1 Title: Socio-environmental impacts on indigenous lands in the Brazilian Amazon

2
3 Authors:
4 Alex Mota dos Santos¹, Carlos Fabricio Assunção da Silva²*, Anderson Paulo Rudke3,4
5
6 Affiliations
7 1. Center of Agroforestry Sciences and Technologies, Federal University of Southern
8 Bahia, Rodovia Ilhéus/Itabuna, Km 22, Itabuna, 45604-811, Brazil. E-mail:
9 alex.geotecnologias@gmail.com
10 2. Department of Cartographic and Survey Engineering, Center of Technologies and
11 Geosciences, Federal University of Pernambuco, UFPE, Avenida Acadêmico Hélio
12 Ramos, Cidade Universitária, s/n, Recife 50740-530, Brazil. E-mail:
13 carlosufpe26@gmail.com
14 3. Department of Sanitary and Environmental Engineering, Federal University of Minas
15 Gerais, Av. Pres. Antônio Carlos, 6627, 31270-901, Belo Horizonte, Brazil.

16 4. Federal University of Technology - Paraná, Av. Dos Pioneiros, 3131, 86036-370,

17 Londrina, Brazil; rudke@alunos.utfpr.edu.br

18

19

20 * Correspondence author
21 Carlos Fabricio Assunção da Silva
22 Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Federal University of Pernambuco,
23 UFPE, Avenida da Arquitetura, s/n - Cidade Universitária, 50740-550, Recife -
24 Pernambuco, Brazil.
25 E -mail: carlosufpe26@gmail.com
26
27
28
29
30
31
32

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33 Socio-environmental impacts on indigenous lands in the Brazilian Amazon
34
35 Abstract
36
37 This research revealed the main socio-environmental pressures on indigenous lands
38 located in the Amazon Biome. To achieve the objectives, ten analysis variables were used
39 [deforestation (area and proportion), hot spots, mining(mining in river, area of mining
40 and mining in isolated points), predatory fishing, murders, illegal logging and the phases
41 of landholding regulation]. The variables were organized in a database and crossed in a
42 Geographic Information System environment through the association of weight, which
43 have revealed quantitative values to the variables. Thus, according to the proposed index,
44 the results showed that five indigenous lands had 'Very High' pressure values, which
45 corresponded to 1.5% of the total number of indigenous lands in the Amazon Biome.
46 However, the majority showed a pressure classified as 'Low'. Therefore, despite the entire
47 process of expropriation, indigenous lands remain relevant for the conservation and
48 preservation of natural resources in the Amazon.
49 Keywords: Social and Environmental Impact; Indigenous Lands; Amazon Biome;
50 Deforestation; Geographic Information System.
51
52 Introduction
53 The Amazon Forest offers several environmental services, such as producing non-
54 timber forest products (Böhringer and Jochem, 2020; Verweij et al., 2009), erosion
55 prevention (Salam, 2020; Verweij et al., 2009), carbon storage (Hofhansl et al., 2020;
56 Verweij et al., 2009), maintenance of bio and sociodiversity (Schmidt et al., 2021;
57 Verweij et al., 2009) and, recreational and tourism (Ribeiro et al., 2018; Verweij et al.,
58 2009). These services provide livelihoods resources for the local population, including
59 the indigenous communities who depend on the forest and the provision of ecosystem
60 services (Verweij et al., 2009). This natural wealth has sustained several indigenous
61 communities for centuries, which lived in communion with the forests (Adeney et al.,
62 2009; Nepstad et al., 2006; Santos et al., 2021). Therefore, to protect these communities,
63 the National State created indigenous lands (Araújo et al., 2017; Santos et al., 2021).
64 Indigenous lands are important protected areas for conserving sociodiversity and
65 environmental resources, such as fauna, flora, and soil. Researches on indigenous lands
66 are recurrent in the Amazon Biome (Santos, 2014; Silva, 2018; Bayi, 2019; Rorato et al.,

