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Verification of the windings axial clamping forces for high voltage power
transformers by using passively mode-locked fiber lasers

Conference Paper · February 2015

DOI: 10.1117/12.2072311

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 Verification of the Windings Axial Clamping Forces for High Voltage
Power Transformers by Using Passively Mode-Locked Fiber Lasers
Ionuţ Romeo Şchiopu1, Andrei Drăgulinescu1, Raluca Iordănescu2, Andrei Marinescu3
1
Optoelectronics Research Center, ’Politehnica’ Univ. of Bucharest, 1-3 Iuliu Maniu Blvd., Bucharest,
Romania, RO-060032;
2
National R&D Institute for Optoelectronics INOE 2000, Atomiştilor Str., Măgurele, Ilfov County,
077125, Romania;
3
Research-Development and Testing National Institute for Electrical Engineering ICMET, 118A
Decebal Blvd., Craiova 200746, Romania.

1-3 Iuliu Maniu Blvd., Spl. Independenţei 313, sector 6, RO-060032, Bucharest, ROMANIA
e-mail: schiopuionutisc@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT

The current paper describes an optoelectronic method for direct monitoring of the axial clamping forces both in static
and in dynamic duty. As advantages of this method we can state that it can be applied both to new and refurbished
transformers without performing constructive changes or affecting in any way the transformer safety in operation.
For monitoring the axial clamping forces for high-voltage (HV) power transformers, we use an optical fiber that we
integrate into the laser cavity of a passively mode-locked fiber laser (PMFL). To each axial clamp corresponds a
solitonic optical spectrum that is changed at the periodical passing of the fundamental soliton pulse through the sensitive
fiber inside the transformer. Moreover, as a specific characteristic, the laser stability is unique for each set of axial
clamping forces. Other important advantages of using an optical fiber as compared to the classical approach in which
electronic sensors are used consist in the good reliability and insulator properties of the optical fiber, avoiding any risk of
fire or damage of the transformer.
Keywords: high-voltage (HV) power transformer; passively mode-locked fiber laser (PMFL); direct monitoring of axial
clamping forces

1. INTRODUCTION
A problem in HV transformer windings is caused by the large short-circuit and inrush currents that generate electro-
dynamic forces which, in turn, act on the transformer windings and may cause severe damage to the insulation, the
conducting wires, the frequent heating/cooling processes, the paper-oil moisture and the clamping system. This has a
negative impact on the reliability and active life of the transformer. Sometimes, the result of these actions generates
plastic irreversible changes that require adjustment of the clamping forces in order to bring the transformer back to
normal parameters. The maintenance of the designed clamping forces or mechanical stability of the power transformers
during their whole active life is very difficult.
For the moment, this issue still remains an uncontrolled one, although the technical literature proposes several methods,
on-line and off-line, intrusive or non-intrusive.
Nowadays, several indirect methods are used in fabrication in order to calculate the electro dynamic forces. These
technologies are employed during the fabrication process for the stabilization and clamping of the windings. However, a
shortcoming of these classical methods consists in the fact that the clamping forces present variations on a long period of
time, which cannot be controlled during the lifetime of the transformer. Specialists make use though of many non-
intrusive techniques that enable for the transformers a general evaluation of their mechanical condition (described by the
analysis of the frequency response, the vibration profile of the tank etc.).

Advanced Topics in Optoelectronics, Microelectronics, and Nanotechnologies VII,

edited by Ionica Cristea, Marian Vladescu, Razvan Tamas, Proc. of SPIE Vol. 9258,
92582Q · © 2015 SPIE · CCC code: 0277-786X/15/$18 · doi: 10.1117/12.2072311

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 We introduce a novel approach for directly measuring of the axial clamping forces of power transformer windings,
using fiber optics (FO), which permits an objective estimation of their mechanical stability and a very short response
time, thus avoiding the shortcomings of previously proposed off-line methods. The technology on which our proposed
system is based is an optical intrinsic one. It is characterized by a high electromagnetic compatibility, with absolutely no
influence on the original mechanical / dielectric design of the transformer [1].
A passively mode-locked laser is proposed for estimating the distributions and values of axial clamping forces in HV
power transformers.
Passively mode-locked lasers are very important in modern technology, both from a phenomenological point of view and
from the possible applications of such devices.
The performances of the pulses generated by the laser and also their stability are sensitive to the configuration of the
laser cavity, more specifically to the position of the elements inside the cavity.

