RSK200088

Music
PRODUCTION
COURSEWORK EDITION
Grade 8
All accompanying and supporting audio can be downloaded from: www.rslawards.com/downloads
Input the following code when prompted: N8WM76WSLC
For more information, turn to page 5
Cover Artist: Diplo
www.rslawards.com
Acknowledgements
Published by Rockschool Ltd. © 2016, 2018

Catalogue Number: RSK200088
ISBN: 978-1-78936-044-8
Initial Release | Errata details can be found at www.rslawards.com
SYLLABUS
Syllabus revised by Tim Bennett-Hart
Syllabus authoring by Ash Preston, Antony Greaves, Nik Preston and Max Wheeler
Syllabus advisors: Joe Rubel, Chad Jackson, Sam Vasanth and Hannah V
Edited by Simon Troup, Abbie Thomas, Zoe Woodroffe, Nik Preston and Grace Roberts
PUBLISHING
Cover design and artwork: Phil Millard
Original illustrations: Simon Troup
Typesetting and design: Simon Troup and Jennie Troup
Front cover photography: Diplo by Jack Vartoogian © Getty/Archive
AUDIO
Audio composition: Ash Preston and Max Wheeler
Audio mixing and mastering: Ash Preston
EXECUTIVE PRODUCERS
Norton York
John Simpson
IMAGES & ILLUSTRATIONS

Copyright info and credits for images and illustrations can be found below the image or in the image rights summary at the
back of the book.
SPECIAL THANKS
Ableton, Alesis, Apple, Audio-Technica, Avid, Drawmer, Fluid Mastering, Magix (Sequoia), Merging (Pyramix), Miditech,
MOTU, Neumann, Prismsound (SADiE), RME, RØDE, Samson Technologies, Sennheiser, Shure, Sound Technology,
Steinberg, TL Audio and Universal Audio.
PRINTING
Printed and bound in the United Kingdom by Caligraving Ltd.
CONTACT
RSL, Harlequin House, Ground Floor, 7 High Street, Teddington, Middlesex, TW11 8EE
Music Production Grade 8 | Coursework Edition
Tel: +44 (0)345 460 4747

Web: www.rslawards.com
Email: info@rslawards.com
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2
Table of Contents
Introductions & Information
1 Title Page
2 Acknowledgements
3 Table of Contents
4 Welcome to Music Production – Grade 8
6 Entering Rockschool Exams
6 Marking Scheme
Section A | Music Production Theory
7 Summary
8 Music Production Terminology
13 Sound and Audio Fundamentals
Section B | Listening Skills
27 Summary
28 Sonic Fidelity
29 Music Theory & Harmony
33 Stylistic Awareness
Section C | Coursework Task
35 Summary
36 Technical Skills
37 Coursework Task
Sample Paper
41 Rockschool Music Production Grade 8 Exam – Sample Paper
Additional Information

50 Glossary
88 Useful Information (Non-assessed)
89 Image Copyright Information
90 Rockschool Popular Music Theory
92 Rockschool Digital Downloads
3
Welcome to Music Production – Grade 8
1991 saw a paradigm shift in UK music education with the inception of Rockschool graded syllabi and now, some
25 years later, over 350,000 contemporary musicians, performers and artists have been awarded Rockschool qualifications.
Subsequently, contemporary music education provision has seen universal acceptance from all areas of education and truly
phenomenal growth the world over.
In keeping with our history of innovation, Rockschool’s 25 year anniversary sees the release of the world’s first ever music
production graded syllabus. A syllabus that has been devised to afford opportunities to all aspiring producers, engineers,
composers and performers that has not previously been available in an accredited, graded syllabus. All students can now
develop their skills and knowledge in what is currently the fastest growing area of the music education industry whilst
earning a globally recognised qualification.
As with all Rockschool syllabi, academic rigour and industry relevance are crucial and the 2018 Music Production
Coursework Edition syllabus is no exception. The syllabus has seen contributions from hugely respected producers,
engineers, composers, performers and educators from a diverse range of backgrounds. Amongst their glowing list of
achievements, these industry experts can count credits such as:
■■ Blockbuster movie soundtracks

■■ Production and engineering duties for iconic, global artists
■■ Top ten singles
■■ Games soundtracks
■■ Conservatoire & university lecturing
■■ Degree programme authoring
■■ World DJ championships
Upon successful completion of Grade 8, all students will have demonstrated the skills and knowledge to progress to both
higher education and ultimately the professional ranks.
Whatever your desire, be it music producer, recording engineer, mix or mastering engineer, editor, electronic music
composer or merely to improve your knowledge of traditional and contemporary production techniques, this syllabus will
ensure you gain the most comprehensive range of skills and knowledge currently available.
Nik Preston – Head of Product Development and Publishing
Book Contents
The book is divided into a number of sections:
■■ Music Production Theory

Rockschool’s Music Production syllabus provides you with the necessary material needed to achieve an understanding of
key music production terminology, as well as sound and audio fundamentals, in relation to modern music production.
■■ Listening Skills
Using audio examples provided, you will learn how to demonstrate effective listening skills relevant to modern music
production. In this section, Rockschool’s Music Production syllabus looks at sonic fidelity, music theory & harmony
and stylistic awareness.
■■ Coursework Task
In order to enhance your technical skills, you will be asked to complete a coursework task which will demonstrate
your ability to use the digital audio workstation (DAW) of your choice.
You must complete the coursework task before your exam and will be asked to upload your task and screen shots
during the exam.
In this section you will be given the opportunity to demonstrate both your skills and creativity in a simulated
professional situation. You will be assessed on your ability to resolve industry standard scenarios using appropriate
4 techniques and your DAW of choice.
Audio and Media
In addition to the grade book, we have also provided audio to support both curriculum content and the sample exam paper.
This can be downloaded from RSL directly at www.rslawards.com/downloads
You will need to input this code when prompted: N8WM76WSLC
The audio files are supplied in MP3 and/or WAV format(s). Once downloaded you will be able to play them on any
compatible device.
You can find further details about Rockschool’s Music Production syllabus by downloading the syllabus specification from
our website: www.rslawards.com
All candidates should download and read the accompanying syllabus specification when using this grade book.
5
Entering Rockschool Exams
Entering a Rockschool exam is easy, just go online and follow our simple process. All details for entering online, dates, fees
and regulations can be found at www.rslawards.com
ll candidates should ensure they bring the hard copy of their Grade syllabus book or their proof of digital purchase, their
A
coursework task and screen shots, and headphones to the exam.
All Grade 6–8 candidates must ensure that they bring valid photo ID to their exam.
Marking Scheme
MUSIC PRODUCTION GRADES 1–8
ELEMENT Pass Merit Distinction
PART A:
15–18 out of 25 19–20 out of 25 21–25 out of 25
TERMINOLOGY & FUNDAMENTALS
PART B:
LISTENING SKILLS
PART C:
COURSEWORK TASK
TOTAL MARKS 60%+ 75%+ 85%+

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© Dragon Images/Shutterstock
SUMMARY
SECTION (Current section highlighted) MARKS
> Theoretical Written Exam 25 [25%]
Listening Test 15 [15%]
Coursework Task 60 [60%]
The Theoretical Written Exam section of Rockschool Music Production Examinations covers the following:
■■ Music Production Terminology

■■ Sound & Audio Fundamentals
At Grade 8 the theory content covered will include subject areas such as comparing studio hardware, audio Music Production Grade 8 | Coursework Edition
file formats, analogue vs. digital technology, microphone technique choice, vocal comping, triggered samples,
balanced audio advantages and acoustic room design.
7
Music Production Terminology

Studio Equipment
Selecting studio equipment can be a daunting task and the child in all of us will sometimes veer towards choosing the
piece of equipment which offers the most options. Lots of knobs, faders and screens can make gear seem better than the
alternatives, but the reality might be quite the opposite.
It’s important to remember that quality is found in the sonic fidelity, not in how it looks or how much you can manipulate
the audio. Consider how it actually sounds.
There is a reason why professional studios have racks and racks full of very expensive compressors, reverbs and EQs. These
are multiple examples of the marginal gains mentioned earlier i.e. 1% gained when compressing the guitars, 1% gained on
the vocal reverb and so on.
A typical outboard compressor of this standard is likely to cost in the region of £2000. As an aspiring producer, you may not
be able to afford these sorts of luxuries, so you may need to find alternative ways of ensuring that you are making the most
of what you have available.
When choosing equipment to buy, take a look at the specifications. Consider things such as:
■■ Connectivity: does it feature balanced or unbalanced connections?
■■ Signal to noise ratio: the larger the ratio, the better.
■■ Total harmonic distortion (THD): the amount of unwanted harmonic distortion the device adds to the signal’s
fundamental frequency.
■■ Crosstalk: the amount of signal which can leak from one channel to another. The smaller the figure the better.
As a general rule, the more you spend on a piece of equipment, the better the components used in construction and
therefore the better the specifications will be.
Remember however, that the specifications are just the first step. Remember to always use your ears and check that the
equipment is achieving the desired result. Sometimes the lo-fi effect of a cheap device works better for the track you’re
working on.
Experiment as much as possible. Only experience will help you reach the right conclusions more quickly.
Making Connections
As you start to experiment a little more with your productions and use a large variety of equipment, it’s important to
understand how to connect these devices together to a make the most of them.
In previous grades we have looked at the advantages of balanced audio connections, but what if you need to connect
balanced and unbalanced equipment together.
You can simply connect them using a balanced or unbalanced cable. This will work, however, there will be a level difference
and the cable will be prone to interference due to the cold signal being unavailable.
The best solution to this is to use a DI box – an abbreviation for ‘direct injection box’. This device will match the impedances
and levels of balanced and unbalanced equipment as well as helping to eliminate any ground loop hum. For example, if
you want to connect an unbalanced line level keyboard to a mixing console, you can use a DI box to convert the signal to
microphone level.
8
Music Production Theory | Section A
DI Box
DI Box
Instrument or Mic level out
Line Level In to mixer
THRU connection
to amp
If a DI box is unavailable, you can use a dedicated balanced to unbalanced cable. In this cable the cold signal is connected to
the ground at the other end. This won’t eliminate any hum from a ground loop as this would require the transformer in the
balancing circuit.
DI boxes can be very useful devices, which can also work in the opposite direction. For example, re-amping guitars.
Re-amping is the process of taking a recorded guitar signal and sending it to an amplifier to shape the required guitar sound.
The best results are achieved by recording the guitar clean into the recording device by using the instrument input of a
DI box, then when you want to add the amplifier you send the signal back out via a DI box to convert the signal back to
instrument level for the amplifier input.
It’s quite common for studio engineers to use a DI box to split the signal coming from the guitar when recording, so that Music Production Grade 8 | Coursework Edition
the guitar is connected to the amplifier at the same time as being recorded clean directly into the DAW. This enables the
engineer to record the sound that the guitarist likes through the amplifier, while leaving flexibility for the tone to be
changed at a later date.
DI Box
From guitar to To mixer, computer
DI box input or recorder
THRU connection
to amp
9
Analogue vs Digital Connectivity

Almost all digital devices feature both analogue and digital inputs and outputs, and choosing which to use could help you
achieve another 1% of your marginal gains.
As a general rule, digital connectivity provides a cleaner signal as it is capable of a higher signal to noise ratio and is less
prone to external interference. This means that longer cable runs are achievable without any detriment to quality.
There are some downsides to digital connectivity however, the most significant being compatibility. It’s important that both
the sending and receiving devices are working to the same digital protocol and sample rates.
The quality of a digital signal is only as good as the converter used. An analogue device such as a preamp may feature a
digital output so that you can feed the signal straight into your DAW, this means that the preamp has a built in analogue
to digital convertor. It may be that this convertor is not as good as the convertor that is built in to your audio interface, in
which case you may achieve a better signal by using the preamps analogue outputs and converting to digital once the signal
reaches the interface.
Audio File Formats

The file format that you will ultimately produce at the end of the process has a significant impact on the final sonic fidelity.
Some say it’s a waste of time using the best equipment, with the best techniques, mixed by top sound engineers with the best ears
only to have the music converted to a low quality MP3 and played back on a pair of free headphones.
However, there is a saying; “rubbish in, rubbish out” – i.e. if the quality of your audio is bad to start with, it’s not going to
get any better.
Use marginal gains to make every part of the process as good as it can be, so that if your music is converted to a poor quality
MP3, then it’s the best possible poor MP3.
The audio file formats available each have their own pros and cons. The most common formats for a final mix are:
File Format Pros Cons
Wav “Full” quality, plays on most devices. Large file size. 10.6MB
(16bit 44.1kHz)
MP3 Small file size, plays on most devices. Audio quality is reduced. 1.4MB
(192Kbps)
AAC Small file size, higher quality than Audio quality is reduced. Only works 2.4MB
(320Kbps) MP3. on selected devices, such as Apple
iPods, iPhones, iTunes etc.
FLAC High quality, lossless format. File size is reduced, but still about 5.3MB
(16bit 44.1kHz) 50% of Wav. Not well supported for
playback.
When working on an audio project, it’s good practice to stay in the Wav format for as long as possible, even if the final result
will be an MP3. This ensures that the quality is retained through as much of the process as possible.
MP3 is considered the industry standard for consumer playback as it’s widely supported in playback devices. MP3 was born
in a time when digital storage space was very expensive which gave it a clear advantage in setting the standard for lossy
10
formats.
AAC is intended to be better sounding than MP3, retaining more sonic fidelity. As with MP3, various quality levels are
available by changing the bitrate, the higher the bitrate the better the fidelity. AAC is a very popular standard due to the
success of Apple’s audio playback devices, however, it is not as widely supported as MP3.
FLAC is a compromise as it roughly halves the size of the file with no perceivable loss in quality. The only downside is that
it’s not currently widely supported by playback devices.
Technological Developments
As time goes by, the rate at which technology develops is accelerating. It’s really not very long ago that sound engineers were
recording on analogue tape, and the only way of editing a performance was to cut pieces of that tape out with a razor blade.
The introduction of digital technology was a very significant development for music production, as it opened the door to a
world of possibilities that were either very difficult beforehand, or even impossible.
Let’s look at a few items in the production process and what their impact has been.
Analogue to Digital Convertor (ADC)

This device has made digital music possible. Without it, all other digital technology is irrelevant as the sound remains in
the analogue domain. Equally important of course is the ‘digital to analogue’ convertor (DAC) which enables us to hear
the result of our work.
Hard Disk
It’s all very well working in the digital realm, using the advanced technologies to process and manipulate audio, but without
a hard disk this processing would only ever be temporary, effectively making an entire DAW a fancy outboard effect!
The ability to store the data on hard disk has enabled us to save our work in an easily and quickly accessible format.
It’s enabled us to record high quality audio directly onto a digital format, which we can then recall, process and edit in
realtime without affecting the original recording. This non-linear editing would not be possible without the hard disk.
It’s also enabled quick and easy backing up of a recording session. When using tape, the only way to back up the session
was to connect one tape machine to another, pressing play on one and record on the other. The quality of the backup
would therefore be reduced, and it would take as long as the length of the tape to finish the process.
A hard disk backup can take place automatically at periodic intervals, with little or no interaction from the user. The
quality of the backup will be equal to the original, and it can be recalled immediately.
11
The Internet
While the internet hasn’t had a huge impact on the production process directly, it has changed the way music
is consumed.
Before the Internet, audio could only be obtained by purchasing a cassette, vinyl record or CD at a local store.
Now, it’s possible to purchase and download new music from your home, or even while sat on a train.
This has made an impact on the production process in that the quality of playback has reduced from high quality CDs
to MP3s with convenient file sizes which can be downloaded quickly, or even streamed through online services such as
Spotify or Apple Music.
The internet has also enabled remote collaboration. A London based producer can start work on a project then send
their files to another producer in Los Angeles for them to add vocals or create a rhythm track, with the files arriving
there within a matter of seconds.
Before the internet this would have taken several days while the data is sent through international mail – all the while
hoping that it will arrive safely!
Digital Audio Workstation (DAW)

The DAW is a massive step forward, and one which takes another step forward every single day as the software
companies develop new ways of manipulating digital audio.
Early software packages enabled sound engineers and producers to record, edit and playback MIDI recordings. Then,
as technology developed, and hard disks became fast enough, these software packages enabled the same processing of
audio files, and the DAW was born.
We take it for granted now that when we are recording a vocalist, we can record multiple takes in quick succession and
then edit the vocals to create a perfect composite of the takes. This has made the process quicker, easier and arguably
achieving a better result.
Electronic music production has probably benefitted the most from the introduction of the DAW. Beforehand, EDM
producers would use hardware synthesisers and samplers to record, edit and manipulate small sections of audio for
triggering with a MIDI controller. These audio samples would have to be very short so that they can be stored in the
RAM of the primitive digital device.
DAWs have evolved to enable electronic music producers to synthesise new sounds, record, edit and trigger samples, all
within one computer workstation. This amount of equipment would previously cost hundreds of thousands of pounds
and probably fill a football stadium.
12
Sound and Audio Fundamentals

Recording Technique
Remember that the marginal gains we’re hoping for start at the very beginning of the chain with what is actually being
recorded. There is no sense in spending lots of time and money recording something if the music or instruments themselves
don’t sound very good.
Once you are happy that the source sounds good, you can concentrate on the recording stage.
In order to maximise the quality of your recording, think about:

■■ The room: does the sound of the room compliment the recording?
■■ The microphone type: dynamic, condenser, valve or ribbon?
■■ The microphone make and model: cheap or expensive?
■■ The microphone position: close, ambient, or a stereo technique?
Here is a summary of the microphone techniques you might like to use:
Technique:
Mono close mic
Description:
One microphone placed close to the source.
Sound:
Close, detailed, intimate, with very little room sound.