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67 2021), but most of them are carried out locally so that macro analyzes of all indigenous
68 lands and socio-environmental impacts have become necessary, such as the studies
69 conducted by Rorato et al. (2021) and Nepstad et al. (2006). At the same time, Fearnside
70 (2017) has clarified that the indigenous people that live in the Amazon rainforest are
71 under a countless diversity of threats, such as agriculture, mining, livestock, construction
72 of dams, highways. All these modifications are called socio-environmental impacts, as
73 defined by the Brazilian environmental legislation; Resolution No. 001/86 of the
74 Conselho Nacional do Meio Ambiente (CONAMA) (Brasil, 1986).
75 The negative impacts on the Amazon Biome have occurred in different ways; For
76 example, the water pollution due to mining activities (Sun et al., 2018; Rakotondrab et
77 al., 2018), the conflicts over land tenure (Sauer et al., 2018), soil impoverishment by its
78 intensive use (Aldrich et al., 2020), wildfires (Brando et al., 2020; Reis, et al., 2021) and
79 deforestation (Barros et al., 2020; Carvalho et al., 2019a; Carvalho et al., 2019b; Garcia
80 et al., 2019; Gollnow et al., 2018; Paiva et al., 2020), among others. Such impacts affect
81 indigenous communities and their socio-diversity, which are directly or indirectly
82 affected by disturbances imposed on forest remnants. In this sense, one of the greatest
83 threats to these people is the opening of highways and roads, which leads to deforestation,
84 and as a result, will attract miners or other types of settlers and, consequently, disrespect
85 indigenous people and their cultures (Ferrante et al., 2020).
86 Several studies have focused on analyzing the impacts arising from human
87 activities (Rudke et al., 2020; Llopart et al., 2018; Rorato et al., 2021). Thus, according
88 to Rorato et al. (2021), there are multiple environmental threats to indigenous lands
89 located in the Amazon Biome. According to the authors, most indigenous lands in the
90 Amazon have been affected internally by different ecological threats, such as
91 deforestation, forest degradation, wildfires, mining, plantations, pastures, and roads
92 (Rorato et al., 2019). In this sense, removing vegetation (both absolute deforestation and
93 relative forest loss) is considered as the trigger for initiating different socio-environmental
94 impacts. Therefore, approaches that seek to highlight the environmental impacts, as well
95 as their drivers, are essential, since several authors have shown the importance of the
96 Amazon Forest to the world, including its relationship with the climate (Coe et al., 2009;
97 Davidson, et al., 2012; Artaxo et al., 2013; Artaxo et al., 2014). Thus, our study advances
98 the state of the art and contributes insofar as it adds environmental analysis, social aspects
99 directly related to life. This is important, as the studies already described focus on
100 analyzes of environmental variables.

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101 In addition, studies that performed environmental modeling through a set of
102 explanatory variables for the analysis of environmental vulnerability have stood out
103 (Santos, 2015), for example, the Pressure Index (Rudke et al., 2020), Environmental
104 Quality (Santos et al., 2020), Eco-Environmental Risk (Chaudhary et al., 2020),
105 Environmental Threats (Rorato et al., 2021), among others. According to Santos et al.
106 (2020), to characterize a given environmental impact, statistical (or
107 numerical/computational) methods are based on the understanding of multiple
108 environmental effects that are, as a rule, characterized through multi-criteria analysis.
109 Still, according to the authors, such methods are concerned with analyzing, crossing, and
110 integrating geographic data to offer possibilities for decisions (Santos et al., 2020).
111 Therefore, based on this set of research and the relevance of indigenous lands for
112 preservation and conservation in the Amazon Biome, this study aims to analyze the socio-
113 environmental impacts on indigenous lands in the Amazon Biome from 2007 to 2019 by
114 performing modeling to a set of environmental and social variables.
115
116 2 Materials and methods
117
118 2.1 Study Area
119 The study area comprises 332 indigenous lands located in the Brazilian Amazon
120 (Figure 1), which were classified, accordingly to the Fundação Nacional do Índio
121 (FUNAI), the official indigenous organ of Brazil, as: Declared (25), Delimited(09), in
122 Study (06), Forwarded with Indigenous Reserve (IR) (06), Homologated (02) and,
123 Regularized (284).
124 According to FUNAI, the declared indigenous lands that obtained the expedition
125 of the Declaratory Ordinance by the Ministry of Justice and are authorized to be
126 physically demarcated, with the materialization of the landmarks and georeferencing.
127 Delimited lands are those in which studies have been approved by the Presidency of
128 FUNAI, with their conclusion published in the Official Gazette of the Union and the State,
129 and which are in the administrative contradictory phase or under analysis by the Ministry
130 of Justice, for decision on the expedition of Declaratory Ordinance of traditional
131 indigenous possession. In study, they are lands where anthropological, historical, land,
132 cartographic, and environmental studies are being carried out, which underlie the
133 identification and the delimitation of indigenous land.