2. ELECTRO-DYNAMIC FORCES IN WINDINGS

Usually, pressing rings are introduced between the windings and the top and bottom clamping plates in order to achieve
an efficient clamping of the windings in usual power transformers of the core type.
The radial component of the leakage magnetic flux in the winding generates internally axial electro-dynamic forces. In
order to compute these forces, one may use a simplified model, in which one may consider the windings as elements of
copper masses, which are stacked one upon another. These copper masses are maintained in position by means of
insulations, that act as springs. The entire setup is a system presenting mechanical oscillations, with some resonant
frequencies that may produce the vibration of the winding [2].
When short-circuit phenomena appear in the transformer, a pressure on the axial direction towards the center takes place
in the windings. This effect reduces the pressure between the winding and the clamping system. However, one must not
by any means allow this reduction to reach zero, because in that case the winding would come apart from the clamping
system. As a result, the short-circuit forces between the winding and the clamping system must always be exceeded by
the clamping forces.
In some situations, the stiffness characteristic of the real transformer insulation may become nonlinear. Therefore, one
can accurately calculate the aforementioned forces only by using numerical methods, which have recently been
employed very successfully [3].
It has been observed that, in the materials used for insulation, the creepage appears due to variations of temperature,
humidity and ageing of the insulation, but also because of the mechanical stresses caused by short-circuits, inrush
currents and by the shipment of the transformer from the factory to the site where it is placed. The preservation of the
initial pre-compressive forces is largely influenced by all these effects, which must be efficiently controlled in order to
obtain a satisfactory operation of the system [4].

3. TECHNIQUES FOR EVALUATING THE MECHANICAL CONDITION OF A

TRANSFORMER
The importance of evaluating the mechanical condition of a transformer arises from two main sources. The first one is
the need to assess the outcome of laboratory-performed tests concerning the apparition of sudden short-circuits. A
second reason is the need to detect the drop in the clamping forces in the windings, due to the mechanical stresses
appearing during operation as a cause of short-circuit and inrush currents, the pure mechanical stresses appearing during
transportation to the transformer site or produced by the thermal–oxidative ageing of the paper insulation.
Several techniques for evaluating the mechanical condition of a transformer have been proposed. Among these, the most
frequently used are the off-line non-intrusive methods. One such technique, used in transformers, employs the frequency
response analysis (FRA/SFRA) in which the transformer is viewed as a quadripole. Another method is based on the
measurement of the leakage reactance of the transformer, which is subsequently compared with another value considered
as a reference. A third technique involves the application of a low voltage impulse (LVI) to the transformer, related to a
reference situation. From these methods, the first one is the most extensively used and scientists have focused a lot of
attention towards improving the reproducibility of the results obtained with this technique [5].
Besides the off-line methods, several on-line non-intrusive techniques have also been proposed in transformers. Among
these, prominent are two methods: vibro-acoustic analysis (VAA) of the transformer and, respectively, transient oil

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 pressure (TOP) in the tank of the transformer. The first one is based on the fact that any variations in the clamping of the
windings influence the vibrations of the windings. By analyzing the spectrum of these vibrations, this technique is able to
detect which part of the transformer was affected by the vibrations of the windings [6]. The second method takes into
account the values of the current-related over-pressure of the oil. When these values increase significantly, this indicates
that the clamping force inside the transformer suffers a critical loss [7].
The possibility exists for the implementation of these techniques, in various degrees [8,9], for evaluating the mechanical
condition of power transformers, ranging from less severe faults up to the most significant ones, i.e. the faults that bring
about progressive deterioration of the insulation or even its mechanical collapse.
All the previously mentioned techniques are non-intrusive ones. There are also, however, some on-line intrusive
methods, among which one can mention several important ones. A first such method was used in the 70 - 80’s and
consisted in the use of mechanical systems, or hydraulic ones, or a combination of these two types of systems, in order to
recover the initial values of the clamping forces. A second group of methods are the ones that measure the displacement
of the winding, either directly [8] or by measuring the acceleration [9]. A third technique performs a direct measurement
of the clamping forces and was successfully employed in applications of optical fiber sensors [10].

