an original file or recording which cannot be undone.
Digital
A digital device uses binary to function.
Digital Audio
Audio recorded to a digital device such as a computer.
Digital Audio Tape

A linear medium which uses tape to record sound as digital data. Introduced in 1987, it was once the industry standard
for recording final mixes before sending to be duplicated.

Digital Audio Workstation
Music production software for recording and editing MIDI and audio data. Examples include Cubase, Logic, Pro Tools,
Garageband and Ableton Live. The DAW can be used for recording audio, editing audio, cutting up and rearranging
audio recordings and loops, mixing, creating MP3 files and many other functions.
DIN
A five pin plug or socket, most commonly used by MIDI devices but can also carry audio when connected to audio
devices.
Distortion
When the maximum sound level of an analogue device is exceeded. Unlike digital clipping, analogue distortion can be
appealing for example, when overloading a guitar amplifier.
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Glossary
DJ
A performer who plays back pre-recorded material, crossfading between tracks. A modern DJ may also create content of
his own for playback and interact with the music.
Drum Editor
A piano roll style DAW editor but tuned to enable easier drum editing.
Drum Kit
A rhythmic instrument commonly used in modern music featuring a combination of drums and cymbals.
Drum Machine
A hardware device or software instrument used to create drum patterns.
Duck
When the duck function is active, the signal arriving at the key input causes the signal at the input to lower in level.
Duplicate
A computer software function, common to most software which takes a selected portion and replicates it immediately
after the original instance.
DVD
An initialism of ‘digital versatile disc’. An optical format much like a CD but with far greater storage capacity. This made
it the standard for consumer video playback.
DVD-ROM
DVDs can be used to store video content for playback on consumer DVD players or data which can be retrieved by
computer systems using a DVD-ROM drive. This is a cost effective medium for sharing large session files with others if a
network transfer isn’t practical.
Dynamic
A microphone design which uses electro-magnetism to convert acoustic energy into electrical energy.
Dynamics
The variation in perceived level of a mix.
Ear
The part of the human body which enables us to hear sound. It converts acoustic energy into electrical nerve impulses
for the brain to interpret as audio.
Editing
The process of altering the arrangement of recorded audio or MIDI data in order to composite a more favourable
version.
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Glossary
Electric Guitar
A guitar which uses an electromagnetic pickup to convert the vibrations in the strings to waves of electricity which is
then amplified to create sound.
Electrical Sound Source

A source of sound which is created through electrical means for example, a synthesiser.
Electrostatic
Another name given to a condenser or capacitor microphone.
Emulation
The effect of recreating something analogue in the digital domain. For example, a software instrument piano is an
emulation of a real piano.
EQ
An abbreviation of ‘equaliser’, a function which alters the tone of the input signal.
Equalisation
The process of changing the frequency content, tone or timbre of an audio signal.
Ethernet
The name given to the networking standards of LAN devices. It most commonly uses an RJ45 cable.
Event Editor
A DAW editor window which enables the editing of individual MIDI events using text.
Expander
An audio device which works much like the opposite of a compressor, in that it increases the dynamic range of a signal
so that the quiet signals are made even quieter. It can be used instead of a gate to achieve a more natural effect.
Fade In
To gradually increase an audio signal from nothing to its normal level.
Fade Out Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