Technique:
Coincident (XY) Pair
Description:
Two cardioid microphones, placed with the capsules
adjacent to each other at an angle of 90–130 degrees.
Sound:
Stereo, with good detail and focus on source. The
sound arrives at both capsules at the same time, so
good mono compatibility due to phase coherence.
Right Left
13
Technique:
Spaced Pair (AB)
ICAL ENSEM
Description: S
BL
MU
Two omnidirectional microphones (or
cardioid if omnis aren’t available) spaced
E
apart by several feet.
Sound: Spacing
Stereo, with a wide stereo image, good
balance of room sound and source
which can be adjusted by moving the
microphones closer or further from
the source.
Left Right
Technique:
Near coincident pair (ORTF)
Description:
Two cardioid microphones, placed with
each capsule pointing away from the other
about 18cm apart. 110°
Sound:
Left Right
Similar to coincident pair, but with a
slightly wider stereo image. Not quite as
mono compatible due to the time distance 17cm
between the capsules.
Technique:
Mid-Side
Description:
One cardioid pointing directly at the
source, and a figure of 8 microphone
placed perpendicular to capture the left and
right stereo image. Requires coding and
decoding by the mixing desk (see Glossary).
Sound:
When used in stereo the image is very
good, with good focus on the source due
to the cardioid. Not as wide an image as
spaced pair. Good mono compatibility
because left and right will phase cancel.
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Production Decisions
At numerous points within the production process, you will have to decide whether something is good enough or not.
Generally, if you find yourself conceding that it’s ‘good enough’ then it probably isn’t.
Always seek perfection, and only compromise on that when the timescale is critical enough to prevent you from meeting
a deadline.
Vocal Production
One such decision you might need to make is when recording vocals. Arguably the best vocal performance is one where
the singer has sung the whole song through in one take and got every single line perfect. Very few vocalists are actually this
consistent however, so you’ll need to decide what to do to get the best performance.
There are things you can do to help them feel relaxed, confident and capable of delivering a better performance, but if these
don’t help then you’ll need to make a call as to whether you’re going to:
■■ Ask them to sing the whole song again (hoping they will perform a perfect take)
■■ Decide which the best parts are then punch in and out to re-record just the substandard sections.
■■ Record multiple takes and select the best parts from each afterwards, compositing a perfect take (‘comping’)
■■ Use pitch or timing correction software to correct the errors after the singer has finished.
Each of these options has its merits:
Rerecording
In an ideal world you would keep rerecording the whole take in the hope of getting that perfect performance, however,
this is rarely practical due to the time it takes and the strain it puts on the singer’s voice.
Punching In
This is perhaps the best compromise, as it should achieve the best quality result, without having to redo the good parts of
the performance. This technique takes a lot of organisation and a keen ear. You must listen intently to the performance,
making notes as you go so that you know exactly which parts need to be rerecorded. This does of course assume that the
singer is capable of getting those parts right eventually.
Comping
This is the most commonly used technique in modern vocal production as it provides a certain amount of ‘safety’ by
having lots of takes to choose from. You may also find that the singer has sung the first chorus perfectly but made a
mistake in the second chorus. With some careful editing you can copy the good chorus and put it in place of the second
chorus. Again, this still relies on the singer getting all the sections right at some point during the many takes.
Pitch Correction Music Production Grade 8 | Coursework Edition

If you find you’re working with a challenging vocalist, who has excellent tone and timing but can’t get the pitching quite
right, then you may decide to use technology to fix the problem. It also provides a big advantage in saving the time
required by rerecording or editing the parts.
This technique is seen by many as being a lazy way of working, and is often criticised as devaluing the talents of those
who can sing in tune. Pitch correction software is audible to those who know what it sounds like, but most consumers
won’t notice it’s been used, and it’s so commonly used in pop music now that most people have actually become
accustomed to it.
15
Musicians or Samples?
Another decision you may need to make is whether to use real musicians or samples.
Modern samples are of a very high standard, and you may find that you can achieve the quality required without needing to
hire musicians, teach them the parts, take them into the studio, record them, mix the recording and so on.
This decision will be based completely on the scenario you find yourself in.
For example, if you are programming drums for an electronic track, it might be a very easy decision to go for samples over a
real drummer.
If you need an electric guitar solo, it may be very difficult to achieve a natural sounding performance by triggering samples
from a keyboard, so you’re likely to want a real guitarist.
A more difficult decision might be that you need some subtle strings in the background, which the listener will only just
be able to hear. String samples are very good, particularly the more expensive packages which have been recorded in top
orchestral commercial studios, and keyboards are fairly capable of emulating the playing styles of stringed instruments.
There is no replacement for the nuances of real strings, when they sound good they sound fantastic. So the decision will be
based on whether the extra time and effort will be worth the result when it’s in the mix.
Mastering
Mastering is the last part of the production process before the recording is sent for distribution. It involves both technical
and creative elements, and has become a bit of a black art, with only a small number of top engineers mastering the majority
of the chart music we hear.
Historically, the mastering process was seen as part of the duplication process, where men in white coats would adjust
settings in audio laboratories to prepare the recordings for pressing to vinyl.
In modern times the process is undertaken in very highly specced mastering studios, with near perfect acoustics, expensive
equipment and a pair of very experienced and well trained ears.
This mastering stage is all about the last few percent, so it’s the last thing in the chain where the marginal gains we’ve been
discussing can be achieved.
What Does a Mastering Engineer Do?

What the mastering engineer should be able to do is ensure that the final mix has good level and tone, and is consistent
with other material on the rest of an album. However, the brief that is given to mastering engineers by the record label or
producer can sometimes be a little more demanding.
Typically, the brief could be one of the following:

1. The mix is good, it just needs some subtle EQ and dynamic control
2. There is a problem in the mix which needs fixing
3. It needs to be louder!
Number 1 is the ideal. This is how a great sounding recording is achieved.
Number 2 is quite common, as the mastering engineer is seen by some as the person who can fix all of the failings in the
project leading up to that point. While the mastering engineers are extremely talented and experienced, they can only work
with what they are given. Common problems that they might be asked to fix could include a resonant frequency, too much
bass, not enough bass, or even that the vocals are not loud enough. All of which should really be rectified at the mix stage.
16
Number 3 is possibly the most common brief given to mastering engineers. Everyone wants their music to be louder than
everyone else’s, and music is now so consistently loud that your recordings wouldn’t get on the radio without being able to
compete. Again, loudness is something that can be achieved in the recording and mixing phases, and leaving this to the
mastering engineer will only compromise the quality of the result.
Ear Training
Before you consider buying any expensive mastering equipment, the first thing you should do is ensure your ears are well
prepared. There are various ear training materials available from RSL as part of this curriculum which you can use to
enhance your ability to recognise frequencies, phase issues, dynamics and other artefacts.
One of the techniques you should employ throughout all stages of the process, from recording, to mixing to mastering, is to
ensure your ears have something to reference to.
Every engineer will have something different that they use as reference material, some even use white or pink noise, but this
probably isn’t a pleasant experience and not one that we would recommend for long periods.
Find three or four pieces of music that are very well mixed and mastered and feature a wide range of frequencies. Try and
use the sort of music that your target market would listen to. For example, if you are making pop music for teenagers, then
reference to music that they would listen to.
Listening Levels
Our body is very good at adapting to its surroundings, including our hearing.
For example, when we hear a loud sound, our ears will compress the level. Once the signal level passes this threshold, the
signal won’t appear to get any louder even if it does. This means that the dynamics of the mix that we perceive aren’t actually
what has been produced. It’s very much like putting an unwanted compressor across the mix bus.
For this reason, you should aim to keep the monitoring level of your mix at a suitable level.
In addition to this, extended periods of loud audio levels can damage your ears. Work at a reasonable volume, and take
regular breaks to give them a rest.
The A–B Technique

As our ears are very good at adapting to what they hear, they may also adapt to the frequency content of your music. This
means that even if you have a large frequency range missing from your mix, your ears will eventually think it’s normal after
listening to the same thing over and over again.
Use your reference material at the beginning of the session before you start, then revisit it every now and again to ensure Music Production Grade 8 | Coursework Edition
that your ears are always pointing you in the right direction and you are not becoming complacent.
As well as switching (‘A–B’ing) to your reference material, it’s also good practice to A–B with other sets of speakers. Typically
a mastering studio will have three or four sets of monitors that the engineer trusts. These will include a set of full range
monitors, designed to accurately reproduce as much of the frequency spectrum as possible, a set of mid range monitors, a
mono arrangement and always at least one set of budget speakers to emulate how the music will sound to the typical consumer.
17
Headphones
It would also be good practice to check your mix on headphones, and a range of headphones if you have them. It’s nice
to listen on expensive high quality headphones, but the typical listener may be using the cheap in-ear kind, so it’s worth
checking your mix with a pair of them too.
It’s worth remembering that when mixing using studio monitors, the sound of the room will have an effect on your mix.
Any frequency colouration caused by the dimensions of the room will need to be compensated for. This isn’t the case with
headphones as they are placed directly onto your ears.
Equipment
Professional mastering studios will be very well equipped, in that they will have very few devices, but each of those devices
will be very good at fulfilling a specific purpose.
For example, it’s not uncommon for a mastering studio to have less than twenty devices, with each of them costing
thousands of pounds. As we’re dealing with the final few percent, it’s all about the quality rather than quantity.
Mastering devices also tend to feature notched controls, rather than infinitely variable potentiometers. This makes
replication of settings (or ‘recall’ as it’s known in professional circles) far easier to get right.
Software
It’s perfectly possible to use the usual DAWs such as Logic Pro, Pro Tools, Cubase, Ableton Live, FL studio etc., however,
there are numerous software packages which are used for mastering, offering dedicated mastering functions and a focus on
sonic fidelity rather than choice of functions.
The most common examples are:
Pyramix SADiE
18
Sequoia Wavelab
The Frequency Spectrum

Frequency and pitch are interrelated.
For each octave that a pitch increases, its frequency doubles. For example, the A above middle C is 440Hz, the next A up the
scale is 880Hz, and the A below is 220Hz.
Frequency Pitch Relationship Diagram
&
?
65
73
82
87
98
110
123
131
147
165
175
196
220
247
262
294
330
349
392
440
494
523
587
659
698
784
880
988
1047
Frequency (Hz)
Note C D E F G A B C D E F G A B C D E F G A B C D E F G A B C Music Production Grade 8 | Coursework Edition
Keyboard
While each note will have its fundamental frequency, the sound will also feature numerous harmonics, which will occur
at multiples of the fundamental frequency. For example, if the note fundamental is 200Hz, then the harmonics will exist at
400Hz, 600Hz, 800Hz, 1000Hz, 1200Hz and so on. As the order of the harmonic increases (each time the multiple increases)
the relative level of the harmonic will diminish, until it is no longer audible.
This harmonic content will change from instrument to instrument, which is what causes the tone and timbre to vary. A sine
wave is the purest form of sound, as it contains no harmonics at all, just the fundamental frequency. 19
Frequency Content Of Instruments Diagram

28
31
33
37
41
44
49
55
62
65
73
82
87
98
110
123
131
147
165
175
196
220
247
262
294
330
349
392
440
494
523
587
659
698
784
880
988
1047
1175
1319
1397
1568
1760
1976
2093
2349
2637
2794
3136
3520
3951
Frequency (Hz)
Note A B C D E F G A B C D E F G A B C D E F G A B C D E F G A B C D E F G A B C D E F G A B C D E F G A B
Octave 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Keyboard
Guitar
Bass Guitar
Voice
Violin
Viola
Cello
Double Bass
Trumpet
Trombone
French Horn
Tuba
Piccolo
Flute
Oboe
Clarinet
Alto Saxophone
Tenor Saxophone
Baritone Saxophone
Bassoon
Xylophone
Glockenspiel
Vibraphone
Timpani
Marimba
Harp
Harpsichord
Piano
Equalisation
When working with multiple mixes, even from the same producer/engineer, it is quite common for there to be a difference
in tonal balance. It would then be the mastering engineer’s role to ensure consistency. These differences may be very subtle,
so will require a very keen ear, and subtle adjustments, to the EQ settings.
It’s worth remembering that any changes to tone have a counter effect. If a mix sounds dull it could be one of two things
causing the problem:
■■ The mix doesn’t contain enough high frequencies
■■ The mix contains too many low frequencies.
Try cutting the lower frequencies before you add high frequencies and listen to how it sounds. Experience will help you
identify which it is.
It’s also important to carefully monitor the bass frequencies within the mix, particularly in bass heavy music styles. It’s
possible that there could be bass frequencies in the mix that you can’t hear because they’re too low in the spectrum for your
hearing. These frequencies are particularly problematic, as any compression or limiting you apply will be triggered by the
high level in the bass, even though you can’t hear what is pushing the signal over the threshold.
A high pass filter may be appropriate to keep these extremely low frequencies under control.
Compression
Dynamic control should be taken care of at the mix stage, however, some subtle compression using a high quality
compressor may help tighten up a mix and match it to the expectations of radio, TV, games or other broadcasters.
20
Limiting
Limiting is an extreme form of compression which uses a very high ratio. This can have a significant effect on the dynamic
range of a recording by squashing the higher levels and allowing the RMS level of the signal to increase.
In some styles of music this can sound particularly good, however this extreme processing is always to the detriment of the
dynamic range of the music, and therefore removes a lot of character from natural instruments. It should therefore be used
sparingly and always while listening to the effect it is having. Use the bypass switch to help your ears hear whether your
changes are for the better or not.
Loudness
Loudness is different to level. Level can be increased until the output is at the maximum possible by the system, at which
point the level becomes technically limited.
Loudness is how high the signal level is perceived to be, and in this case perception is different to reality.
Our ears perceive the level of a sound through interpreting the average level of the signal rather than its absolute level. This
average ‘loudness’ level can be calculated using the RMS (root mean square) of the signal level.
By compressing or limiting a sound, we are lowering the peak level and therefore making it possible to raise the RMS level,
making a compressed sound seem louder even if it’s still peaking at the same value on a meter.
The Loudness War