4. THE PROPOSED FO EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

In order to measure the axial clamping forces, another recently proposed method uses the pressing ring [11],
schematically depicted in Fig. 1. The transverse sensitivity of the optical fiber placed along the pressing ring was used by
attenuation variation of injecting radiation at the input of the optical fiber. This method presents several disadvantages
concerning the stability as a function of temperature, the uniformity of the clamping and the accuracy of the
technological fabrication of the sensor. Moreover, the connectors on the optical fiber introduce random errors that are
difficult to track down.
The principle of the optical transducer presented in Fig. 1, which measures the axial clamping forces in high voltage
transformers, is based on the measurement of compression forces which influence the transverse sensitivity of the
embedded optical fiber. The transverse strain, determined by the compression forces on the ring, influences the optical
information guided by the FO as light energy [12]. The application of a compression force on the FO changes the local
refractive index and thus reflections appear on the FO (equation (1), derived from Fresnel equations).
2
⎛n −n ⎞
R = ⎜⎜ 1 2 ⎟⎟ (1)
⎝ n1 + n2 ⎠
where R is the reflectance which appears when the light passes from medium 1 to medium 2, n1 is the refractive index of
the first medium and n2 that of the second medium.
This effect introduces an undesired nonlinear optical attenuation as a function of the deformation produced by the
pressing force on the optical fiber.
However, a superposition of various optical effects appears in the FO, some of these effects also appearing in micro-
bending and having a linear dependency on the deformation force that acts on the FO.
The mechanical transverse stress on FO attenuates differently the existing propagation modes in multimode fibers and
generates propagation changes in single-mode fibers. As a consequence of the fact that the FO presents many properties,
such as reflection, refraction, diffraction, interference etc., such optical sensors are governed by complex mechanisms
and their applications are very flexible and multiple.

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 a) b)

Fig. 1. a) Pressing ring (top view). The controlled axial clamping is applied on areas S1, S2, S3, S4. b) Washer
transducer for a pressing force of 250 kN [1].

In Fig. 1, S1….S4 represent the regions on which controlled axial clamping forces are applied in the transformer. One
can place in these areas, in the force flux, independent compression optical sensors, of washer type.
The optical transducer is an intrinsically safe one. It has the capability of integrating the strain to which the transducer is
subjected on its whole surface. The fabrication material for the optical transducer is stainless steel and the shape is a ring
(it is also called washer).
Such a optical fiber sensor also has the advantage that it can operate at temperatures up to 300ºC, which are much higher
than the temperatures to which, usually, the power transformers are limited. Another advantage of the transducer is its
reduced thickness, which makes it suitable in applications unforeseen for implementing a measuring system.

In order to further enhance the precision of the measurements, we proposed a FO method that uses a more accurate
technique than the one presented in Fig. 1. We chose that the sensitive optical fiber on the washer to be included in the
cavity of the laser. This method is based on the advantage presented by the properties of the optical fiber, that enable the
measurement of the clamping force along the entire pressing ring, as in Fig. 2. The increased precision of this method as
compared to the previous one arises from the fact that it eliminates the errors introduced by the deformations of the
pressing ring or the non-uniform distribution of the forces on the entire circumference of the ring. At the same time, it
reduces both the number of fiber optic connections and the number of ports of the input processing system.
A schematic design of the pressing ring that uses an optical microbending fiber along its circumference is presented in
Fig. 2.