To gradually reduce the level of a signal until it disappears.
Fader
The component on a mixing desk which adjusts the channel level. Faders are also emulated in DAWs.
Finder
The area of the Apple OSX operating system which enables users to organise files and folders.
Firefox
An internet browser created and developed by Mozilla.
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Glossary
Firewire
A peripheral connection with two different versions available; Firewire 400 and 800. The number represents the speed in
Mbps. It may also be referred to as IEEE 1394.
FL Studio
A digital audio workstation, originally called ‘Fruity Loops’ but renamed as it grew more popular. Created and developed
by Image-Line.
Frequency
The rate at which something vibrates, measured in cycles per second (Hertz/Hz). In sound, the higher the frequency of a
sound wave then the higher the pitch that we hear.
Fundamental Frequency
The core frequency within a sound which determines its musical pitch.
Gain
A function of an amplifier circuit which makes the signal louder. Among other places you will find it at the input stage of
a mixing desk channel to control how much signal is entering the console.
Garageband
An entry level digital audio workstation, created and developed by Apple. Currently supplied free with every new Apple
Macintosh computer.
Gate
An audio device which helps to remove unwanted signals below a certain threshold for example, to remove the sound of
the cymbals from a snare microphone.
Graphic Equaliser
A type of equaliser which divides the frequency spectrum into bands, typically by octaves or 1/3rd of an octave.
Guitar Pickup
The component of a guitar which converts the vibration of the string into electrical energy using an electromagnetic
field.
Hard Disk
Also referred to as ‘hard drive’ or ‘hard disk drive’. This is the local storage in a computer system where files are saved to
be retained after the computer has been switched off.
Hard Drive
Also referred to as ‘hard disk’ or ‘hard disk drive’. This is the local storage in a computer system, where files are saved to
be retained after the computer has been switched off.
HDD
An initialism of ‘hard disk drive’.
54
Glossary
Headphone
A portable pair of speakers which can be worn on the head.
Headphone Volume
The function on a device which alters the volume specific to the headphones. This control would be independent of the
volume sent to the main monitor speakers in a studio.
Hertz
The unit of frequency, cycles per second, abbreviated ‘Hz’.
High Fidelity
High quality audio.
High Pass Filter

A type of equalisation which allows the engineer to remove all frequencies below a defined frequency allowing the
higher frequencies to pass.
High Shelf
A type of equalisation which allows the engineer to boost or cut all frequencies above a set frequency.
HPF
An initialism of ‘high pass filter’.
Hz
An abbreviation of ‘hertz’.
Internet
The global system of connected computers which use a standard communication protocol.
Internet Explorer
An internet browser created and developed by Microsoft.

iTunes
An application created and developed by Apple for purchasing, organising and listening to music files. It can also be
used for managing the content on Apple’s smart devices such as iPhones, iPods and iPads and stream content to Apple
TVs.
iTunes Store
Apple’s online music and multimedia purchasing/rental service. Music, film and TV shows can be purchased/rented and
downloaded immediately. The user will be required to set up an Apple ID.
Jack Connector
A male connector commonly used in patch bays, line level equipment and guitar connections.
55
Glossary
Key Input
An input on a gate or expander. The gate or expander uses the key input as its trigger, making it possible to have
the gate react to something other than the signal that is being processed. For example, you could have a synth pad
playing through the gate with a hi-hat fed into the key input, meaning that the synth would only be heard when the
hi-hat is played.
Keyboard
An electronic version of a piano, regarded as an artificial sound source as it requires a synthesiser to make sound.
Knee
A function of a compressor which determines how severely the dynamics of a signal are affected when they exceed the
threshold.
Launchpad
A part of the Apple OSX operating system which provides a shortcut to all the installed applications.
Layering
Recording additional parts over the top of existing parts so that they sound like one part when they are mixed together.
For example, a string section playing the same melody as a piano.
LCD
An initialism of ‘liquid crystal display’. Most commonly found as small screens.
Level
The absolute volume of an audio signal in electrical terms.
LFE
An initialism of ‘low frequency effects’ which refers to the subwoofer used in surround systems.
Limiter
A type of compressor which reduces the dynamic range drastically using a very high ratio above the set threshold.
Line Input
Used for connecting line level devices, such as synthesisers or outboard equipment.
Linear Editing
The historical editing process which involved cutting tape in order to make edits. This was very limiting and has since
been superseded by non-linear editing.
Live Room
The part of a recording studio where the performance takes place and microphones are used to record.
Lo-Fi
An abbreviation of ‘low fidelity’. Sometimes used for creative effect.
56
Glossary
Logic Pro
A digital audio workstation, originally created by a company called C-Lab and now owned and developed by Apple.
.logicx
The file suffix for a Logic Pro X session file.
Loop
A repeating pattern of MIDI data or segment of audio.
Low Fidelity
Low quality audio. Sometimes used for creative effect.
Low Pass Filter