There is a lot of history behind why we like our music loud, apart from the physiologically pleasing effect it has on us. This
history has been titled in the media as ‘The Loudness War’.
Essentially, the ‘loudness war’ came about as record labels competed to have their music louder than anyone else, in order to
make it more noticable than anything else played on the radio. This competition grew to the extent that it soon became clear
that your music needed to be loud in order for it to be heard at all.
This has had a detrimental effect on the dynamic range within popular music, and some would argue that sonic fidelity has
suffered along with it.
It’s possible to make a mix sound louder by using a combination of EQ and compression, without having to resort to
hard limiting.
Ensure that the frequency content is broadly even, i.e. no peaks at certain frequencies which don’t need to be there, then use
compression to gently compress the mix as a whole.
As our ears are more sensitive in the mid frequencies, you could trick the ears into thinking that something is louder than it Music Production Grade 8 | Coursework Edition
is by reducing the level of those mid frequencies. Use a parametric EQ with a low (wide) Q setting to gently reduce the level
around 1kHz.
Multiband Compression
A multiband compressor is a hybrid between compression and EQ. It works by dividing the frequency spectrum into four
adjustable bands which can then be compressed independently of each other. This makes it possible to compress the low
mids more than the high frequencies or vice versa.
21
Metering
There is no replacement for using your ears to listen for problems and hear the impact of the changes you make, however
there are some visual cues you can use to help identify these issues more quickly.
VU Spectrum Analyser
This stands for ‘volume unit’, and is a meter which This is a visual representation of the frequency spectrum
indicates the loudness of the signal by averaging out the (going left to right) and level (top to bottom). This will
peaks and troughs. This is your best indication of the give you an indication of which frequencies are louder
perceived signal level. than others, and perhaps highlight any bass issues that
you’re unable to hear.
Phase Correlation
This is a visual indication of the phase cancellation occurring between the left and right signals of the mix. If the meter
is showing as positive, then the two channels are predominantly in phase, if the meter is showing negative this indicates
that there are some potentially problematic phase relationships within the mix. It’s best to use this technique at the mix
stage rather than at the mastering phase, as it will be easier to fix when you have access to the multitrack material.
Left–Right Balance
It’s not only the frequency content and level that needs to be consistent, listen to relationship between the left and right
signals. A common issue when mixing is to inadvertently put too much on one side, resulting in a mix which sounds heavy
on either left or right.
This can be corrected at the mastering stage by simply panning the weightier side more towards the centre until the left and
right balance out. If you find you’re having to bring one side in more than a couple of dB, then you may find the mix starts
to sound too mono, in which case it might be best to go back to the mix stage.
Top and Tail

It may be necessary to alter the length of the audio file containing the mix as there is too much silence at either end. Care
should be taken however not to cut the audio sharply as this may become audible, particularly if there is sound decaying
from instruments, background noise or reverberation tails to deal with.
It is therefore good practice to use a gentle fade.
22
Fading Out
If the music doesn’t have a natural end, it may sound better to use a fade out during an outro section or repeated choruses
towards the end.
The fade might last somewhere in the region of 10 seconds, but there is no exact science to it, other than it should sound
natural. It should be long enough to be subtle, but short enough not to drag on.
Aim to make it sound like the music carries on after the fade has finished, like the listener is leaving a room.
Mastering an Album
Mastering a track in isolation is relatively easy compared to working with an album.
An album may feature ten or more tracks, and each of them must sound as though it fits wth the one that precedes it.
This means that the tone, level and stereo balance must all be similar. Not necessarily identical, as this may sound boring,
but they should be close enough to give the artist and their album a consistent sound.
You can use the variety of visual cues, such as meters to help you, but there really is no replacement for a good pair of ears.
Listen to the tracks together, do they work or not? If not, then something needs to be changed.
Care should also be taken to place the tracks in the best order for the album. Do you want the album to start with a slow
song or a fast one? A ballad or an instrumental?
Once the tracks are in order, consider the gaps between them when the album is played start to finish. It’s best to feel the
right length, rather than use the default two second gap that most software will offer.
Also consider cross-fading between tracks, but remember that the tracks may not always be played back in order if the
listener is shuffling through their music collection.
Formats
The future of music is almost certainly in the digital realm, with music being purchased, downloaded or streamed. However,
you may be asked to master for CD or vinyl.
When burning to CD, there is a standard set of rules called ‘The Red Book’. You won’t be able to find a copy of this book, but
it is essentially a set of standards to which all commercially available CDs are produced. You don’t need to know much more
at this stage, other than to ensure that when creating a CD, the burn process adheres to the Red Book standard.

When mastering for vinyl, do nothing out of the ordinary. Master the track as you would do normally, and allow the vinyl
cutting engineer to adapt the final master for cutting into the vinyl. They will ensure that the bass content and levels are not
problematic for the cutting process, as it is possible for a loud bass sound on a record to make the needle jump out of the groove.
If you are mastering for online distribution, there is a modern standard agreed by Apple called “Mastered for iTunes”
(MFiT). This is a set of guidelines provided by Apple to optimise your masters for playback as an AAC file. Apple also
provide a tool which you can use to emulate how your master will sound once it’s been converted to AAC.
More information on MFiT can be found on the Apple website:
http://www.apple.com/uk/itunes/mastered-for-itunes/
As with any stage of music production, there are no magic plugins which will make your music sound great. Use your ears
and the techniques you have learned.
23
Sound & Acoustics

If you are aiming to create a studio in your home, or if you’re lucky enough to have some premises to use, then you should
consider the effects that the room will have on the sound you hear.
Any sound that is created within a room will spread from the source in every direction until it hits something, and then it
will either be absorbed or be reflected away from the surface depending on the material that it hits.
First Reflections
A hard surface will reflect more sound than a soft surface, therefore, if you are aiming to minimise the reflections in your
studio you should use soft covering on the walls, floors and ceilings.
It may not always be practical to cover every surface in this way, but a compromise can be reached by concentrating on
certain areas in the room.
Your speakers will generally stay static in a room, as will your listening position as you sit looking at a computer screen or
sitting at a mixing desk. Therefore the sound will be reflecting from the same surfaces in the same way, so you can affect the
majority of what you hear by concentrating on just these areas.
When you sit in your listening position, look at your monitor speakers. The sound coming from your speakers is travelling
its shortest distance directly to your ears.
Now imagine there are mirrors on all the walls and ceiling around you and imagine where in those mirrors you would be
able to see your monitors. These are the locations where the sound will take it’s next shortest route to your ears as it bounces
off the surfaces. If you were to minimise these reflections, then you would drastically reduce the effects of the room on your
listening environment.
Follow this procedure with the ceiling area too.
Acoustic Treatment
Acoustic treatment such as foam tiles can be purchased from many specialists, but can be quite expensive. A more affordable
solution may be to build your own treatment using supplies you can find at any builder’s merchant.
Using timber, build a frame appropriate to the size of space you want to cover on your walls or ceiling. Take care not to use a
heavy wood, remember that this may need to be hung above your head!
Fill that frame with Rockwool. Rockwool is a type of insulation used to keep the heat inside houses. Be careful when
handling it, use gloves and a face mask as it can be quite itchy if you get it on your skin.
Then cover the frame with an open weave fabric, such as hessian. You could dye the hessian a nice colour if you wish to help
it suit your room.
Carefully hang the frame on the wall in the appropriate location where the reflections occur. The hessian will allow the
sound to enter the frame, then the rockwool will absorb a wide band of frequencies, particularly the high frequencies whose
direction are most identifiable.
Don’t forget the floor too, if you have a hard surface to your floor such as wood or concrete, then consider using a rug or
carpet to minimise the reflections.
For safety’s sake, always be careful when using tools and ensure you fix the frame to the wall securely to avoid any accidents.
24
Reflection Diagram
ap
Ba
Tr
ss
ss
Tr
Ba
ap
60° 60°
Wall Wall
panel panel
ap
Ba
ss
Tr

Wall
ss
Tr
panel
ap
Ba
Diffusion
As well as absorbing the sound, you should also aim to diffuse the sound as much as possible. Diffusion is the process of
reflecting the indirect sound in different directions, so that it takes longer to reach your ears. The further the sound has to
travel, the quieter it will be when it gets to you.
Dedicated diffusers can be purchased or indeed built, but it may be just as effective to fill a bookcase with a variety of books.
The different sizes and depths of books will cause the sound to reflect in different directions.
25
Standing Waves
Every sound wave has both a frequency and a wavelength.
■■ The frequency is how many times per second the wave completes a cycle.
■■ The wavelength is the distance in space the wave travels to complete the cycle.
Wavelength
Amplitude
Wavelength
The wavelength and frequency are inversely proportional, so as the frequency increases, the wavelength decreases.
Frequency vs. Wavelength
Low Frequency Medium Frequency High Frequency

Longer wavelength Shorter wavelength
Amplitude
Amplitude
Amplitude
Time Time Time
In a typical room, the higher frequencies can be controlled by the surfaces of the room. However, the lower frequencies are a
little more difficult.
This is because some frequencies will have a wavelength that matches the dimensions of the room, making it possible for
the sound to travel along the length of the room, reflect from the back wall and reflect back either cancelling itself out or
reinforcing that frequency.
It’s not just the exact dimensions either, as multiples of that frequency will also cause issues.
This effect is called a standing wave, and results in certain areas of the room having more bass frequencies than other areas.
This can be tackled with acoustic treatment such as bass traps, which can be tuned to the problem frequencies. Most rooms
will suffer from these issues under 200Hz.
The problem frequencies (also called the room modes, or nodes) can be calculated if you have the dimensions of the room,
and there are many helpful online calculators which can help you do so. Search for “Room Mode Calculator”.
Top tip: Putting a sofa in the back of the room is a relatively cheap, practical and effective bass trap.
26 Most importantly, use your ears when adapting the acoustics of your room. By fixing one problem you may create another one.
© Nejron Photo/Shutterstock
SUMMARY
Theoretical Written Exam 25 [25%]
> Listening Test 15 [15%]
Coursework Task 60 [60%]
The Listening Test section of Rockschool Music Production Examinations covers the following:
■■ Sonic Fidelity
■■ Music Theory & Harmony
■■ Stylistic Awareness
At Grade 8 the aural content covered will include subject areas such as identifying high and low resolution Music Production Grade 8 | Coursework Edition
audio files, modes of the major scale, irregular time signatures and specific genres.
27
Sonic Fidelity
Objective: Identify High and Low Quality Audio File Formats
As a producer or sound engineer, your aural skills are extremely important as they enable you to hear the music and
production values, so be mindful to always look after them. Avoid listening to music too loud and always be cautious of
listening for too long. If you find yourself unavoidably subjected to high volume levels, be prepared to wear hearing protection.
Whilst it is difficult to improve your hearing per se, there are ways you can improve your aural skills. This can be achieved
by training your ears and brain to identify the sounds that you hear.
Your aural skills are associative in nature i.e. by associating particular labels to particular sounds, your brain will associate
the label with the sound and subsequently you’ll stand a greater chance of identifying (and ultimately using) these sounds
in the future. Always be prepared to listen intently and be aware that the producer’s analytical ear is one of his/her
greatest tools.
In your role as producer or sound engineer it is your responsibility to ensure that the quality of the audio is as good as it can
possibly be, therefore you should develop your ability to listen critically to what you are hearing.
You should therefore be able to identify if a recording is high or low fidelity, for example if an audio file is a full quality wav
or a compressed MP3, or even if it is a high quality 320Kbps MP3 or a low quality 128Kbps MP3.
For the Grade 8 audio fidelity test, you will be required to identify the difference between two audio files.
■■ In audio example LSG8SF1.wav you will hear a guitar recording converted from a full resolution WAV file
■■ In audio example LSG8SF2.wav you will hear a guitar recording converted from a low resolution MP3 file
■■ In audio example LSG8SF3.wav you will hear a full mix converted from a full resolution WAV file
■■ In audio example LSG8SF4.wav you will hear a full mix converted from a low resolution MP3 file
■■ In audio example LSG8SF5.wav you will hear a full mix converted from a high resolution MP3 file
■■ In audio example LSG8SF6.wav you will hear a full mix converted from a low resolution MP3 file
Please note, Rockschool uses the term ‘sonic fidelity’ to define anything of an audible nature, but it would be just as likely for this
to be referenced as ‘audio fidelity’ and subsequently both terms should be learnt.
28
Listening Skills | Section B
Music Theory & Harmony

Objective: Identify Three Modes of the Major Scale – Dorian, Mixolydian and Lydian
We have covered natural major and minor scales but a vast array of contemporary music makes use of other scales known
as modes.
These variations are called modes, and each one has a unique sound because it contains a unique set of intervals.
Remembering lots of different intervals can be confusing, so in this chapter we will compare the most often used modes
to scales you already know, reducing the amount of new information you need to memorise. This exercise is by no means
comprehensive, but certain contemporary music genres make significant use of particular modes.
The Mixolydian mode is found in may blues, rock, funk, soul, gospel and pop records (James Brown, B.B. King, The Meters)
and the Dorian mode can be found in a lot of funk, disco, rock and even metal records (Chic/Nile Rodgers Stevie Wonder,
Earth Wind and Fire, Sugarhill Gang, Black Eyed Peas).
The Lydian mode has been used to great effect by guitarists such as Steve Vai, rock composers such as Frank Zappa and film
score composers such as John Williams and Danny Elfman.
There are many ways of teaching and learning the concept of modes, but for the purposes of the assessment syllabus you
only have to learn to identify the sounds of the three, aforementioned modes, from the provided audio. The theoretical
information included below is purely for reference purposes and doesn’t form part of the assessment, but may help you
associate the sound with the theory.
One Scale, Seven Modes

The C major scale has seven notes, C D E F G A B C, with the note spacing T T S T T T S, which translates as the following
intervals: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7. C major’s relative minor is A minor, which contains the notes A B C D E F G A. These are the
same notes as the C major scale, but the starting note (A) and note spacing (T S T T S T T) are different. This time the
intervals are 1 2 b 3 4 5 b 6 b 7.
To sum up, different note spacing means different intervals, and different intervals create different scales, or – as we’ll
discuss in this chapter – modes. The relative minor always starts from the 6th note of the major scale, but we can also start
the scale from the 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th and 7th notes to produce other scales. For example, let’s start the C major scale from
each note of the scale, one by one.
T T S T T T S T T S T T T
C IONIAN C D E F G A B C

D DORIAN D E F G A B C D
E PHRYGIAN E F G A B C D E
F LYDIAN F G A B C D E F
G MIXOLYDIAN G A B C D E F G
A AEOLIAN A B C D E F G A
B LOCRIAN B C D E F G A B
The ‘new scales’ are shown from top to bottom in the table above, and the note spacing is shown from left to right. The
irregular tone and semitone gaps between the notes (shown in red) are key to giving each mode its unique structure.
29
Each unique note spacing translates to a particular set of intervals and, consequently, leads to seven different modes: Ionian,
Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, Mixolydian, Aeolian and Locrian. The names ‘Ionian’ and ‘Aeolian’ are the Greek modal names
for the major and minor scales, respectively, so you are actually already familiar with those two modes.
The seven modes correspond to each of the seven chords of the harmonised major scale, and the chord is a clue as to the
general sound of the scale. This chord-scale relationship is the same in every key, so it will always be the same (see table
below). For example, the Dorian mode always goes with a minor 7 chord.
MODE CHORD INTERVALS

Ionian (major) Major 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Dorian minor 7 1 2 b 3 4 5 6 b 7
Phrygian minor 7 1 b2 b 3 4 5 b 6 b7
Lydian Major 7 1 2 3 # 4 5 6 7
MIXOLydian Dominant 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 b 7
Aeolian (natural minor) minor 7 1 2 b 3 4 5 b 6 b7
Locrian minor 7 5 1 b2 b 3 4 b 5 b6 b7
Now let’s reorganise the modes and group them into similar chord sounds. This will help you to memorise the intervals and
appreciate the practical application of each mode. As the table below shows, the modes can be grouped into three categories:
major, minor and half diminished.
MAJOR MODES MINOR MODES HALF DIMINISHED

Ionian AEOLIAN LOCRIAN
LYDIAN DORIAN
MIXOLYDIAN PHRYGIAN
The most commonly used modes in western popular are Ionian (major scale), Aeolian (natural minor scale), Dorian, Lydian
and Mixolydian. So it is the sound of the modes that we will focus on now.
Ionian
The Ionian mode is another name for the major scale and corresponds to the I chord of the harmonised major scale. The
Ionian has an innocent, happy sound, which has been used in pop music through the ages, but perhaps one of the most
iconic Ionian song is the ‘Do-Re-Mi’ song from The Sound Of Music. The C Ionian contains the notes C D E F G A B.

