Renewable Energy 29 (2004) 333–344

www.elsevier.com/locate/renene

Analysis of the effect of parasitic resistances on

the performance of photovoltaic modules
E.E. van Dyk a,
, E.L. Meyer a,b
a
Department of Physics, University of Port Elizabeth, Port Elizabeth 6031, South Africa
b
Current address: Department of Physics, University of Fort Hare, Alice, South Africa
Received 8 May 2003; accepted 26 June 2003

Abstract

Parasitic resistances are detrimental to solar cell performance because they reduce the
device power output. In this paper the effects that series- and shunt resistance have on pho-
tovoltaic module performance parameters are discussed. Techniques used to measure these
resistances are presented and the results show how current–voltage characteristics and mod-
ule performance are affected. An analysis of the performance degradation of an a-Si module
revealed that, apart from the Staebler–Wronski effect, an increase in series resistance con-
tributed to a power loss of 50% after outdoor exposure of 130 kWh/m2. A 29% decrease in
shunt resistance of a CuInSe2 module, over the same exposure, translated to a power loss of
6%. This study shows that the effects of shunt and series resistances on module performance
are significant and cannot be ignored. These effects must be understood and taken into con-
sideration when employing photovoltaic modules in systems and when analysing perform-
ance degradation.
# 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Series resistance; Shunt resistance; Photovoltaic modules; Current–voltage characteristics;

Module performance

1. Introduction

When photovoltaic (PV) modules are deployed they are expected to perform for
up to 20 years. Environmental factors, temperature and incident irradiation, have
an effect on the performance of these devices. Apart from these environmental fac-

Corresponding author. Tel.: +27-41-5042579; fax: +27-41-5042573.
E-mail address: phaevd@upe.ac.za (E.E. van Dyk).

0960-1481/$ - see front matter # 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0960-1481(03)00250-7
334 E.E. van Dyk, E.L. Meyer / Renewable Energy 29 (2004) 333–344

tors, inherent defects like parasitic resistances may also have an effect on the per-
formance of the PV devices. This paper discusses the detrimental effect that series
resistance and shunt resistance have on PV device performance parameters. These
parasitic resistances will in one-way or another affect the solar cell, and hence the
PV module performance. The effect may also vary depending on the environmental
conditions of temperature and incident irradiance. A brief introduction to the
equations governing the current–voltage characteristics is given and the effect on
these characteristics is used to analyse the ultimate effect on the power output and
efficiency of PV modules. The results show that series- and shunt resistance have a
detrimental effect on PV device performance. These parasitic resistances need to be
recognised and understood by PV system designers in order to analyse PV module
underperformance, degradation and/or failure. This paper addresses this need by
illustrating the effects of the series and shunt resistance on module performance
parameters for different module types.

2. Two-diode model

The effects of series resistance (Rs) and shunt resistance (Rsh) can be adequately
described and illustrated by the two-diode equivalent circuit model for a p–n junc-
tion solar cell. The model is depicted in Fig. 1, showing the resistances Rs and Rsh,
together with the photon-generated current, Iph, the ideal recombination current in
the p- and n-side, ID1, and the non-ideal recombination in the depletion region,
ID2. Considering the figure, the current–voltage (I–V) characteristic of the solar cell
in the light may be written as:
h
qðV IRs Þ 
qðV IRs Þ i V  IRs
I ¼ Iph  I01 e kT  1 þ I02 e nkT  1  ð1Þ
Rsh
where: I01 is the reverse saturation current corresponding to the diffusion and
recombination of electrons and holes in the p- and n-side, respectively; I02 is the
reverse saturation current corresponding to generation and recombination of elec-
trons and holes in the depletion region; n is the ideality factor >1; V is the applied
voltage; q is the elementary electron charge; k is the Boltzmann constant ¼
1:38  1023 J/K; T is the absolute cell temperature.