A type of equalisation which allows the engineer to remove all frequencies above a defined frequency, allowing the lower
frequencies to pass.
Low Shelf
A type of equalisation which allows the engineer to boost or cut all frequencies below a set frequency.
LPF
An initialism of ‘low pass filter’.
MADI
An acronym of ‘multichannel audio digital interface’. A high quality digital audio transfer protocol which is capable of
carrying up to 64 channels of audio and at samples rates of up to 96kHz. You are unlikely to find this level of technology
in a home studio but far more likely in a professional studio or in high end location recording.
Marker
A way of labeling time or arrangement locations in a DAW project for example, verse 1, chorus, middle 8 etc.
Memory Stick
A term used to describe a USB flash based storage device. The term memory stick was initially used by Sony, but has
since become a term used for all such devices.

Metronome
A device which emits a regular click in time with the tempo and time signature.
Microphone
A transducer which converts acoustic sound into electrical signal.
Mid-Side
A stereo microphone technique where a figure of 8 microphone is placed at 90 degrees to a cardioid. The figure of 8
microphone is used to collect left and right while the cardioid is focused on the subject. The figure of 8 microphone’s
signal is split, panned left and right with one side phase inverted. As the left and right will then be canceled out when
summed to mono, this makes the technique very good for mono compatibility without requiring remixing.
57
Glossary
MIDI
An acronym of ‘musical instrument digital interface’. The protocol used to transmit and receive musical information
between MIDI devices. This could be used for many purposes, including triggering notes on a synthesiser and adjusting
settings on an effects processor.
MIDI In
The MIDI input connector of a device.
MIDI Interface
A device which enables MIDI devices to be connected to a computer. Some MIDI devices now use USB to avoid the
need for a MIDI interface.
MIDI Keyboard
A piano like electronic device for triggering a MIDI synthesiser or recording into a DAW.
MIDI Merge
A device which combines the MIDI output of two devices into one input of another.
MIDI Message
An instruction sent between MIDI devices for control purposes.
MIDI Out
The MIDI output connector of a device.
MIDI Port
A female MIDI connector on a MIDI device which enables connection to other MIDI devices using a MIDI cable. Ports
include ‘in’, ‘out’ and ‘thru’.
MIDI Thru
A MIDI connector which enables MIDI devices to be chained together. All data that arrives at the MIDI input of the
device is replicated at the MIDI thru port for passing on to the next device.
MIDI Track
A type of channel in a DAW which is used for recording and playing back MIDI data. It creates no sound in itself and
requires its output to be routed to a MIDI synthesiser or software instrument on a different channel.
Mini Jack
Also known as 3.5mm jack. A kind of jack connector with a diameter of approximately 3.5mm. Most commonly used by
consumer headphones.
Minidisc
An evolution of the CD which housed the optical disc inside a plastic case making it smaller and more durable.
Mix
The version of a recording which features all the required recorded elements balanced together coherently.
58
Glossary
Mix Window
An area of a DAW which enables the user to balance the levels of the recorded sounds.
Mixer
The device in a recording studio which acts as the central hub, altering the audio signal or directing it to different
locations. Also referred to as mixing desk or mixing console.
Mixing
The process of balancing the relative level of the recorded audio tracks. The ideal result being a coherent and well-
balanced sound.
Mixing Desk
The device in a recording studio which acts as the central hub, altering the audio signal or directing it to different
locations.
Monaural
A single channel of audio.
Monitor Display
The visual interface of a computer system.
Monitor Speaker
The main set of speakers that the sound engineer will use to listen to their mix in the studio.
Mono
An abbreviation of ‘monaural’.
Mouse
A common computer peripheral used to control the pointer on screen.
MP3
An abbreviation of ‘mpeg-2 audio layer 3’. A lossy compressed audio format which has a smaller file size than a WAV file.
Their combination of small file size and acceptable audio quality have made them very popular with consumers.