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134
135 Figure 1. Amazon Biome, with emphasis on Indigenous Lands according to the
136 classification adopted by FUNAI.
137
138 Routed with Indigenous Reserves (IR) are areas that are under administrative
139 procedure aiming at their acquisition (direct purchase, expropriation, or donation).
140 Homologated are the lands that have limits that are materialized and georeferenced,
141 whose administrative demarcation was homologated by a Presidential decree and the
142 regularized indigenous lands are acquired areas that are registered in the Registry in the
143 name of the Union and also are destined to the exclusive possession and usufruct of the
144 indigenous population. Finally, Regularized are the lands that, after the homologation
145 decree, were registered in a Registry in the name of the Union and in the Secretaria do
146 Patrimônio da União.
147 The total area of indigenous lands is 1,089,421 km², that is, 25.95% of the Amazon
148 Biome (4.196.943 Km²), and of this total, 91.41% are regularized. There are six other
149 indigenous lands still under study that add up to an expressive area of 10,807 km².
150
151 2.2 Databases
152 The data used in the analysis are described in Table 1; they were classified as
153 social (murder) and environmental (the other data) variables.

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154 The data on the area indigenous lands deforested were acquired from the
155 Terrabrasilis portal (http://terrabrasilis.dpi.inpe.br/), organized by the Brazilian National
156 Institute for Space Research (INPE). These data supported calculating the proportion of
157 the deforestation area for all of the 332 indigenous lands.
158 The hot spots data were obtained from the portal BDQueimadas
159 (https://queimadas.dgi.inpe.br//queimadas/bdqueimadas/) from INPE. The mining data
160 were obtained from the Amazon Geo-Referenced Socio-Environmental Information
161 Network (https://www.amazoniasocioambiental.org/en/maps/#download), classified as
162 punctual, linear (along rivers in area), with the indication of the mining area.
163
164 Table 1: Characterization of social and environmental analysis variables.
Variable Acronym Impact description Category Unit Weight
Deforestation* DE Loss of fauna and Environmental km² 9.5
flora, land conflicts.
Hot Spots* HS Loss of fauna and Environmental Count 9.5
flora, air pollution
and conflicts over
life.
Mining in River MR Threat over water Environmental km 10.0
** resources and
conflicts over life.
Area Mining ** AM Threat over water Environmental km² 9.5
resources and
conflicts over life.
Mining in MI Threat over water Environmental Number of 10.0
Isolated Points ** resources and Points
conflicts over life.
Predatory Fishing PF Threat on fauna, Environmental Count/Unit 7.0
* threatens indigenous
food diet, and risks of
conflict.
Illegal Logging * IL Threat on flora risks Environmental Count/Unit 7.0
of conflicts.
Phase of IL ** FI Political threat. Environmental Qualitative 5.0
/Social description
Murder * MU Threat over life. Social Count/Unit 10.0
Proportion of PD Loss of fauna and Environmental Percentage 9.5
Deforestation * flora, threatens life. of
deforestation
165 * Variables obtained from the period 2010 to 2019 and ** variables obtained from the year 2020.
166 Weights based on research by Santos (2014).
167
168 Data on predatory fishing, illegal logging, and murder were acquired from the
169 Violence Observatory, which surveys violence against indigenous people in Brazil by the
170 Conselho Missionário Indigenista (CIMI https://cimi.org.br/observatorio-da-