■■ In audio example LSG8H1.mp3, you will hear the mode of C Ionian ascending and descending.
Dorian
Dorian is the second mode of the major scale and corresponds with the IIm chord, which can be a minor triad or a minor
7 chord. Dorian is the only minor mode with a major 6th, which provides one of its main characteristics, adding a cool
brightness to the otherwise minor tonality. Pink Floyd’s ‘Another Brick In The Wall (Part 2)’ is a classic Dorian song. The D
Dorian mode contains the notes D E F G A B C.
■■ In audio example LSG8H2.mp3, you will hear the mode of D Dorian ascending and descending.
30
Lydian
Lydian is the fourth mode of the major scale. It has a sweet, uplifting sound due to its unique combination of intervals:
1 2 3 # 4 5 6 7. As you can see, the intervallic structure is very similar to the Ionian mode’s, except the fourth note is raised
by a semitone. This # 4th is the main characteristic of the mode, as the Lydian is the only mode to contain this interval.
The Lydian sound is used extensively by film and TV composers like John Williams, Alan Silvestri and Danny Elfman to
evoke a sense of magic and playfulness, particularly in their scores for E.T., Back To The Future and most famously, the
theme from The Simpsons. The notes of F Lydian are F G A B C D E.
■■ In audio example LSG8H3.mp3, you will hear the mode of F Lydian ascending and descending.
Mixolydian
Mixolydian is the fifth mode of the major scale and has a similar intervallic structure to its parent: 1 2 3 4 5 6 b 7. As you
can see, the intervals of the Mixolydian are almost exactly the same as those of the major scale, except for the 7th degree.
The Mixolydian is the only major mode to contain a b 7th, which makes it the obvious choice for playing over dominant
7 chords.
Mixolydian contains all five notes of the major pentatonic (just like the other major modes), which gives it a light and bright
character, but the addition of the 4th and b 7th intervals suggest a hint of minor pentatonic. This hint makes the Mixolydian
mode a popular mode in blues, funk and soul – genres that often depend on this major/minor ambiguity. The notes of G
Mixolydian are G A B C D E F.
■■ In audio example LSG8H4.mp3, you will hear the mode of G Mixolydian ascending and descending.
Aeolian
Aeolian is another name for the natural minor scale. It is the sixth mode of the major scale. In the key of A minor
(relative minor to the C major scale or C Ionian), the Aeolian mode has the notes A B C D E F G. This mode has a sad
sound, which is often used in songs that have loss as their subject matter, such as REM’s ‘Losing My Religion’ and Adele’s
‘Someone Like You’.
■■ In audio example LSG8H5.mp3, you will hear the mode of A Aeolian ascending and descending.
Try playing these modes on a keyboard. By using C major you can play in all the modes with just the white keys. You just
need to change your root note. C to C sounds like Ionian, F to F sounds like Lydian and so on. It is important that you learn
the sound of each of these modes and are able to tell them apart.
31
Objective: Identify Irregular Time Signatures – and g u

gThe ‘4’ in means the pulse is a quarter note and therefore matches up with the click of a metronome. The number ‘5’
g
at the top means there are five quarter-note pulses per bar. The easiest way to grasp this is to count ‘1 2 3 4 5’ along to a
metronome click. You can also try counting along with famous songs that use g such as Paul Desmond’s ‘Take 5’ and Lalo
Schifrin’s ‘Mission Impossible’ theme. An easy way to get your head around g is to think of it as f with an extra quarter note.
uAn ‘8’ shown at the bottom of a time signature means that the basic unit of measurement is an eighth note, rather than a
quarter note as in the previous examples. u is one of the more natural-sounding odd times, as it feels like a truncated f. You
can hear a good example of it on the Rush song ‘Subdivisions’. When we count eighth notes in common f time we count
the downbeats and upbeats as follows: ‘1 & 2 & 3 & 4 &’. Removing the final eighth note provides the counting system for u:
‘1 & 2 & 3 & 4’. Shown below are the common note groupings within bars of u; the eighth notes can be beamed either as
‘4+3’, or ‘3+4’.
Common note groupings of u

& 78 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
1 & 2 & 3 & 4 1 & 2 & 3 & 4
■■ In audio example LSG8R1.mp3, you will hear a drum groove in . g

■■ In audio example LSG8R2.mp3, you will hear a drum groove in . u
32
Stylistic Awareness
Dubstep
Dubstep originally developed as dub reggae, influenced b-side remixes of 2-Step Garage tracks emerging from South
London’s underground club culture at the end of the 20th century. Although it held Garage’s average tempo of 140bpm,
its percussion became stripped back and the backbeat was shifted to a half time feel. Dubstep became darker in tone and
driven by intense sub-bass frequencies. The added space created in the mix by the sparsity of the percussion allowed the
bass frequencies to dominate the mix and for evolving, brooding atmospheres to be created in lieu of constant melodic
information. Skream and Loefah’s track ‘Fearless’, brilliantly showcases this shift from full time UK garage grooves and
basslines to a sparser, half time feel.
The Wobble
As the genre developed, it took influence from drum & bass and started to incorporate more mid-range basslines to
provide ‘hooks’, often created by automating a bass synths LFO’s to control characteristics like filter cutoff and distortion.
This shaped the basslines and created the wobble bass style associated with dubstep basslines. An excellent example of
LFO automation to control bassline wobbles can be heard in the Kryptic Minds track ‘Badman VIP’ or Chase & Status’s
‘Eastern Jam’.
Drop Structure
Structurally the tunes follow similar form to that of drum & bass (intro, main ‘drop’ section, breakdown mid-section,
second ‘drop’ section followed by the outro) which is common in most forms of dance floor electronic music that rely on
obvious ‘drops’ to introduce new basslines, melodies and varying intensities. However, due to its dub reggae influence,
dubstep structure does allow for sections to run and repeat for much longer than in drum & bass as the slower pace and
available space lend itself to being more laid back and in no hurry to arrive at a new point in the song.
The Mainstream
It didn’t take long for dubstep to start impacting on mainstream music in the UK. Artists like Nero and Skream
started to include pop vocals into their productions. This shift in focus from basslines to melodic hooks catapulted the
genre into the mainstream and took its pioneers out of the underground clubs scene of South London and onto the
world stage. In 2010 Skream, Benga (another South London dubstep pioneer) and Artwork formed the first dubstep
supergroup, Magnetic Man. Their hit single ‘I Need Air’, got to number 10 in the UK singles chart and the dubstep’s
move into the mainstream was complete. The world was starting to take notice of this underground sound and soon
America would re-brand for the commercial audience as EDM.
■■ In audio example LSG8SA1.mp3, you will hear a dubstep recording
33
EDM
EDM was originally an umbrella term for all forms of Electronic Dance Music but became popularised by the American
music industry during the early 2000’s when they saw that dance music was about to become mainstream in the US. They
decided underground rave culture needed rebranding!
Nowadays, EDM is a genre in its own right albeit a very American one. It has taken influence from a plethora of
underground subgenres like house, techno, trance and breakbeat and fused it with pop music’s commercial diatonic
harmony and melodic hooks. However, EDM’s main influence is undoubtedly dubstep. But whereas the energy in a dubstep
track is derived from its sub frequencies, in EDM the focus of the bass sound design has moved to the mid-range and much
harsher in tone.
Glitchy edits are also common in EDM with bass, drums, synths and vocals all in-line to be micro-edited to create new
harmonies, rhythms and fills. An excellent example where you can hear these techniques in use and also dubstep’s evolution
into EDM is Skrillex’s track ‘Scary Monsters’ and ‘Nice Sprites’. The main drum groove is still very much in the vein of
dubstep (140bpm, but with the emphasis on the half time feel) but by having the bassline leap out of the sub frequencies and
into the mid-range, Skrillex has created a new focus for his track and ultimately a new production style. This has then been
combined with lots of micro-edits to create glitches in both the vocal samples and melodic content, a technique now very
common in EDM.
Varied Groove Templates

As a hybrid of sub-genres from underground electronic music, EDM tracks can take various forms, in terms of
production and rhythm. Listen to a DJ like Steve Aoki and you will hear a lot of variation in the rhythm parts, including
breakbeats, half-time dubstep, dancehall, disco and four-to-the-floor techno, although the tempo rarely strays out of the
120–140bpm zone, regardless of style.
The Builds and The Drops

Despite the varied groove templates, all EDM tracks contain the two elements essential for the modern dance floor
– builds and drops. It uses these as a method of building and releasing tension and excitement on the dance floor.
The structure of EDM tracks always keeps this in mind and many tracks have single build ups that last many minutes
before the release comes and the next section is ‘dropped’. The main drum groove is usually removed during these build
sections, only coming back again as part of the drum fill or ‘snare rush’ to help bring the build to a climatic end. The
drops themselves tend to be the introduction of a new hook in the form of a vocal or synth line or, more often than not,
a new mid-range synth bassline, along with the re-introduction of the main drum groove.
■■ In audio example LSG8SA2.mp3, you will hear a EDM recording

34
© OSABEE/Shutterstock
SUMMARY
Theoretical Written Exam 25 [25%]
Listening Test 15 [15%]
> Coursework Task 60 [60%]
At Grade 8 the Technical Skills will centre around creative music production technique such as parallel
compression. In the Coursework Task, the candidate may choose to specialise in Audio Production, Electronic
Music Production or Sound for Media:

■■ Audio Production: The scenario will focus on mastering a final mix with EQ, compressions and limiters
■■ Electronic Music Production: The scenario will focus on creating a remix using the supplied vocal sample
■■ Sound for Media: The scenario will require the candidate to synchronise sound effects, including foley,
to the provided video
Candidates must complete the Coursework Task before their exam and will be asked to upload the Task and
screen shots during their exam.
35
Technical Skills
Compression is an extremely useful tool for not only correcting recordings that feature too much dynamic range, but also
for creative purposes such as making a recording sound warmer, punchier or richer.
The reason compression can make a recording seem warmer is because the transients of the signal (i.e. the first spike in the
waveform when the sound starts) is quite often made up of high frequencies rather than lows. As this transient is normally
the loudest part of the signal, then compressing it will reduce the level of the high frequency transient.
The ratio between highs and lows has then changed in favour of lows, making the recording seem warmer, but consequently,
this can also make the recording seem duller.
There is a compression technique which offers a compromise, retaining the initial transients of the sound, but amplifying
the lower level content. The result is referred to as upward compression, and the technique is called ‘parallel compression’ (
which is also sometimes referred to as ‘New York compression’).
This technique is achieved by splitting a signal so that it follows two paths:

■■ Path 1 flows through the channel as normal and is unprocessed
■■ Path 2 flows through a compressor or limiter
The compressed/limited version of the signal is heavily processed, using a high ratio of compression to really squash the
dynamic range of the signal.
When the compressed signal and uncompressed signals are mixed together, you have retained the natural transients, but
raised the punch, energy and RMS level of the recording in the mix.
36
Coursework Task | Section C
Coursework Task
At Grade 8 you will be able to specialise in one of three areas:
■■ Audio Production – focusing on traditional studio production technique.
■■ Electronic Music Production – focusing on techniques for electronic music genres.
■■ Sound For Media – focusing on techniques relevant to film and TV sound.
Audio Production
Mastering is a skill which enables you to demonstrate that you can think about the last 5% of a production, helping make the
difference between a good mix and a finished production.
For the Audio Production Grade 8 Coursework Task you will be required to master a final mix with EQ, compressions
and limiters.
Electronic Music Production

As an electronic musician, you will be creating music and collaborating with others constantly. The type of collaboration will
vary massively, but perhaps the most common collaboration will be with vocalists.
Almost all successful electronic music in the commercial sector features some kind of vocal performance, however, what
we hear in the end is probably not what the singer originally performed, in fact the producer and singer may never have
even met.
For the Electronic Music Production Grade 8 Coursework Task you will be required to create a remix using the supplied
vocal sample.
Sound For Media

The sound used in media can be split into these categories:
■■ Location Sound – the sound which was recorded at the same time as the visuals.
■■ Dialogue – the speech of the actors
■■ Sound Effects – any artificial sound added to enhance the audio track
■■ Foley – sounds that are added to enhance the realism, such as clothes rustling or footsteps
■■ Music
Most people don’t think about the sound when they watch a film or TV show. It’s just there.
It’s easy to get drawn into the story and assume that the sound was always there, part of the action that ensues on screen.
However, the reality is that it has taken a huge amount of work to put that sound together, whether it be the sound effects on Music Production Grade 8 | Coursework Edition
a James Bond film, or the footsteps on creaky floorboards in a horror movie, or the epic soundtrack that tells us that Harry
Potter is about to have another magical adventure.
It’s not just film and TV that need sound. Let’s not forget computer games, which in some cases have larger production
budgets than Hollywood films.
The sound effects we hear are seldom created with the on location sound, as reality would be far less exciting. For
example, the real sound of a car driving fast around a corner wouldn’t feature nearly as much squealing from the tyres,
but adding those sound effects makes it seem like the car is driving so much faster, implying that the action is more
dangerous and exciting.
In order to make sounds more exciting, the sound designer on a project will be responsible for coming up with new ways of
creating these sounds and layering them together with other sounds to make them sound big and impressive.
37
Here are some examples of sound design for effects:
■■ Punch: Hit a joint of meat and add a bullwhip crack

■■ Chainmail: Keys rattling
■■ Explosion: Lion’s roar, pitch shifted down
■■ Underwater explosion: Toilet flush slowed down to half speed
■■ Dog shaking itself dry: Shake water from a mop
■■ Earthquake: Rub an inflated balloon
■■ Electricity: Pull sellotape from a window
■■ Elephant flapping its ears: Open and close an umbrella
■■ Star Wars Tie Fighters: Elephant sound slowed down
■■ A crackling fire: Scrunch up bubble wrap and other packing materials
■■ Gun cocking: Briefcase latches
■■ Helicopter rotors: Umbrella movement
■■ Horse hooves: Coconut halves, knocked together
■■ Bones breaking: Snap a carrot or piece of celery
These are just some examples of how sound effects have been achieved by the professionals in the past, however there are
limitless ways that these sounds could be achieved. These will be a good starting point, but experiment yourself with new
ways of recording, manipulating and layering the things you have available.
As some of these things are needed on thousands of projects, there are many sound effects libraries out there which provide
pre produced punches and explosions to save you the time of creating them yourself. You won’t always find exactly what you
want however.
Once you have these sounds available, the next part is to synchronise them with the video. This is normally the role of an
effects editor.
Most DAWs will allow you to import a video file into your session, which will then play back synchronised to your audio
track. The task then is to place all your sound effects in exactly the right places to make it seem realistic and provide
maximum impact on the viewer.
Using the most basic method you can simply drag and drop your audio files into the right places and edit them so that they
fit. Some DAWs will also offer dedicated working to picture functions, such as the ‘spot mode’ in Pro Tools. This enables you
to insert an audio file so that it starts at a specific point in the time by typing in the timecode position.
For the Sound For Media Grade 8 Coursework Task you will be required to synchronise sound effects, including foley, to the
provided video.
38
Coursework Task | Section C
Coursework Task 60 Marks [60%]

Assets for this task can be found
in the book’s downloadable files
Audio production:
You want a job at a local studio, as part of the interview they have asked you to demonstrate your skills by mixing down
this track. They have asked for a bright, polished and modern sounding mix. As you wish to showcase your skills
make sure to use EQ, reverb, compression and parallel compression where appropriate, making use of send effects and
auxiliary channels. You must also label your project so the studio can see your levels of organisation and professionalism.
You should also master the track using compression and limiting on the master channel to achieve professional results.
Once you are happy with your solution, render the master as a stereo WAV/AIF file (16bit / 44.1kHz) and upload.
Submission during your exam:
1. Submit a WAV/AIF file (16bit / 44.1kHz) of your finished work