MS
An initialism of ‘mid-side’.
Mute
The function which silences a device or channel.
My Computer
The area of the Microsoft Windows operating system which enables users to organise files and folders.
59
Glossary
Natural Sound Source

A source of sound which is created through natural means for example, the vibration of a string or drum skin.
Near Coincident Pair

A type of XY stereo microphone technique where the capsules are within 30cm of each other but not immediately next
to each other.
Neumann U87
A very high quality large diaphragm condenser microphone with a switchable polar pattern, it is considered to be an
industry standard in commercial studios, used for vocals, acoustic guitars, pianos and other acoustic instruments.
Noise
Unwanted sound, such as hiss, hum or buzz.
Non-Destructive Editing
The type of editing employed by modern DAW software where the original file is not affected by changes made to it in
the software.
Non-Linear Editing
A non destructive form of editing, as used in modern DAW software.
Note On
A MIDI message which triggers a note to sound.
Octave
12 semitones. One octave up is double the frequency of the starting pitch.
Offline
Any computer action which takes place through local processing.
Operating System
The software installed on a computer which controls its most basic functions such as how it communicates with
peripherals and interacts with other installed software applications. The operating system is the graphic user interface
that the user interacts with.
OSX
An operating system created and developed by Apple which comes preinstalled on all new Apple Macintosh computers.
Outboard Device
Any piece of equipment which is not part of the mixing desk or computer system.
Pan
An abbreviation of ‘panorama’. Commonly referring to the pan pot, a control on a mixing desk or DAW channel which
moves the signal from left to right in the stereo image.
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Glossary
Parameters
Programmable elements of device or system.
Parametric EQ
An accurate form of equalisation where the gain, frequency and Q factor can all be changed.
Paste
A computer software function common to most software which inserts the contents of the clipboard at a chosen
location.
Patch
Settings that have been saved for future recall in hardware devices such as synthesisers or effects units.
Patch Cable
A short cable which is used to make connections on a patch bay. Some guitarists also use patch cables to connect their
pedals together due to their conveniently short length.
Patch Bay
A series of rackmount sockets, which represent every connection in the studio. This makes it possible to connect two
devices together without running cables across the room and overcoming inaccessible rear connections.
Period
One cycle of an oscillation for example, a sound wave.
Peripheral
An external device that can be connected to a computer system to enhance its capabilities, e.g. audio interface, MIDI
interface, keyboard, monitor and mouse.
Personnel
The people involved in a project or task.
PFL
An initialism of ‘pre fade listen’. This enables signal to be sent from a channel independently of the fader level. A

common use of this is for headphone mixes.
Phantom Power
The 48v power supply required by condenser microphones.
Phono Connector
Also known as RCA connector.
Piano
A stringed instrument which uses keys to trigger hammers that strike the strings.
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Glossary
Piano Roll Editor

A DAW editor window which enables the manipulation of MIDI note data which is arranged in a matrix with the piano
keys from top to bottom and time from left to right.
Pitch
A fixed note determined by its fundamental frequency.
Plugin
An optional piece of software which operates within a DAW. Many plugins are supplied with a DAW, however, further
plugins can be purchased from 3rd party manufacturers. There are several formats of plugin, including Audiounit, AAX,
VST and RTAS.
Post-fader
Anything that occurs after the fader in channel signal flow.
Pot
An abbreviation of ‘potentiometer’.
Potentiometer
A variable resistor which exists on mixing consoles in the form of knobs such as gain, EQ and pan.
Pre-fader
Anything which occurs before the fader in chanel signal flow.
Preamp
An amplifier which brings the input signal up to an acceptable operating level for example, the gain stage of a mixing
desk is a microphone preamplifier.
Preset
The memory settings which come pre-installed on a device such as a synthesiser, effects unit, software instrument or
plugin.
Pro Tools
A digital audio workstation, originally created by a company called Digidesign but now owned and developed by Avid.
Producer
The person who leads a music recording project, quite often making creative decisions and managing budgets where
applicable. It is the producer’s responsibility to ensure a project runs to time.
Programme Change Message