Fig. 1. Two-diode equivalent circuit model for a p–n junction solar cell.
 E.E. van Dyk, E.L. Meyer / Renewable Energy 29 (2004) 333–344 335

From Fig. 1 it is clear that the shunt current, Ish, detracts from the current out-
put and the potential drop across Rs reduces the voltage output of the solar cell.
The influence of Rs and Rsh on the I–V characteristics can be determined by using
Eq. (1). In this study, all simulated I–V characteristics were generated using PV
simulation software, PVSIM [1]. This software uses the two-diode model and cal-
culates I–V characteristics based on typical solar cell parameters. The simulations
were done using 1000 W/m2 irradiance and 25 C cell temperature.
v

3. Increase in series resistance

The series resistance, Rs, of a PV module represents resistances in cell solder

bonds, emitter and base regions, cell metallization, cell-interconnect busbars and
resistances in junction-box terminations [2]. Although cell and module designers
minimize series resistance losses, daily thermal cycling of modules deployed out-
doors results in a gradual increase in series resistance. Fig. 2 shows the effect of an
increasing series resistance on the simulated I–V characteristics of a 36-cell crystal-
line module.
The increasing series resistance reduces the voltage output (indicated by DV in
the figure) and fill factor (FF ¼ Pmax =Isc Voc ) of the module and, hence, its perform-
ance quality. For even higher Rs values, the module short-circuit current, Isc, starts
to decrease [3]. Table 1 lists the module’s Isc, open-circuit voltage, Voc, maximum
power, Pmax, and FF for different series resistance values. Rs of 0.36 X in Table 1
corresponds to individual cell series resistances of 0.01 X/cell, Rs of 1.80 X corre-
sponds to 0.05 X/cell and Rs of 3.60 X corresponds to 0.10 X/cell. These simulated
Rs values are not unusual in PV modules. When Rs is increased five times from
0.36 to 1.80 X, both Pmax and FF are reduced by about 25%. An increase of 10

Fig. 2. Effect of an increase in Rs on the simulated I–V characteristics of a 36-cell crystalline silicon
module.
336 E.E. van Dyk, E.L. Meyer / Renewable Energy 29 (2004) 333–344

Table 1
Influence of series resistance on the performance parameters of a 36-cell module. The values were
obtained from simulations with PVSIM
Rs (X) Isc (A) Voc (V) Pmax (W) FF Loss (%) in
Pmax FF
0.36 3.18 21.04 50.75 0.78 – –
1.80 3.18 21.03 38.75 0.58 24 26
3.60 3.18 21.03 26.47 0.40 48 49

times Rs from 0.36 to 3.60 X, results in a loss in Pmax and FF of approximately

50%. It is, therefore, evident that a small increase in Rs can be detrimental to the
performance of PV modules due to the power loss. Dark current–voltage (I–V)
measurements can be used to quantitatively evaluate increases in Rs. These mea-
surements are also sensitive to changes in module shunt resistance and other cell
parameters [4,5].

4. Decrease in shunt resistance

The shunt resistance, Rsh, represents any parallel high-conductivity paths

(shunts) across the solar cell p-n junction or on the cell edges [6]. These are due to
crystal damage and impurities in and near the junction and give rise to the shunt
current, Ish, shown in the equivalent circuit model of Fig. 1. These shunt paths lead
currents away from the intended load and their effects are detrimental to the mod-
ule performance especially at low intensity levels [7,8]. Fig. 3 illustrates the effect of
a decreasing shunt resistance on the I–V characteristics of a 36-cell crystalline sili-
con module. The simulated Rsh values were equal for all cells in the module. From
the figure it is clear that a decreasing Rsh detracts from the module current as indi-
cated by DI in the figure. Also, a decrease in Rsh lowers Voc [3].
Decreasing Rsh reduces both Pmax and FF of the module. Table 2 lists the mod-
ule’s simulated performance parameters for different shunt resistances and the per-
centage loss in Pmax and FF. The very low Rsh values of 0.5 and 0.2 X have a
severe impact on the module performance at the 1000 W/m2 irradiance level. At
lower irradiance levels (not shown in the figure), even higher shunt resistances of
5–10 X are detrimental to module performance [3]. It is, therefore, evident that low
cell shunt resistances are detrimental to module performance. In practice, the shunt
resistance values may decrease due to an increase in the shunt paths across the p–n
junction. This is especially true for thin-film cells and modules after prolonged
exposure to light [9,10]. In addition, the slope of the reverse I–V characteristic
before junction breakdown changes considerably with decreasing Rsh, as shown in
Fig. 4. In the figure simulated curves are shown for a single cell with Rsh ¼ 100 X,
20X, and 2 X, illustrating the increase in slope due to the increased current leakage
under reverse bias as the shunt resistance is decreased, i.e., as shunt paths are
increased. Furthermore, cells that have low Rsh will tend to be susceptible to hot-
 E.E. van Dyk, E.L. Meyer / Renewable Energy 29 (2004) 333–344 337

Fig. 3. Effect of a decrease in Rsh on the simulated I–V characteristics of a 36-cell crystalline silicon
module.

spot formation when shaded [11]. Modules with cells that have low Rsh also lose
efficiency rapidly under reduced light levels [11]. A non-intrusive two terminal
method [11,12] can be used to measure the individual cell shunt resistance in a
module without de-encapsulation.