2. Upload a screen shot of your main arrangement view (including parallel compression), mastering compression
and mixer view
Electronic Music Production:
Your recent success as a DJ has started to bring in remix offers. This track is a challenge though - a very commercial
dance track. They have asked you to give this a cool underground club remix which might take it to a more specialist
audience (the reference they gave was Annie Mac’s Radio 1 Show). The band’s management have specified it must
contain at least 4 Pitch elements, 2 Drum or break elements - and be at least 4 minutes long with suitable intro and outro
for club DJs to mix.
To make sure that the vocal cuts through on a club system use EQ, reverb, compression and parallel compression where
appropriate, making use of send effects and auxiliary channels. Make sure to use parallel compression on the vocals and
label your project clearly allowing you to work efficiently in case the label need any further alterations at a later date -
for example special radio edits or club which may be requested by DJs or labels. You should also master the track using
compression and limiting on the master channel to achieve professional results which can be played out by DJs or on the
radio immediately.
Submission during your exam: Music Production Grade 8 | Coursework Edition

2. Upload a screen shot of your main arrangement view (including parallel compression), mastering compression
and mixer view
39
Sound For Media:
This online video for a national charity wants to create a sense of impending crisis in the remote tropical region
where the charity works. Use sync sound effects and foley to image and use effects creatively to add ambience and
environment. The aim is to draw in the listener and engage their sense of empathy. Make sure there is an ambient bed of
sound throughout.
As you wish to achieve a highly professional mix, make sure all sounds are well balanced using the mixer and
automation, make sure to use EQ, reverb, compression, make use of send effects and auxiliary channels and also use
parallel compression across the mix to add finesse. Label your project clearly so that you can easily and efficiently make
any changes that could result in edits to the video by the director at a later stage. You should also master the track using
compression and limiting on the master channel to achieve professional results.
Submission during your exam:

2. Upload a screen shot of your main arrangement view (including automation), mastering compression
and mixer view
40
Sample Paper
© Evgeny Drablenkov/Shutterstock
The following pages contain examples of the types of questions you will find in the Rockschool Music
Production Grade 8 exam. They give an indication of the content, format, layout and level at this grade.
You will see the sample paper has been split into the same three sections that have been presented earlier in
this workbook:
■■ Part A: Theory
■■ Part B: Listening
■■ Part C: Coursework Task
Please visit www.rslawards.com for detailed information on all Rockschool examinations, including syllabus
specifications, marking schemes and examination entry information.
41
Grade 8 | Sample Paper
Part A: Theory (25%)
Section 1 | Music Production Terminology Total marks for this section: 10
Mark:
Q 1.01 | You are working in a professional studio, and have the choice of two FX units. One has TS jack 1
outputs and the other has XLR outputs. All else being equal, which is more likely to provide the
better quality signal?
Your answer:
Q 1.02 | What is the name given to the process of improving something by 1% at a time? 1
Your answer:
Q 1.03 | What is the primary advantage of MP3 over Wav? 1
Your answer:
Q 1.04 | What is the difference between MP3 and FLAC? 1

Your answer:
Q 1.05 | What device could you use between a balanced and unbalanced device to match the level 1
and impedance?
Your answer:
42
Sample Paper | Grade 8
Q 1.06 | Name an advantage that digital connectivity has over analogue: 1
Your answer:
Q 1.07 | Why was the analogue to digital converter so key in the advancement of recording? 1
Your answer:
Q 1.08 | How did the Internet change the way we buy music? 1
Your answer:
Q 1.09 | Following a bad take, name one way you could achieve a better vocal production: 1
Your answer:
Q 1.10 | Name one advantage that the introduction of the DAW gave to electronic music production: 1 Music Production Grade 8 | Coursework Edition
Your answer:
43
Section 2: Sound & Audio Fundamentals Total marks for this section: 10
Mark:
Q 2.01 | Which microphone technique would provide a wide stereo image? 1
Your answer:
Q 2.02 | Which microphone technique would provide a close, detailed, intimate recording with very little 1
room sound?
Your answer:
Q 2.03 | Name one advantage of ‘comping’ vocals: 1
Your answer:
Q 2.04 | Why might you choose to re-record a vocal, rather than use a comping technique? 1
Your answer:
Q 2.05 | Why might you choose to use samples rather than record real musicians? 1
Your answer:
44
Q 2.06 | Which will sound more natural – a guitar recording or a programmed guitar part? 1
Your answer:
Q 2.07 | Name a software package that is used for professional mastering: 1
Your answer:
Q 2.08 | What equipment would you need to ‘re-amp’ a guitar recording? 1
Your answer:
Q 2.09 | What is diffusion? 1
Your answer:
Q 2.10 | What material can be used in a wooden frame to make an absorbtion panel? 1

Your answer:
45
Section 3: Glossary Total marks for this section: 5
Mark:
Q 3.01 | In a DAW what is a buffer? 1
Your answer:
Q 3.02 | What is ‘comp’ short for? 1
Your answer:
Q 3.03 | In audio terms, what does ‘dry’ mean? 1
Your answer:
Q 3.04 | Who discovered the precedence effect? 1

Your answer:
Q 3.05 | What is MTC short for? 1
Your answer:
46
Part B: Listening (15%)
Section 4: Listening Skills Total marks for this section: 15
Mark:
You have been provided with a selection of audio files to enable you to answer the following questions.
Q 4.01 | Which of the following solo recordings has been converted from a low resolution MP3 file? 3
(Audio file EXLSG8SF1.wav)(Tick one box)
§A
§B
Q 4.02 | Which of the following full mixes has been converted from a low resolution MP3 file? 3
(Audio file EXLSG8SF2.wav)(Tick one box)
§A
§B
Q 4.03 | Both of the following WAV files have been converted from MP3. One was converted from a rate 3
of 128Kbps and the other from a rate of 320Kbps MP3. Which one was converted from a rate of
128Kbps? (Audio file EXLSG8SF3.wav)(Tick one box)
§A
§B

Q 4.04 | Identify the following mode of the major scale: (Audio file EXLSG8H1.mp3)(Tick one box) 1
§ Ionian
§ Dorian
§ Lydian
§ Mixolydian
§ Aeolian
47
Q 4.05 | Identify the following mode of the major scale: (Audio file EXLSG8H2.mp3)(Tick one box) 1
§ Ionian
§ Dorian
§ Lydian
§ Mixolydian
§ Aeolian
Q 4.06 | In which time signature is the following drum groove? (Audio file EXLSG8R1.mp3)(Tick one box) 1
§d
§g
§u
Q 4.07 | In which time signature is the following drum groove? (Audio file EXLSG8R2.mp3)(Tick one box) 1
§d
§g
§u
Q 4.08 | In which genre would you classify the following audio clip? (Audio file EXLSG8SA1.mp3) 2
(Tick one box)
§ House
§ Techno
§ Rock
§ Dubstep
48
Part C: Coursework Task (60%)
Section 5: Coursework Task Total marks for this section: 60

15
Mark:
Q 5.01 | Bring your coursework task and screen shots to your exam – you will be asked to upload these 60
during the exam. There will also be a number of questions for you to answer regarding the task.
These will focus on:
■■ The skills used to complete the task

■■ How you approached the professional nature of the task
■■ How you interpreted the creative elements
49
Glossary
1/4” Jack
A kind of jack connector with a diameter of approximately 1/4".
2.1 Sound
An audio format which uses the traditional left and right of stereo but adds a subwoofer. The subwoofer does not have
its own discrete channel, but rather is fed the lower frequencies of the left and right signal via a crossover.
3.5mm Jack
Also known as mini-jack. A kind of jack connector with a diameter of approximately 3.5mm. Most commonly used by
consumer headphones.
5.1 Surround Sound

A surround sound format which uses 6 speakers: left, centre, right, left surround, right surround and subwoofer.
7.1 Surround Sound

A surround sound format which uses 8 speakers: left, centre, right, left surround, right surround, left back surround,
right back surround and subwoofer.
AB
A stereo microphone technique where two omnidirectional microphones are placed apart from each other, where their
placement adheres to the 3:1 rule. This technique provides a very wide stereo image.
Ableton Live
A digital audio workstation which is very popular with electronic musicians due to its focus on real time interaction.
Acoustic Instrument
A musical instrument which creates sound without the need for electrical power, for example, an acoustic guitar, drum
or piano.
ADAT Lightpipe
An optical digital data transfer connection, capable of transferring 8 channels of high quality audio at once.
Additive Synthesis
A synthesis method that builds waveforms by adding sine waves together.
ADR
An initialism of ‘automatic dialogue replacement’.
ADSR
Attack, decay, sustain and release are the four stages of an envelope that describe the shape of a sound over time.
AFL
An initialism of ‘after fade listen’, used to solo a channel after the fader.
50
Glossary
After Touch
A force that is applied by a performer to the key on a controller after it has been initially pressed.
.aif
A file suffix (also known as .aiff) used for AIFF files.
AIFF
An acronym of ‘audio interchange file format’. This file format is considered high quality as it is a lossless format. It has
largely been superseded by Wav in the interest of compatibility.
AKG C1000
A rugged condenser microphone, often used in live situations to amplify drum kits.
AKG C414
A high quality large diaphragm condenser microphone with a switchable polar pattern, mainly used in studio situations
for instruments such as acoustic guitars, pianos and vocals.
AKG C451 \ AKG C451B

A small condenser microphone with good balance between quality and price. Often used for stereo miking acoustic
guitars or drum kits.
AKG D112
An industry standard dynamic microphone most commonly used for recording kick drums.
Algorithm
A code supplied to a computer for the purpose of solving a problem, such as how to create artificial reverb.
Aliasing
A digital audio term for ‘ghost’ frequencies’ created when trying to record frequencies greater than one-half the system’s
sample rate.
All Notes Off

A message sent to a MIDI device to instruct it to cease generation of all MIDI notes.

Ambience
The sound that a room or space adds to the original sound source.
Ambient
The ambience features highly in the sound.
Amp/Amplifier
An electrical or electronic device which increases the amplitude of a signal.
Amplitude
The measurement of the change in atmospheric pressure caused by sound waves.
51
Glossary
Analogue
Constantly varying. Refers to audio devices which are not digital.
Analogue Synthesis
The method of sound synthesis which relies on standard waveforms to create new sounds. The amplitude, frequency and
harmonic content of these waveforms can be manipulated to produce an infinite number of differing results.
App Store
An abbreviation of ‘application store’, an online cloud based service which provides access to new applications. Many
software companies use an application store, such as Apple, Microsoft and Google.
Arpeggiator
A device which takes the notes of a chord and plays them sequentially.
Arrange Window
The main area of a DAW which enables the user to organise and edit audio clips.
Artist Manager
The person or company who looks after the interests of the artist. This might include negotiating their contracts,
managing finances, organising transport and other logistics or managing their diary to ensure they are in the right place
at the right time.
Attack
Attack represents the time the sound takes to rise from an initial value of zero to its maximum level. On a compressor
or gate the attack control is user to define how much of the audio signal’s transient is allowed to pass before the device
reacts.
Attenuate
To make quieter.
Audio File
An audio recording in digital format, most commonly on a computer system.
Audio Interface
The computer peripheral which enables the user to input and output audio from a computer, converting the analogue
sound into digital when recording, and the digital back into audio when played back.
Audio Track
A type of channel in a DAW which is used for recording or playing back audio files.
Automatic Dialogue Replacement

The process of replacing dialogue on a video. This is common when the location sound is unusable due to background
noise, so the actors are called into the studio to rerecord just the audio for their lines. These will then be synchronised
with the visual performance.
52
Glossary
Automation
The function which automates the variation of settings in a DAW or high level mixing desk.
Automation Track/Lane
A type of channel view in a DAW which shows the automation recorded to that channel. In most DAWs the automation
is overlayed on top of the recorded audio or other channel content.
Aux
An abbreviation of ‘auxiliary’.
Auxiliary
This refers to the function of a mixing desk which can send part of a signal in a channel to an additional destination.
Often used for sending a varying amount of signal to a reverb or other effects.
Auxiliary Track
A type of channel in a DAW which is used purely for routing and processing audio.
Backup
A copy of the materials from a project, created to ensure that nothing is lost if the originals are damaged.
Balanced
A type of connection between two devices which uses a twin core and screen cable, using common mode rejection to
reduce external interference. Commonly uses either XLR, 1/4” jack or bantam connectors.
Bandpass Filter
A type of filter which removes frequencies above and below a determined frequency.
Bandwidth
The range of audio frequencies which directly influence the fidelity of a sound.
Bass Guitar
A kind of guitar with a register that is one octave below a traditionally pitched guitar. In its most common 4-string
format, the pitching mirrors the lowest four strings of a traditional guitar.

Bass Reflex Speaker
A speaker design which features a port on the front or back, tuned to a certain range of frequencies. This allows the
signal from the rear of the speaker to resonate around the cabinet and leave the speaker through the port, reinforcing the
tuned frequencies.
Binary
A mathematical term used in digital electronics. A binary number is a number expressed as either a 0 or 1, referring to
‘off ’ and ‘on’, or in simple terms ‘there is no electricity’ or ‘there is electricity’.
Bit
One binary digit.
53
Glossary
Bit Depth
The accuracy with which the amplitude of a signal can be measured when sampling. A higher bit depth achieves better
quality.
Bluetooth
A wireless connection technology, mainly used for consumer peripherals such as connecting mice or keyboards to
computers or connecting mobile telephones to handsfree devices.
Boost
To raise the level of an audio signal, or part of an audio signal in the case of equalisation.
Bounce
The creation of a new mix file from the audible elements of a session.
Broadband absorber
A type of acoustic treatment which absorbs a wide band of frequencies.
Budget
An amount of money invested to fund a project.
Buffer
An area of temporary storage in the computer systems RAM. Commonly used in DAWs to help the processor keep
up with the required tasks, minimising playback errors. The buffer size can be changed, larger buffers enable more
processing but cause a longer latency.
Bus
An internal connection in a mixing desk that carries the signal from one place to another. Also emulated in DAWs,
sometimes referred to as ‘sends’.
Buzz
An unwanted noise which has high harmonic content. It will sound higher pitched than a hum.
Cable
A wire which connects two devices, normally coated in rubber or plastic for durability.
.caf
A file suffix used for CAF files.
CAF
An acronym of ‘core audio format’. This is a file format developed by Apple, to enable users to create large file sizes for
example, long audio recordings.
Capacitor
An electronic component, containing two opposing conductive plates with a voltage potential difference across them. A
capacitor is a core component in a condenser microphone.
54
Glossary
Cardioid
A microphone polar pattern. Cardioid pattern mics are most sensitive to sounds in front of the mic, rejecting sounds
from the rear.
Cashflow
A way of tracking how much money is available over time. Cash Flow is different to a budget as it takes account of any
money coming in as time passes.
CD
An abbreviation of ‘compact disc’.
CD-ROM
An acronym of ‘compact disc read only memory’. CDs can store both audio for playback on consumer CD players, or
data for retrieval by computers using a CD-ROM drive.
Cello
A wooden stringed-instrument with four tuned strings. Commonly used in classical music as well as many other genres.
It is larger than a viola, giving it a deeper sound and lower pitch.
Channel (MIDI)
One of 16 different paths of data that can be used to carry MIDI messages.
Channel (Mixing Desk)

A default signal path through a mixing desk. A mixing desk will have a set number of channels, each of which will be
numbered.
Chord
A musical collection of notes played at the same time to form harmony.
Chord Progression
A sequence of chords.
Chorusing