A MIDI message which instructs a device to switch between stored programmes.
Promoter
The person or company who is responsible for ensuring live performances are advertised to the public and other
organisations such as the press.
62
Glossary
.ptx
The file suffix of a Pro Tools session file.
Punch In/Out
The function of a recording device to enable and disable recording during playback, enabling small sections to be
recorded over.
Q
An abbreviation of ‘quality’. A function of parametric EQ which adjusts the accuracy of the frequency band which is
being affected, a high Q is more accurate, a low Q affects a wider frequency band.
Quadraphonic Sound
Also referred to as 4.0 surround. An early surround sound format which uses four speakers located in the corners of the
room.
Quantisation
An automatic MIDI editing process which shifts the start of notes onto the selected beat, e.g. the closest 1/4 note, 8th
note etc.
RAM
An acronym of ‘random access memory’, short term storage in a computer system which is cleared on restart.
Ratio
The control on a compressor or expander with controls how much compression or expansion is applied.
RCA Connector
Also referred to as a phono connector. An unbalanced connection most commonly used in consumer hi-fi equipment.
Real Time
Processing that is applied in the same amount of time as it takes to play back the affected audio.
Record Decks
A playback device for the vinyl format. Used by DJs normally in pairs with a DJ mixer to crossfade between playback

from each.
Recording
The process of capturing real-world audio and storing it on a physical medium.
Recording Studio
A room or complex of rooms which is used to record sound.
Release (Dynamic Processing)

The time it takes for the dynamic processor to recover to normal.
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Glossary
RF
An initialism of ‘radio frequency’.
ROM
An acronym of ‘read only memory’. An area of computer storage which can only be read from and can not be
overwritten.
Routing
A function, commonly found on mixing desks which enables the user to set the signal path. For example, you could
route a microphone signal to the input of the DAW.
Sample Editor
An area of a DAW which enables the user to edit an audio clip in detail.
Sampler
A hardware or software device which can record and manipulate short audio clips and trigger them using MIDI note
messages. Samplers are also emulated in software instrument plugins.
Sampling
The process of converting acoustic audio into digital audio by measuring the waveform amplitude at set time intervals.
Save
To retain any work in progress. In a DAW this would be the generation of a ‘session’ file.
Score Editor
A DAW editor window which enables the user to input or edit musical notation.
Semi-Parametric EQ
A simplified version of a parametric EQ where there is no Q control, just gain and frequency.
Sennheiser MD421
A high quality dynamic microphone, often used for recording guitar amplifiers and toms.
Sequencer
A legacy name for a digital audio workstation referring to the sequencing of audio or MIDI regions in the arrange page.
Session File
A DAW saved file which will often also require additional assets such as audio files.
Shelving
A kind of equaliser which affects all frequencies above (hi-shelf) or below (lo-shelf) a specified frequency.
64
Glossary
Shortcut Function
Software applications use combinations of key presses on a computer keyboard to trigger certain actions. Some are
standardised for example, Command-S on a Macintosh is the shortcut to save in all applications, the equivalent being
Control-S on a Windows PC.
Shure SM57
A rugged dynamic microphone, similar to the SM58 but without the mesh protection. Commonly used for recording
guitar amps and close miking drum kits.
Shure SM58
A rugged dynamic microphone, most commonly used for vocals in live performances.
Sidechain
An insert loop on a compressor which can be used to send the signal for processing. The signal received at the sidechain
return is used as the trigger for the compressor. This makes it possible to make the compressor react in a different way,
perhaps to certain frequencies more than others, as in the case of de-essing.
Sine Wave
A basic waveform with constant amplitude and consistent frequency.
Soft Synth
An abbreviation of ‘software synthesiser’. A software version of a synthesiser, a software instrument plugin.
Software Instrument
An optional piece of software which operates within a DAW as a synthesiser of various kinds of instrument. Many
software instruments are supplied with a DAW, however, further instruments can be purchased from 3rd party
manufacturers.
Software Instrument Track