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 top pressing ring
FO
connector

optical
pressing ring with optical fiber
fiber channel

FO channel with
microbending

Fig. 2. Proposed optical microbending fiber pressing ring.

The optical fiber is placed on the channel of the bottom ring, as in figure 2, in order to be bent when the two rings are
pressed by the axial clamping force. The structure of the channel from the bottom ring is correlated with the structure of
the top ring, in order to obtain a proportionality relation between the pressing force and the optical fiber bending.
Depending on the application and on the optical fiber that is used, one can choose the structure of the grating embedded
in the channel. The structure of the grating can have different values of its periodicity. Thus, the bending radius of the
fiber can be accurately controlled and therefore the response of the system to the deformation force can also be
controlled with good precision.
The top pressing ring has a structure that enables a slight deformation proportional with the clamping force and this
deformation is also sensed by the FO.
Through the pressing ring channel shown in figure 2, one can wind several loops of optical fiber, such as to obtain the
desired sensitivity of the laser measuring system.
The phenomena that act on the light that propagates through such an optical fiber are intercorrelated and the propagation
parameters in the FO, modified at the deformation of the fiber, are related to the attenuation, birefringence, polarization
direction of light, suppression of several propagation modes and partial passing of the light from the core into the
cladding.
The fiber lasers were chosen in the proposed measuring method because, as compared to conventional lasers such as
semiconductor lasers, they are flexible, robust sources that have intrinsically good properties such as short pulse width,
low timing jitter and good noise performance. These advantages make them suitable also as sources that generate pulses
for optical fiber sensors that make use of the transverse sensitivity of the fiber.
Passively Mode-Locked Fiber Lasers (PMFL) performances strongly depend on the type and position of the elements
used in the cavity. The attenuation modifies the stability of the solitons formed in such a laser and their characteristics.
However, the attenuation in the cavity of such a laser must range in a certain interval, because an attenuation that is too
high couples the modes only partially and thus the intermodal noise increases, whereas an attenuation that is too low

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 does not succeed in suppressing the reflections and has as a result the apparition of multiple solitons at low pumping
powers at which usually the fundamental soliton pulses were generated.
Moreover, it has been experimentally observed in our research that the region between the output of the amplifier and the
saturable absorber is a sensitive one, which significantly influences the stability and the characteristics of the solitons.
The attenuation influences in different ways the properties of the solitons by its position in laser cavity regarding the
elements of the cavity. The attenuation distribution along the optical fiber is also important. By stress-induced bending of
the FO in the proposed method, several parameters of the FO are modified, which act in tandem on the stability and on
the properties of the solitons generated in such a system. This fact can be exploited in sensors of the type proposed in this
article.
The novelty of our proposed method consists in the optical characteristics of the radiation injected in the fiber optic
pressing ring, that is no longer continuous, but as a train of short pulses, with a large frequency bandwidth and a
relatively high frequency.
The measurement of the axial clamping force is done not only at a single pass of the radiation through the fiber optic
pressing ring, but at several thousands passes of the ultrashort pulses. For our proposed method, not only the attenuation
response of the optical fiber matters, when the mechanical stress is applied, but also the changes of the optical fiber as a
medium of transmission of the optical pulses in what concerns the light polarization, the influence on the self-phase
modulation effect and the distributions of the mechanical stress along the optical fiber, because mode-locked fiber lasers
present many behaviors which are perfectly adapted to the laser cavity components.
When an optical pulse propagates through such a laser cavity, its wings experience a certain loss, related to the
configuration of the cavity, and its spectrum adjusts itself to the track that is passed through in an optimal way and these
light configurations represent the optical fingerprint of the track.
The schematical design of the measuring system based on the passively mode-locked laser is shown in fig. 3.

PMFL
FO pressing ring

Optoelectronic Converter
Data Processing and
Display

Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of the measuring system based on the passively mode-locked laser for verification of the
windings axial clamping forces for high voltage power transformers.