5. Measuring parasitic resistances

Shunt- and series resistance are often derived from the slope of the I–V charac-
teristic at Isc and Voc, respectively. This, however, does not represent the true
values and only gives a rough indication of respective resistance values. Fig. 5
shows a simulated I–V curve of a 36-cell module with Rsh and Rs as determined
from the respective slopes indicated, together with the simulation input values. A
comparison of the different values shows that the resistances obtained from the
slopes are not accurate. There are several methods that can be employed to deter-
mine shunt- and series resistance.

Table 2
Influence of shunt resistance on the performance parameters of a 36-cell module. The values were
obtained from simulations with PVSIM
Rsh (X) Isc (A) Voc (V) Pmax (W) FF Loss (%) in
Pmax FF
50 3.18 21.04 50.51 0.75 – –
0.5 3.22 20.64 35.92 0.54 29 28
0.2 3.22 19.47 18.60 0.30 63 60
338 E.E. van Dyk, E.L. Meyer / Renewable Energy 29 (2004) 333–344

Fig. 4. Effect of Rsh on the simulated I–V characteristics of a single cell in the forward and reverse direc-
tion.

Rs can be determined by measuring I–V curves at different light intensities from

a line drawn through points corresponding to a fixed current below the respective
Isc on each curve. Rs is then obtained from the slope of this curve, with
Rs ¼ DV =DI. This result generally gives good results and is independent of Io, n
and Rsh [13]. Other methods generally require Io, n and Rsh or that Rsh be approxi-
mated or neglected. In this study we used a parametric analysis of dark I–V curves
to extract Rs, among other parameters (Io, n and Rsh).

Fig. 5. Simulated I–V characteristics of a 36-cell crystalline silicon module, with Rsh and Rs determined
from slopes at Isc and Voc, respectively.
 E.E. van Dyk, E.L. Meyer / Renewable Energy 29 (2004) 333–344 339

Dark I–V measurements have been commonly used to evaluate the effect of ser-
ies resistance and other parameters on module performance [4,14–17]. The dark I–
V characteristics of PV cells and modules are obtained from Eq. (1) by eliminating
the photon-generated current, I ph ¼ 0, and may be measured by forward biasing
the module. The parameters (I0, Rsh, Rs, and n) in Eq. (1) may be obtained by fit-
ting the equation to a set of measured dark I–V data. In this study, dark I–V char-
acteristics were obtained by using two dark I–V systems in the low (<102 A) and
high (>101 A) current range, respectively. Non-linear parameter estimation soft-
ware, FitAll [5] was used to fit Eq. (1) to data measured in both low and high cur-
rent regions. The software is capable of independently obtaining estimations of I01
and Rsh from the low current range and I02, Rs, and n from the high current range.
FitAll uses an iterative method to evaluate Eq. (1) and non-linear regression analy-
sis to obtain parameter estimations [5]. In addition to the estimated parameters,
FitAll also gives the absolute deviation for each parameter as well as the sensitivity
of the estimation method to the various parameters. In addition to yielding useful
parameters, Rsh and Rs in this study, the method of extracting the parameters from
dark I–V measurements can be used to analyse degradation of PV cell and module
performance [9].
Rsh is sometimes derived from the slope of the reverse-biased I–V characteristic
prior to junction breakdown [13]. This is not an accurate method since most PV
devices exhibit large currents before breakdown, which is understandable since
solar cells are designed to operate under forward bias conditions and when illumi-
nated. This must be taken into consideration when applying this technique. At
best, this technique is useful as a qualitative tool when comparing similar PV devi-
ces. In this study we used the curve fitting and a shunt resistance measuring system
to determine Rsh.
Since Rsh is crucial to PV performance, especially at reduced irradiance levels [6],
it is important to know which cell will stop contributing to module output due to a
low shunt resistance. The system used is a non-intrusive technique that measures
the individual cell shunt resistances of cells in encapsulated modules [11,12]. In this
system, a variable power supply is used to bring the illuminated module to zero
bias. At this condition, a small AC signal is applied to the module, the only con-
duction path being through the shunt resistances of the individual cells. The cells
are then sequentially shaded each time ensuring the DC supply remains equal to
the Voc of the module. The magnitude of the AC signal when the cells are sequen-
tially shaded is directly proportional to the conductance of the module in the dark,
i.e., the shunt current. This method is similar to the two-terminal diagnostic tech-
nique used by researchers at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL)
[12], the fundamental difference being the use of a variable power supply in our
system.
340 E.E. van Dyk, E.L. Meyer / Renewable Energy 29 (2004) 333–344