A type of channel in a DAW which is a hybrid between audio and MIDI. It has an audio output which responds to MIDI
input by triggering a software instrument added to one of the plugin slots.
Solid State Drive

An evolution of the hard disk drive, which uses solid state technology to save the files rather than using physical
magnetic disk plates. This makes the drive less prone to damage and enables faster data transfer rates.
Solo
A function of a mixing desk and DAW which enables the sound engineer to listen to channels in isolation.
Song
A piece of music, composed and arranged.
Sound Engineer
The person who is primarily in control of the equipment and aims to achieve the best quality of sound possible. They
would work under direction from the producer.
65
Glossary
Spaced Omni
Another name for the AB microphone technique.
SPDIF
An acronym of ‘Sony Philips digital interface’. This is a audio data transfer protocol used over short distances to make
a single stereo connection between two devices. In most cases it will use an RCA connector, however, it can also use an
optical TOSLINK connection.
Speaker
The device which converts electrical energy into acoustic energy, i.e. the opposite of a microphone.
Speakon
A cable connector created by Neutrik, used most commonly for connecting amplifiers and speakers in PA systems.
Spill
Unwanted sound that enters a microphone for example, spill from the headphones on a vocalist or spill from the
cymbals on a snare microphone.
Spotify
An online music streaming service which has a free subscription with advertising or for a monthly subscription the user
can bypass advertising and obtain additional functionality.
SSD
An initialism of ‘solid state drive’.
Standard MIDI File

A standard format for saving MIDI data for sharing between devices. There are two kinds, type 1 (multiple tracks of
MIDI) and type 0 (a single track of MIDI).
Status Byte
An initial message sent to a MIDI device which identifies its purpose.
Step Sequencing
Recording MIDI into a sequencer or DAW one note at a time without needing to keep up with the tempo.
Stereo
A realistic sounding format for audio which uses two channels to emulate the feeling of space around a sound.
Stringed Instrument
An instrument which generates its sound from the resonation of a pitched string.
Strings
A collective term used for stringed instruments, most commonly referring to bowed instruments such as violin, viola,
cello and contrabass.
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Glossary
Studio Assistant
The person in the studio who assists the sound engineer for example, setting up microphones or operating the patch bay.
Studio One
A digital audio workstation created and developed by Presonus.
Studio Runner
The person in the studio whose role it is to ensure that everyone has what they need during a recording session. They
might be tasked with fetching equipment or making tea.
Subwoofer
A speaker which is designed to produce very low frequencies, often referred to as the ‘.1’ in surround formats, i.e. 5.1,
7.1.
Surround Sound
An audio format which uses more than two speakers arranged around the listener to provide a more realistic
environment.
Sustain Pedal
A MIDI controller used to emulate the sustain pedal of a piano. When the sustain pedal is held, any notes that are played
will continue to sound beyond the release of the key/note off message.
Sweep EQ
Another name for the mid band of a semi parametric EQ.
Synth
An abbreviation of ‘synthesiser’.
Synthesiser
An electronic device which generates sound. This may be original sound, designed for its own tone and timbre or it may
be to emulate acoustic instruments such as piano and drums.
System Preferences