An effect which makes a single sound appear to sound like an ensemble. The signal is duplicated and delayed slightly,
with a subtle variation of pitch. These time and pitch differences are controlled by a low frequency oscillator (LFO) to
provide a subtle variation to the sound.
Chrome
An internet browser created and developed by Google.
Close Miking
A microphone technique where a microphone is placed close to an instrument, so as to minimise the spill from other
instruments or the effects of the room reverberation.
55
Glossary
Cloud Storage
An area of file storage based on a remote server, which can only be accessed via an internet connection. This makes it
possible to share or work on files from any location with an internet connection, greatly aiding collaboration.
Coincident Pair
A type of XY stereo microphone technique where the capsules are as close together as possible.
Collaboration
A method of working which involves working with others with the shared goal of achieving something greater than what
may have been achieved in isolation.
Comp
An abbreviation of ‘compositing’.
Compact Disc
An optical digital audio medium used for sharing music. Compact disc was the largest selling music medium from the
late 80’s to early 2000s and remains widely used. A CD can hold 74 minutes of stereo audio or up to 700MB of data.
Composite
To take the best parts of multiple takes of a performance and edit them together to create a perfect version.
Compression Blending
A compression technique which splits a signal in two, with a different compressor used on each version. The two
compressed channels are then mixed together.
Compression Pumping
An effect achieved by using a compressor’s sidechain input to trigger high ratio dramatic compression on the rest of
a track, using a kick drum or other fast transient audio signal. The effect of this pumping can be adjusted with the
compressor’s attack and release controls.
Compressor
An audio device which reduces the dynamic range of a signal.
Computer
The hardware which hosts the DAW software, typically an Apple Macintosh or Windows PC.
Computer Keyboard
A computer peripheral used for entering letters into a computer. It can also be used with certain software applications to
trigger shortcut functions.
Condenser
A microphone design which uses a capacitor and requires 48v phantom power. Achieves a crisp and clear sound.
Console
Also known as mixing desk or mixing console.
56
Glossary
Constructive Interference
When two or more waveforms are combined, a new waveform is produced which is a sum of the originals.
Continuity Meter
A diagnostic device which checks whether a connection is working.
Continuous Controller
A type of MIDI message that is generated by the movement of a variable controller such as the pitch bend or modulation
wheel.
Contrabass
It is larger than a cello, giving it a deeper sound and lower pitch. It is commonly transposed up an octave due to the
notes it is capable of, requiring excessive ledger lines making it difficult to read.
Contract
An optional written agreement between two parties which outlines their commitments to each other in relation to a
project.
Control Room
The part of a recording studio where the sound engineer will operate the equipment, such as the mixing desk.
Controller Keyboard
An emulation of the piano which is unable to generate sounds on its own. It will generally be MIDI enabled, so will use
the MIDI protocol to trigger sounds on a synthesiser.
Copy
A computer software function, common to most software which takes a selected proportion and copies it to the
clipboard (RAM).
Copyright
A legal term for the right to copy intellectual property. To copy IP without approval from the copyright owner would be
breaking the law (depending on the country or territory).
CPU Music Production Grade 8 | Coursework Edition

An abbreviation of ‘central processing unit’. A silicon chip that performs calculations and acts as the ‘brain’ of a
computer.
Crossover
An electronic device which divides up the frequency spectrum so that the different frequency ranges can be sent to
different speakers, for example, a tweeter for high frequencies and woofer for lower frequencies.
Cubase
A digital audio workstation (DAW) created and developed by Steinberg.
57
Glossary
Cut
Another name used for mute, used to silence signal paths on a mixing desk, e.g. channel or auxiliaries. Also used to refer
to a reduction in level when using equalisation.
Cut
A computer software function, common to most software which takes a selected proportion and copies it to the
clipboard (RAM) while simultaneously deleting it from its original location.
D-Sub
A kind of connector used in computing and audio applications, which has multiple pins. There are numerous sizes,
the most common of which in audio technology would be the DB-25, which has twenty five pins capable of carrying
8 channels of balanced analogue audio (either 8 in one direction or 4 in and 4 out). It may also be used in digital audio
applications using the TDIF standard.
DAT
An abbreviation of ‘digital audio tape’.
DAW
An abbreviation of ‘digital audio workstation’.
De-esser
A device which is used to balance out the sibilance in a performance. It combines a compressor and EQ in one device.
The EQ is used to boost the sibilant frequencies of the input (normally a vocal) which causes the compressor to
compress these frequencies more than the others.
Deadline
The agreed time by which a project must be delivered.
Decay
In synthesis, decay is the time taken for the signal to fall to the sustain level.
Delay
An echo effect.
Delete
A computer software function, common to most software which removes a selected portion.
Destructive Editing
The editing of an original file or recording which cannot be undone.
DI Box
An abbreviation of direct injection Box. This box is used to connect devices of difference impedance, for example,
connecting balanced and unbalanced devices.
Diffuser
A type of acoustic treatment which prevents standing waves by scattering the sound reflections through the room.
58
Glossary
Digital
A digital device uses binary to function.
Digital Audio
Audio recorded to a digital device such as a computer.
Digital Audio Tape

A linear medium which uses tape to record sound as digital data. Introduced in 1987, it was once the industry standard
for recording final mixes before sending to be duplicated.
Digital Audio Workstation

Music production software for recording and editing MIDI and audio data. Examples include Cubase, Logic, Pro Tools,
Garageband and Ableton Live. The DAW can be used for recording audio, editing audio, cutting up and rearranging
audio recordings and loops, mixing, creating MP3 files and many other functions.
Digital Signal Processing

The action of a computer processor altering an audio signal. DSP can be native (using the computer’s CPU) or using a
dedicated DSP hardware for example, in high end Pro Tools systems or UAD peripherals.
Digital Synthesis
Artificial sound synthesis, generated using a digital system.
DIN
A five pin plug or socket, most commonly used by MIDI devices but can also carry audio when connected to audio
devices.
Direct Monitoring
A way of overcoming latency, which bypasses any computer processing and feeds the input directly to the output. This is
quite often available on audio interfaces and some DAWs offer a similar function.
Distortion
When the maximum sound level of an analogue device is exceeded. Unlike digital clipping, analogue distortion can be
appealing for example, when overloading a guitar amplifier.
DJ Music Production Grade 8 | Coursework Edition

A performer who plays back pre-recorded material, crossfading between tracks. A modern DJ may also create content of
his own for playback and interact with the music.
Drum Editor
A piano roll style DAW editor but tuned to enable easier drum editing.
Drum Kit
A rhythmic instrument commonly used in modern music, featuring a combination of drums and cymbals.
Drum Machine
A hardware device or software instrument used to create drum patterns.
59
Glossary
Dry
With no effects added to the signal.
DSP
An initialism of ‘digital signal processing’.
Duck
When the duck function is active, the signal arriving at the key input causes the signal at the input to lower in level.
Duplicate
A computer software function, common to most software which takes a selected portion and replicates it immediately
after the original instance.
DVD
An initialism of ‘digital versatile disc’. An optical format much like a CD, but with far greater storage capacity. This made
it the standard for consumer video playback.
DVD-ROM
DVDs can be used to store video content for playback on consumer DVD players, or data which can be retrieved by
computer systems using a DVD-ROM drive. This is a cost effective medium for sharing large session files with others, if
a network transfer isn’t practical.
Dynamic
A microphone design which uses electro-magnetism to convert acoustic energy into electrical energy.
Dynamic Range
The difference in decibels between the quietest and the loudest points in a signal, or the noise floor and the maximum
level an audio system can handle.
Dynamics
The variation in perceived level of a mix.
Ear
The part of the human body which enables us to hear sound. It converts acoustic energy into electrical nerve impulses
for the brain to interpret as audio.
Echo
When a sound bounces off a surface and returns to the listener later than the original sound. Emulated in audio
production using a delay effect.
Editing
The process of altering the arrangement of recorded audio or MIDI data in order to composite a more favourable
version.
60
Glossary
Effects
Hardware devices or plugins which are used to enhance or alter the sound such as reverb, delays, chorus, flange, phasing
and many others.
Electric Guitar
A guitar which uses an electromagnetic pickup to convert the vibrations in the strings to waves of electricity, which is
then amplified to create sound.
Electrical Sound Source

A source of sound which is created through electrical means, for example, a synthesiser.
Electronic Drum Kit

A set of MIDI triggers which are arranged like a real drumkit, allowing a drummer to perform quietly using artificial
synthesised sounds.
Electronic Drums
A synthesised drum kit, which can be played using specialist triggers such as an electronic drum kit or pads.
Electrostatic
Another name given to a condenser or capacitor microphone.
Emulation
The effect of recreating something analogue in the digital domain, for example, a software instrument piano is an
emulation of a real piano.
Envelope
Changes in sound over time: attack, decay, sustain and release.
Envelope Generator
A device which generates an attack, decay, sustain and release signal for processing in synthesis.
EQ
An abbreviation of ‘equaliser’, a function which alters the tone of the input signal.

Equalisation
The process of changing the frequency content, tone or timbre of an audio signal.
Error Correction
A process undertaken by a digital audio system to replace missing data from a waveform.
Ethernet
The name given to the networking standards of LAN devices. It most commonly uses an RJ45 cable.
Event Editor
A DAW editor window which enables the editing of individual MIDI events using text.
61
Glossary
Expander
An audio device which works much like the opposite of a compressor in that it increases the dynamic range of a signal,
so that the quiet signals are made even quieter. It can be used instead of a gate to achieve a more natural effect.
Expenditure
Money that is spent on a project.
Fade In
To gradually increase an audio signal from nothing to its normal level.
Fade Out
To gradually reduce the level of a signal until it disappears.
Fader
The component on a mixing desk which adjusts the channel level. Faders are also emulated in DAWs.
Fault
A problem with a device or connection.
Fidelity
The degree of exactness of reproduction. A high fidelity recording is very close to the original sound in the room.
Filter
A type of equaliser that removes certain frequencies, depending on the type of filter.
Finder
The area of the Apple OSX operating system which enables users to organise files and folders.
Firefox
An internet browser created and developed by Mozilla.
Firewire
A peripheral connection with two different versions available; Firewire 400 and 800. The number represents the speed in
Mbps. It may also be referred to as IEEE 1394.
FL Studio
A digital audio workstation, originally called ‘Fruity Loops’ but renamed as it grew more popular. Created and developed
by Image-Line.
FLAC
An acronym of ‘free lossless audio coding’. A lossless audio format which features a smaller file size than Wav, but
without losing quality like MP3.
62
Glossary
Flange
A modulation effect which uses a delayed version of the signal mixed in with the original, with the time difference
altered over time by a low frequency oscillator.
Foley
Sounds which are added to enhance the realism of the visuals, for example, footsteps, clothes rustling, clock ticking.
Frequency
The rate at which something vibrates, measured in cycles per second (Hertz/Hz). In sound, the higher the frequency of a
sound wave then the higher the pitch that we hear.
Fundamental Frequency
The core frequency within a sound which determines its musical pitch.
Gain
A function of an amplifier circuit, which makes the signal louder. Among other places you will find it at the input stage
of a mixing desk channel to control how much signal is entering the console.
Garageband
An entry level digital audio workstation, created and developed by Apple. Currently supplied free with every new Apple
Macintosh computer.
Gate
An audio device which helps to remove unwanted signals below a certain threshold, for example, to remove the sound of
the cymbals from a snare microphone.
Gigabit Ethernet
A standard of ethernet which is capable of speeds of up to 1 gigabit per second.
Graphic Equaliser
A type of equaliser which divides the frequency spectrum into bands, typically by octaves or 1/3rd of an octave.
Groove Templates

Quantisation templates which are not rigid to the beat, but have a rhythmic feel to them such as swing.
Ground Loop
A hum caused by having two or more pieces of equipment connect with a clear path from the earth of one to the earth
of another. Commonly cured by removing the earth connection in one of the mains plugs, although this can be highly
dangerous and is not recommended! There are other ways of curing ground loops which vary depending on the system
in question.
Guitar Pickup
The component of a guitar which converts the vibration of the string into electrical energy using an electromagnetic
field.
63
Glossary
Haas effect
A psychoacoustic effect identified by Helmut Haas, which describes how we can identify the location that a sound is
coming from. This can be demonstrated by splitting a mono signal across two channels panned left and right, then
delaying one signal. The sound will seem to be coming from the side which has not been delayed. This can be used to
create a false stereo effect, although it can cause problems with mono compatibility.
Half Normalled (Patch Bay)

When a patch bay is half normalled, the top socket and bottom socket of the row are connected together unless a cable is
inserted into the bottom socket.
Hard Disk
Also referred to as ‘hard drive’ or ‘hard disk drive’. This is the local storage in a computer system, where files are saved to
be retained after the computer has been switched off.
Hard Drive
Also referred to as ‘hard disk’ or ‘hard disk drive’. This is the local storage in a computer system, where files are saved to
be retained after the computer has been switched off.
HDD
An initialism of ‘hard disk drive’.
Headphone
A portable pair of speakers which can be worn on the head.
Headphone Volume
The function on a device which alters the volume specific to the headphones. This control would be independent of the
volume sent to the main monitor speakers in a studio.
Headroom
The difference between the signal level and the maximum output that a system can handle before distorting.
Hertz
The unit of frequency, cycles per second, abbreviated ‘Hz’.
High Fidelity
High quality audio.
High Pass Filter

A filter which allows all frequencies above a set threshold to pass but removes everything below that frequency.
High Pass Filter

A type of equalisation which allows the engineer to remove all frequencies below a defined frequency, allowing the
higher frequencies to pass.
High Shelf
A type of equalisation which allows the engineer to boost or cut all frequencies above a set frequency.
64
Glossary
HPF
An initialism of ‘high pass filter’.
Hum
A generally unwanted low frequency sine wave, commonly produced by electrical interference.
Hz
An abbreviation of ‘hertz’.
Infinite Baffle Speaker

A speaker design which is mounted in a surface with a large space behind it.
Insert Point
The point in a signal chain where a device can be inserted. On some mixing desks there is a dedicated insert point before
or after the EQ, which enables the signal to be sent to an external device such as a compressor. The insert concept is
emulated in a DAW as a plugin slot.
Internet
The global system of connected computers which use a standard communication protocol.
Internet Explorer
An internet browser created and developed by Microsoft.
Isolation (Acoustics)
Limiting the amount of sound which can pass from one space to another, for example, sound isolation would be
recommended to prevent road noise from outside entering a recording studio so that the noise isn’t recorded.
iTunes
An application created and developed by Apple for purchasing, organising and listening to music files. It can also be
used for managing the content on Apple’s smart devices such as iPhones, iPods and iPads, and stream content to Apple
TVs.
iTunes Store

Apple’s online music and multimedia purchasing/rental service. Music, film and TV shows can be purchased/rented and
downloaded immediately. The user will be required to set up an Apple ID.
Jack Connector
A male connector commonly used in patch bays, line level equipment and guitar connections.
Jitter
Inaccuracies in the PCM process caused by a poor time clock in the digital system.
65
Glossary
Key Input
An input on a gate or expander. The gate or expander uses the key input as its trigger, making it possible to have the
gate react to something other than the signal that is being processed. For example, you could have a synth pad playing
through the gate with a hi-hat fed into the key input, meaning that the synth would only be heard when the hi-hat is
played.
Keyboard
An electronic version of a piano, regarded as an artificial sound source as it requires a synthesiser to make sound.
Keyboard Split
A keyboard or sampler function which enables the user to trigger different sounds on the left and right halves of the
keyboard. The split point can be changed.
Knee
A function of a compressor which determines how severely the dynamics of a signal are affected when they exceed the
threshold.
LAN
An acronym of ‘local area network’.
Latch Mode (Automation)

An automation mode which allows existing automation to be altered during playback. When alterations are complete the
final altered value is retained.
Latency
The delay in an audio system caused by computer processing. This can be problematic in studios, particularly when
recording.
Launchpad
A part of the Apple OSX operating system which provides a shortcut to all the installed applications.
Layering
Recording additional parts over the top of existing parts, so that they sound like one part when they are mixed together.
For example, a string section playing the same melody as a piano.
LCD
An initialism of ‘liquid crystal display’. Most commonly found as small screens.
Level
The absolute volume of an audio signal in electrical terms.
LFE
An initialism of ‘low frequency effects’, which refers to the subwoofer used in surround systems.
LFO
An initialism of ‘low frequency oscillator’.
66
Glossary
License
A license is the approval to use music in accordance with copyright law.
Limiter
A type of compressor which reduces the dynamic range drastically, using a very high ratio above the set threshold.
Line Input
Used for connecting line level devices, such as synthesisers or outboard equipment.
Line Level
The nominal reference level of an audio system, which could be -10dBv or +4dBu.
Linear Editing
The historical editing process which involved cutting tape in order to make edits. This was very limiting, and has since
been superseded by non-linear editing.
Live Room
The part of a recording studio where the performance takes place and microphones are used to record.
Lo-Fi
An abbreviation of ‘low fidelity’. Sometimes used for creative effect.
Local Area Network

A network of computer systems connected by ethernet in a contained location, for example, within a studio complex
or home.
Local On/Off
A mode on a keyboard which connects or disconnects the controller element from any synthesiser element.
Logic Pro
A digital audio workstation, originally created by a company called C-Lab, and now owned and developed by Apple.