A semiconductor saturable absorber mirror with 1550 nm central wavelength was used in order to passively mode-lock
the laser. A band-pass filter with 10 nm bandwidth was inserted into the ring cavity and thus it was possible to change
the central wavelength of solitons. The central wavelength of the filters is approximately equal with the central
wavelength of the soliton spectrum.
The PMFL ring cavity setup is shown in Fig. 4, where the pulse is amplified by an erbium-doped fiber (EDF), after
which it enters in the FO pressing ring, then towards a circulator (C) and gets out directly into the SESAM
(Semiconductor Saturable Absorber Mirror).

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 EDFA

FO pressing
ring

Pulse
C SESAM

BP filter Sp 20dB
10 nm
PC

Optoelectronic Converter
Data Processing and
Display

Fig. 4. The PMFL ring cavity setup used for verification of the windings axial clamping forces for high voltage power
transformers. C - circulator, Sp – splitter, PC – polarization controller, EDFA – erbium doped fiber amplifier,
BP – band-pass.

The pulse is reflected by SESAM into the same circulator and gets out towards the 20dB splitter. One part of the signal
goes towards the Optoelectronic Converter Data Processing and Display, whereas the other part goes back into the ring
cavity, entering into the PC, where the polarization direction is adjusted so that this cycle would repeat without any
change of polarization (phase condition). Finally it enters into the band-pass filter and the cycle is repeated.

5. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

For the laser system shown in Fig. 4 it was observed that a fiber optic deformation and a value of the stability of the
PMFL correspond to each distribution and value of the axial clamping force. It was also observed that the spectrum of
the generated solitons is slightly different between one case and another, but the exact correlation between the fiber
deformation and the modification of the solitonic spectrum could not be achieved.
The spectral and stability methods increase the precision of the measurement and consist in a redundant system of
decision that ensures the proper functioning of the transformer.
Fig. 5 shows the measurements of the system’s response at the variation of the fiber optic deformations determined by
the clamping forces. These measurements were performed at different central wavelengths of the generated solitons. The
wavelength was set simply by the aid of the band-pass filter inserted into the cavity.

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 1000

900
S
t 800

a 700
b
600
- 1535 nm
1 500 1545 nm
i -1555 nm
400
- 1560 nm
y 300

200
a.
u. 100

o
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

Fiber optic deformation a.n.

Fig. 5. The variation of the system stability for different deformations of the sensitive fiber.

These plots resulted from the calculi performed with the experimentally measured data. A central wavelength of the
band-pass filter was set, then the procedure by which the laser is started in fundamental pulse regime was executed. The
pumping power at which the laser generated the fundamental soliton pulse was noted down. The same procedure was
repeated for 10 deformations of the sensitive fiber. The set of 10 deformations and measurements was reproduced for all
4 wavelengths.
A data acquisition electronic system, together with a microcontroller and adequate implemented software, compare these
characteristics in only several seconds and decide if the axial clamping forces are in the proper value range. The decision
and measurement system can be easily connected to each transformer by using a single optical fiber.

6. CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, we proposed a novel method that uses PMFL for directly monitoring the axial clamping forces in high
voltage power transformers. The proposed optoelectronic method employs the multiple advantages presented by the
optical fiber and enables obtaining flexible sensors. Thus, the reliability increases as compared with the approaches using
classical sensors. Moreover, the fire and damage risks are avoided in this new setup, due to the insulating properties of
the optical fiber. An important benefit of the method is that it eliminates the need to perform constructive changes and
maintains the operation safety of the transformer. The optical fiber is integrated into the laser cavity of the PMFL. A
solitonic optical spectrum, which is modified periodically, each time a fundamental soliton pulse passes through the
sensitive fiber inside the transformer, is associated to each axial clamp force. For each set of axial clamping forces there
is a unique value of the laser stability and laser pulse spectrum, which is a specific characteristic of the developed
system. The method proved its efficiency in monitoring the axial clamping forces in HV power transformers and in the
future it is expected to enhance the method according to the specific needs of several industrial and technical
applications.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors thank ICMET Craiova for facilitating the access and work at the high voltage laboratories.

REFERENCES

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