The part of an operating system that enables the user to optimise the computer for the required purpose such as audio
recording.
Tape / Magnetic Tape

A linear magnetic medium used to record sound and music. It is now rarely used due to its inconvenience and expense
but many engineers still maintain that it sounds better than the digital equivalents.
TDIF
An abbreviation of ‘Tascam digital audio interface’ named after its founding company. Initially a standard for connecting
Tascam digital tape machines, it has also been adopted by other manufacturers to connect digital mixing desks and other
multichannel devices. The technology has since been superseded by MADI and ethernet based standards.
67
Glossary
Template
Predefined settings which enable the user to get started more quickly.
Threshold
The control on a compressor, expander or gate which defines the sound level at which the device will react.
Thunderbolt
A peripheral connection which is capable of very high data transfer rates. There are three versions available with
Thunderbolt 3 being capable of 40Gbps.
Timbre
The tonal colour of a sound.
Time Machine
A component of the OSX operating system which enables automatic backup of data stored on that computer or any
connected hard drives. Individual files can easily be retrieved if needed.
TOSLINK
An acronym of ‘Toshiba link’, named after its founding company. It uses the same connector as ADAT lightpipe to
connect two digital audio devices, using the SPDIF protocol to transfer the data. This is most common on consumer
hi-fi equipment for example, connecting a CD player to an amplifier.
Track
An individual element of recording or recorded material such as a vocal or guitar. When working with more than one
track, it is referred to as ‘multi tracking’. A track is different to a channel.
Track Pad
An alternative to a mouse which is useful in small spaces. Commonly found on laptop computers but also available as a
peripheral.
Trackball
An alternative to a mouse which uses a ball on the top for control of the pointer. Sometimes preferred by sound
engineers due to it remaining static on the work surface.
Transducer
A device which converts one kind of energy into another for example, acoustic energy into electrical energy in the case
of a microphone.
Transport
The controls of a DAW which enable the user to play, stop, pause, fast forward, rewind and record.
Trim
Another name for the gain stage of a mixing desk, except that trim can also be used to reduce the level of the input.
68
Glossary
Trombone
A brass instrument which uses a telescopic slide to alter the note. Commonly used in classical music among many other
genres.
Trumpet
A brass instrument with three valves, the highest register in the family of instruments. Commonly used in jazz and
classical music, among many other genres.
Tweeter
A speaker which is designed to produce higher frequencies.
Unity Gain
When the output of an audio circuit is at the exact same level as the input level, i.e. when a fader is at zero on a
mixing desk.
USB
An initialism of ‘universal serial bus’. A standard peripheral connection used on both PCs and Macs. Three versions are
available with varying speeds. USB3 is the fastest at the time of going to print with a data transfer rate of 480 megabits
per second.
Vinyl Record
A flat circular piece of vinyl with grooves cut into it. A record player needle sits in the groove as it rotates, the vibrations
in the needles are amplified to playback the recorded sound, making it an analogue medium.
Viola
It is slightly larger than a violin, giving it a deeper sound.
Violin
Voice
A natural sound source created from air (breath) passing over the vocal cords in the throat.
.wav Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

A file suffix used for Wav files.
Wav
An abbreviation of ‘waveform’. Wav files are the industry standard digital audio file format. They are considered high
quality as they are a lossless format.
Waveform
The visual representation of an audio wave, as seen in the DAW arrange page or sample editor.
69
Glossary
Wi-Fi
Also known a WLAN.
Windows
An operating system created and developed by Microsoft. There are numerous versions including Windows XP,
Windows Vista, Windows 7, Windows 8 and Windows 10.
WLAN
An acronym of ‘wireless local area network’. A wireless connection to a local network.
Woofer
A speaker which is designed to produce lower frequencies.
World Wide Web