.logicx
The file suffix for a Logic Pro X session file.
Loop
A repeating pattern of MIDI data or segment of audio.
Loop Recording
The function that some DAWs offer to record a defined section over and over again, with each version being retained for
editing later. Each DAW has its own name for this functionality.
Lossless
A type of file format which maintains the original quality of the audio recording, for example, Wav, AIFF, FLAC.
67
Glossary
Lossy
A type of file format which by making the file size smaller, it also has a negative impact on the quality of the audio itself.
For example, MP3, AAC.
Low Fidelity
Low quality audio. Sometimes used for creative effect.
Low Frequency Oscillator

A device used in synthesis to alter the audio signal at a relatively slow pace when compared to a signal generating
oscillator.
Low Pass Filter

A type of equalisation which allows the engineer to remove all frequencies above a defined frequency, allowing the lower
frequencies to pass.
Low Shelf
A type of equalisation which allows the engineer to boost or cut all frequencies below a set frequency.
LPF
An initialism of ‘low pass filter’.
Machine Room
The part of a recording studio where any noisy equipment is stored. This will generally only be found in commercial
studios, with large mixing consoles which require noisy power supplies.
MADI
An acronym of ‘multichannel audio digital interface’. A high quality digital audio transfer protocol, which is capable of
carrying up to 64 channels of audio and at samples rates of up to 96kHz. You are unlikely to find this level of technology
in a home studio, but far more likely in a professional studio or in high end location recording.
Marker
A way of labeling time or arrangement locations in a DAW project, for example, verse 1, chorus, middle 8 etc.
Master
The final output. This could refer to the main output of a mixing desk/DAW, or the final version of the mix which is to
be shared with the listener.
Mastering
The final process of the production process which provides final tweaks to prepare the audio for distribution to the
consumer.
Memory Stick
A term used to describe a USB flash based storage device. The term memory stick was initially used by Sony, but has
since become a term used for all such devices.
68
Glossary
Metronome
A device which emits a regular click in time with the tempo and time signature.
Mic Level
An abbreviation of microphone level. Due to their design microphones output only a small amount of current, which
requires the input circuitry to be very sensitive.
Microphone
A transducer, which converts acoustic sound into electrical signal.
Mid-Side
A stereo microphone technique where a figure of 8 microphone is placed at 90 degrees to a cardioid. The figure of 8
microphone is used to collect left and right, while the cardioid is focused on the subject. The figure of 8 microphone’s
signal is split, panned left and right, with one side phase inverted. As the left and right will then be canceled out when
summed to mono, this makes the technique very good for mono compatibility without requiring remixing.
MIDI
An acronym of ‘musical instrument digital interface’. The protocol used to transmit and receive musical information
between MIDI devices. This could be used for many purposes, including triggering notes on a synthesiser and adjusting
settings on an effects processor.
MIDI Clock
A MIDI message which acts like a metronome for MIDI data. The ‘tempo’ of the MIDI clock is fixed at the frame rate of
the recording session, and bears no relation to the tempo of the music.
MIDI In
The MIDI input connector of a device.
MIDI Interface
A device which enables MIDI devices to be connected to a computer. Some MIDI devices now use USB to avoid the
need for a MIDI interface.
MIDI Keyboard
A piano like electronic device for triggering a MIDI synthesiser, or recording into a DAW.
MIDI Merge
A device which combines the MIDI output of two devices into one input of another.
MIDI Message
An instruction sent between MIDI devices for control purposes.
MIDI Out
The MIDI output connector of a device.
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Glossary
MIDI Pickup
A guitar pickup which can convert the vibration of the strings into MIDI note data, making it possible to play
synthesized sounds with a guitar.
MIDI Port
A female MIDI connector on a MIDI device which enables connection to other MIDI devices using a MIDI cable. Ports
include ‘in’, ‘out’ and ‘thru’.
MIDI Thru
A MIDI connector which enables MIDI devices to be chained together. All data that arrives at the MIDI input of the
device is replicated at the MIDI thru port for passing on to the next device.
MIDI Time Code

Used for synchronising MIDI capable devices together.
MIDI Track
A type of channel in a DAW which is used for recording and playing back MIDI data. It creates no sound in itself and
requires its output to be routed to a MIDI synthesiser or software instrument on a different channel.
Mini Jack
Also known as 3.5mm jack. A kind of jack connector with a diameter of approximately 3.5mm. Most commonly used by
consumer headphones.
Minidisc
An evolution of the CD, which housed the optical disc inside a plastic case making it smaller and more durable.
Mix
The version of a recording which features all the required recorded elements balanced together coherently.
Mix Window
An area of a DAW which enables the user to balance the levels of the recorded sounds.
Mixer
The device in a recording studio which acts as the central hub, altering the audio signal or directing it to different
locations. Also referred to as mixing desk or mixing console.
Mixing
The process of balancing the relative level of the recorded audio tracks. The ideal result being a coherent and well-
balanced sound.
Mixing Desk
The device in a recording studio which acts as the central hub, altering the audio signal or directing it to different
locations.
70
Glossary
Modulation Wheel
A controller found on musical keyboards which enables the musician to control many elements of the sound of the
performance. Modulation is a controller in itself, but the modulation wheel can be assigned to any other controller such
as filter cutoff.
Monaural
A single channel of audio.
Monitor Display
The visual interface of a computer system.
Monitor Speaker
The main set of speakers that the sound engineer will use to listen to their mix in the studio.
Mono
An abbreviation of ‘monaural’.
Monophonic
A limitation of some synthesisers that can only play one note at a time.
Mouse
A common computer peripheral used to control the pointer on screen.
MP3
An abbreviation of ‘mpeg-2 audio layer 3’. A lossy compressed audio format, which has a smaller file size than a WAV
file. Their combination of small file size and acceptable audio quality have made them very popular with consumers.
MS
An initialism of ‘mid-side’.
MTC
An initialism of ‘MIDI time code’.
Multitimbral Music Production Grade 8 | Coursework Edition

A multi timbral synthesiser is capable of playing more than one type of sound at a time.
Multitrack
The system of recording invented by Guitar pioneer Les Paul, where recordings can be layered over each other,
regardless of when they are recorded. For example, a guitar recorded first, then the vocal added over the top at a later
time or date.
Mute
The function which silences a device or channel.
71
Glossary
My Computer
The area of the Microsoft Windows operating system which enables users to organise files and folders.
Natural Sound Source

A source of sound which is created through natural means, for example, the vibration of a string or drum skin.
Near Coincident Pair

A type of XY stereo microphone technique where the capsules are within 30cm of each other but not immediately next
to each other.
Neumann U87
A very high quality large diaphragm condenser microphone with a switchable polar pattern, it is considered to be an
industry standard in commercial studios, used for vocals, acoustic guitars, pianos and other acoustic instruments.
New York Compression

Another name for ‘parallel compression’.
Noise
Unwanted sound, such as hiss, hum or buzz.
Non-Destructive Editing
The type of editing employed by modern DAW software, where the original file is not affected by changes made to it in
the software.
Non-Linear Editing
A non destructive form of editing, as used in modern DAW software.
Normalisation
A software function which increases the level of an audio file so that its loudest part is as loud as the system can handle,
normally 0dBfs.
Normalled (Patch Bay)

When a patch bay is normalled, the top socket and bottom socket of the row are connected together unless a cable is
inserted into either the top or bottom socket.
Note On
A MIDI message which triggers a note to sound.
Nyquist Frequency
The highest frequency that a digital audio system can capture accurately.
Octave
12 semitones. One octave up is double the frequency of the starting pitch.
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Glossary
Offline
Any computer action which takes place through local processing.
OMF
An initialism of ‘open media framework’.
Open Media Framework

A format for saving session files which is compatible with all major DAWs. It is quite limited as only the basic
arrangement is saved, however, it can be a valuable tool for collaboration with other producers.
Operating System
The software installed on a computer which controls its most basic functions, such as how it communicates with
peripherals and interacts with other installed software applications. The operating system is the graphic user interface
that the user interacts with.
Oscillator
An electronic device which generates a constant waveform. Used to generate sound waves in synthesis.
OSX
An operating system created and developed by Apple which comes preinstalled on all new Apple Macintosh computers.
Outboard Device
Any piece of equipment which is not part of the mixing desk or computer system.
Pan
An abbreviation of ‘panorama’. Commonly referring to the pan pot, a control on a mixing desk or DAW channel which
moves the signal from left to right in the stereo image.
Parallel
A set of sockets on a patch bay, which enable the engineer to duplicate the signal. Also referred to as a ‘mult’.
Parallel Compression
A compression technique which splits a signal in two, with heavy compression applied to one and no compression

applied to the other. The two signals are then mixed together. Also known as ‘New York compression’.
Parameters
Programmable elements of device or system.
Parametric EQ
An accurate form of equalisation, where the gain, frequency and Q factor can all be changed.
Paste
A computer software function, common to most software which inserts the contents of the clipboard at a chosen
location.
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Glossary
Patch
Settings that have been saved for future recall in hardware devices such as synthesisers or effects units.
Patch Cable
A short cable which is used to make connections on a patch bay. Some guitarists also use patch cables to connect their
pedals together due to their conveniently short length.
Patch Bay
A series of rackmount sockets, which represent every connection in the studio. This makes it possible to connect two
devices together without running cables across the room and overcoming inaccessible rear connections.
PCM
An initialism of ‘pulse code modulation’.
Period
One cycle of an oscillation, for example, a sound wave.
Peripheral
An external device that can be connected to a computer system to enhance its capabilities, e.g. audio interface, MIDI
interface, keyboard, monitor, mouse.
Personnel
The people involved in a project or task.
PFL
An initialism of ‘pre fade listen’. This enables signal to be sent from a channel independently of the fader level. A
common use is for headphone mixes.
Phantom Power
The 48v power supply required by condenser microphones.
Phase
A time point in a cycle.
Phase Cancellation
An electrical version of constructive interference, where two waves are combined to create a new waveform. If one wave
is positive, when the other is equally negative, the result would be complete cancellation.
Phasing
A delay based modulation effect.
Phono Connector
Also known as RCA connector.
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Glossary
Piano
A stringed instrument which uses keys to trigger hammers that strike the strings.
Piano Roll Editor

A DAW editor window which enables the manipulation of MIDI note data, which is arranged in a matrix with the piano
keys from top to bottom and time from left to right.
Pitch
A fixed note, determined by its fundamental frequency.
Pitch Bend
A MIDI controller found on most keyboards, which enables the musician to change the pitch of the sound during the
performance, bending the note.
Pitch Correction
The process of correcting the pitching of a performance. DAWs offer this basic functionality, however, bespoke plugin
solutions are offered such as Melodyne and Autotune.
Plugin
An optional piece of software, which operates within a DAW. Many plugins are supplied with a DAW, however further
plugins can be purchased from 3rd party manufacturers. There are several formats of plugin, including Audiounit, AAX,
VST and RTAS.
Polarity
Having a positive or negative value. In audio, reversing the polarity will switch a waveform so that everything that was
positive is negative and vice versa. This is the function of a phase switch on a mixing desk.
Polyphonic
An ability to reproduce multiple notes at once, unlike monophonic.
Post-fader
Anything that occurs after the fader in channel signal flow.

Pot
An abbreviation of ‘potentiometer’.
Potentiometer
A variable resistor, which exists on mixing consoles in the form of knobs such as gain, EQ and pan.
Pre-fader
Anything which occurs before the fader in chanel signal flow.
Preamp
An amplifier which brings the input signal up to an acceptable operating level, for example, the gain stage of a mixing
desk is a microphone preamplifier.
75
Glossary
Precedence effect
Another name for the Haas effect.
Preset
The memory settings which come pre-installed on a device such as a synthesiser, effects unit, software instrument or
plugin.
Pro Tools
A digital audio workstation, originally created by a company called Digidesign, but now owned and developed by Avid.
Producer
The person who leads a music recording project, quite often making creative decisions and managing budgets where
applicable. It is the producer’s responsibility to ensure a project runs to time.
Profit
Income minus expenditure.
Programme Change Message

A MIDI message which instructs a device to switch between stored programmes.
Promoter
The person or company who is responsible for ensuring live performances are advertised to the public and other
organisations such as the press.
Proximity Effect
A side effect of directional microphones, which results in greater low mid and bass frequencies when the source is close
to the microphone.
.ptx
The file suffix of a Pro Tools session file.
Publisher
The publisher controls the copyright of the musical work, i.e. the creative element of music. When an artist has a
publishing contract, the publisher will ensure the writer is paid for the use of their music in return for a fee or percentage
of income.
Pulse Code Modulation

The method by which analogue to digital conversion takes place, where measurements of the amplitude of a waveform
(bit depth) are measured at regular intervals (sample rate).
Punch In/Out
The function of a recording device to enable and disable recording during playback, enabling small sections to be
recorded over.
76
Glossary
Q
An abbreviation of ‘quality’. A function of parametric EQ which adjusts the accuracy of the frequency band which is
being affected, a high Q is more accurate, a low Q affects a wider frequency band.
Quadraphonic Sound
Also referred to as 4.0 surround. An early surround sound format which uses four speakers located in the corners of the
room.
Quantisation
An automatic MIDI editing process which shifts the start of notes onto the selected beat, e.g. the closest 1/4 note, 8th note.
RAM
An acronym of ‘random access memory’, short term storage in a computer system which is cleared on restart.
Ratio
The control on a compressor or expander which controls how much compression or expansion is applied.
RCA Connector
Also referred to as a phono connector. An unbalanced connection, most commonly used in consumer hi-fi equipment.
Re-amp
To take a pre-recorded clean guitar signal and connect it to a guitar amplifier for recording with a microphone. The
advantage being that the settings for the amplifier and any other effects can be adjusted after the performance and
multiple versions layered together from one recording.
Read Mode (Automation)

An automation mode which purely reads the existing automation data without allowing any changes to be recorded.
Real Time
Processing that is applied in the same amount of time as it takes to play back the affected audio.
Record Decks
A playback device for the vinyl format. Used by DJs, normally in pairs with a DJ mixer to crossfade between playback

from each.
Record Label
A company which coordinates the production, manufacture, distribution, marketing, promotion, and enforcement of
copyright for sound recordings and music videos.
Recording
The process of capturing real-world audio and storing it on a physical medium.
Recording Studio
A room or complex of rooms which is used to record sound.
77
Glossary
Release (Dynamic Processing)