6. Results and discussion

Two different module technologies comprising a-Si and CuInSe2 were used to
investigate the effects of shunt- and series resistance on module performance. The
modules were initially subjected to an indoor assessment procedure [11] then
exposed outdoors for 130 kWh/m2. After exposure the modules were again sub-
jected to the assessment procedure.
Fig. 6 shows the measured dark I–V characteristics (symbols) of 14 W a-Si mod-
ule before outdoor deployment. The solid line indicates the theoretical fit for the
module. Table 3 lists the series resistance Rs, shunt resistance Rsh, saturation cur-
rent I0, and ideality factor n, determined before and after outdoor exposure using
non-linear theoretical fitting. The standard deviation of the fit was of the order of
1:0  103 , indicating that the estimated parameters accurately describe the dark I–
V characteristics of the a-Si:H module. From the measurements taken after out-
door exposure [18] it was found that Rs, I0 and n increased with the outdoor
exposure, while Rsh remained relative constant throughout the test period. The
increase in saturation current from 5.7 nA before outdoor exposure to 27.5 lA
after 130 kWh/m2, indicates an increase in the recombination current, ID. This
increase in recombination current is attributed to an increase in the density of
defect states in the energy bandgap. These defects are formed by energy released
from recombination of e–h pairs. Therefore, as electrons and holes recombine,
weak Si–H or Si–Si bonds are broken by the energy released. These broken bonds
form defect states, creating more recombination sites. The increase in recombi-
nation sites, in turn, enhances the recombination of e–h pairs. The formation of
defect states in the bandgap reduces the carrier lifetime. This results in deterio-
ration of the p–n junction quality. Fortunately, this effect is self-limiting since there
are only so many weak bonds to break [19]. The increase in saturation current and

Fig. 6. Dark I–V measurements of an a-Si module before outdoor exposure. The symbols represent mea-
sured data and the solid line a non-linear theoretical fit.
 E.E. van Dyk, E.L. Meyer / Renewable Energy 29 (2004) 333–344 341

Table 3
Estimated parameters obtained from the non-linear theoretical fit to the measured dark I–V character-
istics of the a-Si:H module before and after outdoor exposure 130 kWh/m2

Exposure (kWh/m2) Rs (X) Rsh (X/cell) I0 n (/cell)

0 9.8 47.9 5.7 (nA) 1.94
130 13.1 48.3 27.5 (lA) 3.04

hence the deterioration of the p–n junction quality is associated with a decrease in
performance of the a-Si module. Table 4 lists performance parameters measured
before and after outdoor exposure of 130 kWh/m2. This decrease in Isc is attrib-
uted to an increase in Rs as shown by the relation between Isc and Rs in Eq. (2),
which is obtained from the equation governing the two-diode equivalent circuit,
Eq. (1):
Isc Rs
Isc ¼ Iph  ð2Þ
Rsh
The decrease in Voc is attributed to an increase in the recombination current. The
maximum power of the a-Si module consequently decreased by 49% after the 130
kWh/m2 exposure while the FF deceased by 23%.
Copper indium diselenide (CIS) modules used in this study were good examples
of modules that exhibit shunting behaviour. Fig. 7 shows the individual shunt
resistances of the 50-cell 10 W CIS module measured before outdoor exposure and
Fig. 8 shows the dark I–V characteristics of this module measured before outdoor
deployment and after 130 sun hours. Cells with low shunt resistance will detract
from module output, especially at low irradiance levels [20]. The average cell shunt
resistance for Fig. 7 is 10.4 X/cell and there are many cells in the module that have
shunt resistance values lower than this. This, 10.4 X/cell, is in excellent agreement
with the average cell shunt resistance obtained from dark I–V measurements in the
low current range, see Table 5. The average cell shunt resistance of this module
was low before outdoor exposure, and after 130 kWh/m2 it decreased by 29%.
Subsequent measurements revealed that the shunt resistance continued to decrease,
but by less than 10%. Thus most of the decrease in Rsh occurred during the first
130 kWh/m2 of exposure. The dark I–V characteristics also reveal, as expected, an
increase in leakage current at zero bias. Subsequent measurements taken after the
130 sun hours revealed the leakage currents increased even more. Table 6 lists the