The content that is stored and accessed via the internet.
XLR Connector
A balanced connection used in most professional level equipment. The standard connection for microphones. Also
referred to as a cannon connector.
XY
A stereo microphone technique where two cardioid microphones are placed at an angle of 90–135 degrees of each other,
with the capsules as close as possible (coincident) or within 30cm of each other (near coincident).
Youtube
An online video streaming service provided by Google.
70
Useful Information (Non-assessed)
Organisation & Management

The music industry is a competitive one to be a part of which means you need to be good, cost effective and reliable
to others.
So when selling your services to others, whether that be as a sound engineer, producer or songwriter, it’s important to be
clear on what you can provide, for how much money and in what timescale. This is called expectation management and is
not specific to the music industry.
Once everyone is clear what is expected and have agreed the terms then a contract can be drawn up that everyone signs.
Another concept which is also not specific to the music industry is ‘job creep’. If you explain this concept to anyone in any
industry, they will almost certainly be able to identify with it.
This is where the expectations aren’t clear, leaving them open to interpretation. The person who is receiving the service from
you may ask to change what is expected after you have started work. The conversation will normally start with “Could you
just…” followed by an extra piece of work that they expect you to do.
If you are able to do this and you’re happy that it doesn’t require more time or money and will improve the result, then it’s
normally a good idea to grant the request. However, if the request results in you missing the deadline because it takes you
more time to complete, then further discussion needs to take place to agree new terms.
71
Image Copyright Information
Images listed by page, left to right, top to bottom.
p.9
© Alesis, inMusic Brands, inc.
p.10
© Universal Audio Inc.
p.11
© Drawmer Electronics Ltd.
p.18
© Shure Incorporated
© AKG by Harman
p.19
© Sennheiser Electronic GMBH & Co.
© Audio-Technica Corporation
p.23
© Nick Watson / Fluid Mastering
Additional vector technical illustrations by Simon Troup

© 2016 Rockschool/RSL
72

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Music

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Published by Rockschool Ltd. © 2016, 2018

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DISTRIBUTOR DISTRIBUTION | EUROPE DISTRIBUTION | AUSTRALIA

Introductions & Information

Section A | Music Production Theory

Section B | Listening Skills

Section C | Coursework Task

37 Rockschool Music Production Grade 4 Exam – Sample Paper

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

■■ Blockbuster movie soundtracks

Nik Preston – Head of Product Development and Publishing

■■ Music Production Theory

You will need to input this code when prompted: C98NGTSPUV

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

MUSIC PRODUCTION GRADES 1–8

ELEMENT Pass Merit Distinction

TOTAL MARKS 60%+ 75%+ 85%+

SECTION (Current section highlighted) MARKS

> Theoretical Written Exam 25 [25%]

Listening Test 15 [15%]

Coursework Task 60 [60%]

■■ Music Production Terminology

Music Production Terminology

The controls you will find on a compressor are:

Input Level (dB)

Input Level (dB)

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

The controls you will find on a limiter are:

Here are the controls you will find on a gate:

4.0 Quadraphonic Sound

5.1 Surround Sound

The standard channels of a 5.1 surround system are:

The speakers are arranged in the room as follows:

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

7.1 Surround Sound

The standard channels featured in 7.1 surround sound system are:

The speakers are arranged in the room as follows:

Wi-Fi is currently broadcast at two radio frequencies:

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

Plugins can be split into two areas:

Here are some examples of plugin formats:

There are three types of solo function:

After Fade Listen (AFL)

Solo In Place (SIP)

Sound and Audio Fundamentals

The most common polar patterns are:

270° 90° 270° 90°

Example Omnidirectional Microphone: Example Figure of 8 Microphone:

270° 90° 270° 90°

Example Cardioid Microphone: Example Hypercardioid Microphone:

Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

12 ft Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

Left Mic Right Mic Right Left

Mid-Side (also known as MS)

Digital Audio Workstations

Nonlinear Editing (NLE)

Destructive Editing Music Production Grade 4 | Coursework Edition

Sidechains & Key Inputs