The time it takes for the dynamic processor to recover to normal.
Release (Synthesis)
Release is the time it takes to for the signal to fade from the sustain level to its final level.
Return
An input of a mixing desk which is used specifically for receiving signal that has already been sent out of the console for
some processing, e.g. an insert return or effects return.
Reverb
An abbreviation of ‘reverberation’.
Reverberation
The sound that bounces around the surfaces in a room, which is emulated using an outboard effect or plugin to give the
impression that the sound is in a real room.
RF
An initialism of ‘radio frequency’.
RMS
An initialism of ‘root mean square’. A means of calculating the loudness of audio.
ROM
An acronym of ‘read only memory’. An area of computer storage which can only be read from, and can not be
overwritten.
Room Mode
Where the dimensions of the room align with the wavelength of an audio frequency, causing a resonance at that
frequency. This can cause that frequency to become emphasised or canceled in different places within the room.
Routing
A function commonly found on mixing desks, which enables the user to set the signal path. For example, you could
route a microphone signal to the input of the DAW.
Sample Editor
An area of a DAW which enables the user to edit an audio clip in detail.
Sample Rate
The rate at which measurements are taken, measured in kHz.
Sampler
A hardware or software device which can record and manipulate short audio clips, and trigger them using MIDI note
messages. Samplers are also emulated in software instrument plugins.
78
Glossary
Sampling
The process of converting acoustic audio into digital audio by measuring the waveform amplitude at set time intervals.
Save
To retain any work in progress. In a DAW this would be the generation of a ‘session’ file.
Score Editor
A DAW editor window which enables the user to input or edit musical notation.
Semi-Parametric EQ
A simplified version of a parametric EQ, where there is no Q control, just gain and frequency.
Send
A connection on a mixing desk which is used as an output, to send signal to an external location for further processing,
e.g. insert send of effects send.
Sennheiser MD421
A high quality dynamic microphone, often used for recording guitar amplifiers and toms.
Sequencer
A legacy name for a digital audio workstation, referring to the sequencing of audio or MIDI regions in the arrange page.
Session File
A DAW saved file, which will often also require additional assets such as audio files.
Shelving
A kind of equaliser which affects all frequencies above (hi-shelf) or below (lo-shelf) a specified frequency.
Shortcut Function
Software applications use combinations of key presses on a computer keyboard to trigger certain actions. Some are
standardised, for example, Command-S on a Macintosh is the shortcut to save in all applications, the equivalent being
Control-S on a Windows PC.
Shure SM57 Music Production Grade 8 | Coursework Edition

A rugged dynamic microphone, similar to the SM58 but without the mesh protection. Commonly used for recording
guitar amps and close miking drum kits.
Shure SM58
A rugged dynamic microphone, most commonly used for vocals in live performances.
Sidechain
An insert loop on a compressor which can be used to send the signal for processing. The signal received at the sidechain
return is used as the trigger for the compressor. This makes it possible to make the compressor react in a different way,
perhaps to certain frequencies more than others, as in the case of de-essing.
79
Glossary
Signal to Noise Ratio

The ratio between the wanted sound and the noise floor. In a system, this will refer to the ratio between the nominal
level and the noise floor.
Sine Wave
A basic waveform, with constant amplitude and consistent frequency.
Slapback
A single short delay echo without any repeats.
SMPTE
An acronym of ‘Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers’. Referring to a time code standard for synchronising
audio devices and video devices.
SNR
An initialism of ‘signal to noise ratio’.
Soft Synth
An abbreviation of ‘software synthesiser’. A software version of a synthesiser, a software instrument plugin.
Software Instrument
An optional piece of software, which operates within a DAW as a synthesiser of various kinds of instrument. Many
software instruments are supplied with a DAW, however further instruments can be purchased from 3rd party
manufacturers.
Software Instrument Track

A type of channel in a DAW which is a hybrid between audio and MIDI. It has an audio output, which responds to MIDI
input, by triggering a software instrument added to one of the plugin slots.
Solid State Drive

An evolution of the hard disk drive, which uses solid state technology to save the files rather than using physical
magnetic disk plates. This makes the drive less prone to damage and enables faster data transfer rates.
Solo
A function of a mixing desk and DAW which enables the sound engineer to listen to channels in isolation.
Song
A piece of music, composed and arranged.
Sound Effects
Sounds which are generated or added to enhance the visual impact, for example, light sabers, dinosaurs roaring,
explosions.
Sound Engineer
The person who is primarily in control of the equipment, and aims to achieve the best quality of sound possible. They
would work under direction from the producer.
80
Glossary
Spaced Omni
Another name for the AB microphone technique.
SPDIF
An acronym of ‘Sony Philips digital interface’. This is a audio data transfer protocol used over short distances to make
a single stereo connection between two devices. In most cases it will use an RCA connector, however, it can also use an
optical TOSLINK connection.
Speaker
The device which converts electrical energy into acoustic energy. i.e. the opposite of a microphone.
Speakon
A cable connector created by Neutrik, used most commonly for connecting amplifiers and speakers in PA systems.
Spill
Unwanted sound that enters a microphone, for example, spill from the headphones on a vocalist, or spill from the
cymbals on a snare microphone.
Spotify
An online music streaming service, which has a free subscription with advertising, or for a monthly subscription the
user can bypass advertising and obtain additional functionality.
SSD
An initialism of ‘solid state drive’.
Standard MIDI File

A standard format for saving MIDI data for sharing between devices. There are two kinds, type 1 (multiple tracks of
MIDI) and type 0 (a single track of MIDI).
Standing Wave
When two waves of equal frequency are moving in opposite directions, for example, as a result of a sound bouncing
from a wall in a studio. Standing waves can cause problems due to constructive interference, which may result in some
frequencies being louder than others.
Status Byte Music Production Grade 8 | Coursework Edition

An initial message sent to a MIDI device which identifies its purpose.
Stems
Sub-mixes of multiple tracks of similar instruments, for example, the ‘guitar’ stem could be a sub mix of 2 electric guitars
and an acoustic guitar, the ‘drums’ stem could be all the tracks relating to the drumkit.
Step Sequencing
Recording MIDI into a sequencer or DAW one note at a time, without needing to keep up with the tempo.
Stereo
A realistic sounding format for audio, which uses two channels to emulate the feeling of space around a sound.
81
Glossary
Stringed Instrument
An instrument which generates its sound from the resonation of a pitched string.
Strings
A collective term used for stringed instruments, most commonly referring to bowed instruments such as violin, viola,
cello and contrabass.
Studio Assistant
The person in the studio who assists the sound engineer, for example, setting up microphones or operating the patch bay.
Studio One
A digital audio workstation created and developed by Presonus.
Studio Runner
The person in the studio whose role it is to ensure that everyone has what they need during a recording session. They
might be tasked with fetching equipment or making tea.
Subtractive Synthesis
A method of synthesis in which the harmonics of an audio signal are attenuated by a filter to alter tone of the sound.
Subwoofer
A speaker which is designed to produce very low frequencies, often referred to as the ‘.1’ in surround formats, i.e. 5.1,
7.1.
Surround Sound
An audio format which uses more than two speakers, arranged around the listener to provide a more realistic
environment.
Sustain
In synthesis, sustain is the time during which the signal remains at its normal level.
Sustain Pedal
A MIDI controller used to emulate the sustain pedal of a piano. When the sustain pedal is held, any notes that are played
will continue to sound beyond the release of the key/note off message.
Sweep EQ
Another name for the mid band of a semi parametric EQ.
Synchronise
To ensure timing between two devices of mediums is accurate.
Synth
An abbreviation of ‘synthesiser’.
82
Glossary
Synthesiser
An electronic device which generates sound. This may be original sound, designed for its own tone and timbre, or it may
be to emulate acoustic instruments such as piano and drums.
System Preferences
The part of an operating system that enables the user to optimise the computer for the required purpose, such as audio
recording.
Tape / Magnetic Tape

A linear magnetic medium, used to record sound and music. It is now rarely used due to its inconvenience and expense,
but many engineers still maintain that it sounds better than the digital equivalents.
TDIF
An abbreviation of ‘Tascam digital audio interface’, named after its founding company. Initially a standard for connecting
Tascam digital tape machines, it has also been adopted by other manufacturers to connect digital mixing desks and other
multichannel devices. The technology has since been superseded by MADI and ethernet based standards.
Template
Predefined settings which enable the user to get started more quickly.
Threshold
The control on a compressor, expander or gate which defines the sound level at which the device will react.
Thunderbolt
A peripheral connection which is capable of very high data transfer rates. There are three versions available, with
Thunderbolt 3 being capable of 40Gbps.
Timbre
The tonal colour of a sound.
Time Machine
A component of the OSX operating system which enables automatic backup of data stored on that computer or any
connected hard drives. Individual files can easily be retrieved if needed.
Tinnitus Music Production Grade 8 | Coursework Edition

A medical condition which affects the hearing, caused by long exposure to loud sounds, and resulting in a constant
ringing noise.
TOSLINK
An acronym of ‘Toshiba link’, named after its founding company. It uses the same connector as ADAT lightpipe to
connect two digital audio devices, using the SPDIF protocol to transfer the data. This is most common on consumer
hi-fi equipment, for example, connecting a CD player to an amplifier.
Touch Mode (Automation)

An automation mode which allows existing automation to be altered during playback. When alterations are complete the
automation will jump back to pre-recorded value.
83
Glossary
Track
An individual element of recording or recorded material, such as a vocal or guitar. When working with more than one
track, it is referred to as ‘multi tracking’. A track is different to a channel.
Track Pad
An alternative to a mouse, which is useful in small spaces. Commonly found on laptop computers, but also available as a
peripheral.
Trackball
An alternative to a mouse, which uses a ball on the top for control of the pointer. Sometimes preferred by sound
engineers due to it remaining static on the work surface.
Transducer
A device which converts one kind of energy into another, for example, acoustic energy into electrical energy in the case
of a microphone.
Transmission Line Speaker

A speaker which is similar in concept to the bass reflex design, except that the length of the tunnel to the cabinet port is
much longer, allowing the tuning of lower frequencies. These speakers are generally very expensive and large in size.
Transport
The controls of a DAW which enable the user to play, stop, pause, fast forward, rewind and record.
Tremolo
A rapid variation of pitch of a note, for example, the effect of a tremolo arm on a guitar. Also emulated by effects plugins
in a DAW.
Trim
Another name for the gain stage of a mixing desk, except that trim can also be used to reduce the level of the input.
Trombone
A brass instrument which uses a telescopic slide to alter the note. Commonly used in classical music among many other
genres.
TRS
Initialisation of ‘tip, ring, sleeve’. A kind of jack connector used by headphones and balanced audio systems.
Trumpet
A brass instrument with three valves, the highest register in the family of instruments. Commonly used in jazz and
classical music, among many other genres.
TS
Initialisation of ‘tip, sleeve’. A kind of jack connector used by unbalanced audio systems.
Turnover
The amount of money that is earned by a company or project, normally measured annually.
84
Glossary
Tweeter
A speaker which is designed to produce higher frequencies.
Unbalanced
An audio connection which uses one signal carrier, plus the screen/earth. Most commonly found on consumer
equipment, prone to external interference.
Unity Gain
When the output of an audio circuit is at the exact same level as the input level. i.e. when a fader is at zero on a mixing
desk.
USB
An initialism of ‘universal serial bus’. A standard peripheral connection used on both PCs and Macs. Three versions are
available, with varying speeds. USB3 is the fastest at the time of going to print, with a data transfer rate of 480 megabits
per second.
VCF
An initialism of ‘voltage controlled filter’.
VCO
An initialism of ‘low frequency oscillator’.
Velocity
A measure of how hard a MIDI key has been pressed, which is translated into level information, and in some cases can
be used to trigger a different sample which has been recorded at a louder level, providing a more realistic sounding
performance.
Vinyl Record
A flat circular piece of vinyl with grooves cut into it. A record player needle sits in the groove as it rotates, the vibrations
in the needles are amplified to playback the recorded sound, making it an analogue medium.
Viola
It is slightly larger than a violin, giving it a deeper sound.
Violin
Voice
A natural sound source, created from air (breath) passing over the vocal cords in the throat.
Voltage Controlled Filter

A synthesis module which allows control of a filter’s frequency. The filter could be high-pass, low-pass or bandpass.
Voltage Controlled Oscillator

An oscillator (sound generator) whose pitch can be controlled via voltage variation.
85
Glossary
WAN
An acronym of ‘wide area network’.
.wav
A file suffix used for Wav files.
Wav
An abbreviation of ‘waveform’. Wav files are the industry standard digital audio file format. They are considered high
quality as they are a lossless format.
Waveform
The visual representation of an audio wave, as seen in the DAW arrange page or sample editor.
Wet
With effects or processing applied.
Wi-Fi
Also known a WLAN.
Wide Area Network

A network of computer systems which extends beyond the confines of the LAN location, connecting to other networks
anywhere in the world.
Windows
An operating system created and developed by Microsoft. There are numerous versions, including Windows XP,
Windows Vista, Windows 7, Windows 8 and Windows 10.
WLAN
An acronym of ‘wireless local area network’. A wireless connection to a local network.
Woofer
A speaker which is designed to produce lower frequencies.
World Wide Web

The content that is stored and accessed via the internet.
Write Mode (Automation)

An automation mode which records new automation data during playback.
XLR Connector
A balanced connection, used in most professional level equipment. The standard connection for microphones. Also
referred to as a cannon connector.
86
Glossary
XY
A stereo microphone technique where two cardioid microphones are placed at an angle of 90–135 degrees of each other,
with the capsules as close as possible (coincident) or within 30cm of each other (near coincident).
Youtube
An online video streaming service provided by Google.
87
Useful Information (Non-assessed)
Contracts
A contract is a legally binding document which is a signed agreement between two (or more) parties.
Understanding contracts will be an important part of your career as a freelance music producer, as it will make the
difference as to whether you make money or not.
A contract is designed so that the agreement suits both parties equally, if it doesn’t do so then one party would refuse to sign it.
At its most basic level, a contract is there to document what each party will do for the other one. For example, if person A
produces an album for person B, then person B will pay a fee to person A.
It will also outline deadlines for projects, and any consequences if the agreement is broken for any reason.
A contract should go into as much detail as possible so that everyone is clear on what is being expected of them.
As a contract is a very important document, you should always take legal advice to ensure that what you are signing is to
your benefit.
88
Image Copyright Information
Images listed by page, left to right, top to bottom.
p.9
© Samson Technologies Inc.
p.13
© Shure Incorporated
p.14
© Luminis/gfdunt/Shutterstock
p.18
© Merging Technologies
© Prism Sound Limited
p.19
© MAGIX Software GmbH
© Steinberg Media Technologies GmbH
p.22
© lucadp/Shutterstock
Additional vector technical illustrations by Simon Troup

© 2016 Rockschool/RSL
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Introductions & Information

Section A | Music Production Theory

Section B | Listening Skills

Section C | Coursework Task

41 Rockschool Music Production Grade 8 Exam – Sample Paper

Music Production Grade 8 | Coursework Edition

■■ Blockbuster movie soundtracks

Nik Preston – Head of Product Development and Publishing

■■ Music Production Theory

You will need to input this code when prompted: N8WM76WSLC

Music Production Grade 8 | Coursework Edition

MUSIC PRODUCTION GRADES 1–8

ELEMENT Pass Merit Distinction

TOTAL MARKS 60%+ 75%+ 85%+

SECTION (Current section highlighted) MARKS

> Theoretical Written Exam 25 [25%]

Listening Test 15 [15%]

Coursework Task 60 [60%]

■■ Music Production Terminology

Music Production Terminology

Analogue vs Digital Connectivity

Audio File Formats

File Format Pros Cons

Analogue to Digital Convertor (ADC)

Music Production Grade 8 | Coursework Edition

Digital Audio Workstation (DAW)

Sound and Audio Fundamentals

In order to maximise the quality of your recording, think about:

Here is a summary of the microphone techniques you might like to use:

Music Production Grade 8 | Coursework Edition

Each of these options has its merits:

Pitch Correction Music Production Grade 8 | Coursework Edition

What Does a Mastering Engineer Do?

producer can sometimes be a little more demanding.

Typically, the brief could be one of the following:

Number 1 is the ideal. This is how a great sounding recording is achieved.

The A–B Technique

The most common examples are:

The Frequency Spectrum

Frequency Pitch Relationship Diagram

Note C D E F G A B C D E F G A B C D E F G A B C D E F G A B C Music Production Grade 8 | Coursework Edition

Frequency Content Of Instruments Diagram

identify which it is.

The Loudness War

Top and Tail

It is therefore good practice to use a gentle fade.

Music Production Grade 8 | Coursework Edition

More information on MFiT can be found on the Apple website:

Sound & Acoustics

Follow this procedure with the ceiling area too.

Music Production Grade 8 | Coursework Edition

Frequency vs. Wavelength

Low Frequency Medium Frequency High Frequency

SECTION (Current section highlighted) MARKS

Theoretical Written Exam 25 [25%]