Table 4
Comparison of performance parameters of an a-Si module before and after outdoor exposure of 130
kWh/m2
Exposure (kWh/ Isc (A) Voc (V) Pmax (W) FF (%) Loss in
m2)
Pmax FF
0 1.04 24.20 10.86 0.43 – –
130 0.75 22.70 5.56 0.33 49 23
342 E.E. van Dyk, E.L. Meyer / Renewable Energy 29 (2004) 333–344

Fig. 7. Individual cell shunt resistance of a 10 W CIS module measured before outdoor exposure.

STC performance parameters of the CIS module measured before and after an out-
door exposure of 130 kWh/m2. The 29% decrease in Rsh relates to a 6% loss in
STC power and 3% loss in FF. The loss in power due to shunting increases drasti-
cally when modules operate under low irradiance levels [7,11,20] as shown in Table
7 where the maximum powers at various irradiance levels measured before and
after the 130 kWh/m2 irradiation are listed. The 43% loss in power at the moder-
ate 614 W/m2 irradiance shows that the decrease in Rsh values is detrimental to the
module’s performance. This loss in power becomes catastrophic at even lower
irradiance levels, rendering the module’s power producing capabilities ineffective.

Fig. 8. Dark I–V characteristics of a 10 W CIS module measured before and after exposure to 130 sun
hours.
 E.E. van Dyk, E.L. Meyer / Renewable Energy 29 (2004) 333–344 343

Table 5
Shunt resistance of a 10 W CIS module before and after outdoor exposure of 130 kWh/m2

Module power (W) Rsh–0 kWh/m2 (X/cell) Rsh–130 kWh/m2 (X/cell)

10 W 10.9 7.7

7. Summary and conclusions

In this study, the effect of parasitic resistances on PV module performance was

investigated. Two different PV module technologies, comprising a-Si and CuInSe2
(CIS) were used to investigate the effects of shunt and series resistances. Results
obtained show that an increase in Rs together with the Staebler–Wronski effect
resulted in a 50% power loss in the a-Si module after an outdoor exposure of 130
kWh/m2.
The CIS module showed a 29% decrease in Rsh after the same outdoor exposure,
which translated to a power loss of 6% at an irradiance of 1000 W/m2. This may,
at first glance seem rather benign, but the loss in power increases to 43% when the
incident irradiance levels are reduced to 614 W/m2. The loss in power increases
further to 87% when irradiance levels are reduced to 169 W/m2. This study, there-
fore, successfully and conclusively shows that parasitic shunt and series resistances
can be detrimental to solar cell and PV module performance.

Table 6
Comparison of performance parameters of a CIS module before and after outdoor exposure of 130
kWh/m2
Exposure (kWh/ Isc (A) Voc (V) Pmax (W) FF Loss (%) in
m2)
Pmax FF
0 0.63 24.77 9.06 0.58 – –
130 0.63 24.20 8.53 0.56 6 3

Table 7
Comparison of performance of the CIS module at various irradiance levels measured before and after
exposure of 130 kWh/m2

Irradiance (W/m2) Pmax (W) before exposure Pmax (W) after exposure DPmax (%)
1000 9.06 8.53 6
614 8.66 4.95 43
375 8.22 2.66 68
229 7.61 1.31 83
169 5.86 0.74 87
344 E.E. van Dyk, E.L. Meyer / Renewable Energy 29 (2004) 333–344

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank the University of Port Elizabeth, the National
Research Foundation of South Africa, the South African Department of Trade
and Industry, and Eskom for financial support.

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