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171 violence/previous editions/). Finally, the phases of demarcation of indigenous lands were
172 obtained from the vector files made available by FUNAI.
173
174 2.3 Assessment of Socio-Environmental Pressure
175
176 The Socio-Environmental Pressure Index (SPI) was defined as a comparative and
177 reference measurement that allowed for the classification and categorization of
178 indigenous lands accordingly to the degree of pressure. This method was chosen since
179 there is no established index for this analysis proposal, or any other analysis with more
180 adequate variables (Santos, 2014; Santos and Gomide, 2015). The SPI was generated by
181 selecting variables that have a potential social and environmental impact on indigenous
182 lands and by assigning weights to each of the parameters (Table 1). Due to the high
183 variability of the data obtained, normalization is a practice to prevent the algorithm from
184 being biased towards variables with a higher order of magnitude.
185 The weights were assigned based on previous studies carried out by Santos (2014),
186 Santos and Gomide (2015), and Rudke et al. (2020). According to the authors, the
187 association of a quantitative value with the variables occurs through the attribution of
188 weights. The weight for each variable is given according to the degree of anthropic
189 pressure that can vary from 1 to 10, where 10 indicates the maximum pressure (Santos,
190 2014).
191 The calculation of the SPI has followed the proposed by Rudke et al. (2020)
192 method. According to the authors, this calculation is performed using the arithmetic mean
193 obtained from the analysis of the set of parameters, in this case, those described in Table
194 1. According to Böhringer and Jochem (2007), the arithmetic mean traditionally is used
195 to calculate the majority of the indexes known all over the world, among of which are the
196 Environmental Sustainability Index (ESI) and the Environmental Vulnerability Index
197 (EVI). In general, the sustainability index provides a one-dimensional metric to assess
198 specific information about the established dimensions (Böhringer and Jochem, 2007).
199 According to Rudke et al. (2020), the use of arithmetic means is possible when there is a
200 common scale factor of the parameters. Equation 1 was used to calculate the SPI and it
201 stands out that the doubled weight was assigned to the murder variable for "obvious
202 reasons" (reflects conflicts between indigenous and non-indigenous), as it implies death.
203 SPI = (DE+HS+MR+AM+MI+PF+IL+FI+2*MU+PD) (1)
204 11

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205 The vector data with weights indication for each variable were converted into a
206 raster with a pixel size of 100 m to match the resolution of the pixels. The structuring of
207 the pressure map was carried out using map algebra tools, according to the methodology
208 proposed by Tomlin (1990).
209 In this methodology, a quantitative (scalar, ordinal, cardinal, or interval) or
210 qualitative (nominal) value (Cordeiro, et al., 2007) is associated with each location in a
211 given study area. Finally, the scale described in Low; Moderate; High, and Very High was
212 adopted, following the method proposed by Rudke et al. (2020).
213
214 3. Results and discussions
215
216 The results for the Socio-Environmental Pressure Index (SPI) from the ten
217 analyzed variables are shown in Figure 2. The highest number of indigenous lands with
218 high pressure was observed in the variable Illegal Logging (EM) and the lowest for the
219 variable Proportion Deforestation (PD).

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220
221 Figure 2. Socio-environmental Pressure Index (SPI) by variable of the Indigenous Lands
222 in the Amazon Biome. DE (Deforestation); Hot Spots (HS); Mining in River (MR); Area
223 Mining (AM); Mining in Isolated Points (MI); Predatory Fishing (PF); Illegal Logging
224 (IL); Phase of IL (FI); 2* Murder (MU) and Proportion of Deforestation (PD).
225

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226 The most significant spatial variation was observed for the variable Deforestation
227 (Figure 3) and its relationship with rivers and roads (predominant modes of access in de
228 Amazon Region. In this sense, 18 indigenous lands were listed as 'very pressured'.
229 Therefore, a pattern was found for the grouping of lands that are under much pressure for
230 the variable Deforestation. In addition, the Moran Map revealed a cluster of indigenous
231 lands with deforested areas (supplementary material).

232
233 Figure 3. Socio-environmental pressure of the variable Deforestation.
234
235 According to Rorato et al. (2021), the pressures around the indigenous lands are
236 responsible for boosting illegal logging in those territories. Still, according to the authors,
237 the main drivers of illegal logging in these areas are large-scale mechanized agriculture
238 and extensive livestock (Santos et al., 2021). Furthermore, the economic gains from
239 mining and logging further increase deforestation and forest degradation.
240 In addition, the most significant number of indigenous lands classified as 'High'
241 and 'Very High' pressure is observed over the state of Maranhão, far east of the Amazon
242 (from east to west). In this sense, according to Santos (2016), the location and size of
243 indigenous lands in the country reveal how the occupation was consolidated, from east to
244 west. For the author, roads allow indiscriminate movement of non-indigenous
245 communities in demarcated areas (Santos, 2016).

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246 Also, according to the results presented in Figure 3, there are many deforestation
247 poles and a high road network density, which facilitates access to indigenous lands in this
248 portion of the Amazon. The impact of the road network on indigenous lands was the
249 subject of research by Fearnside (2012) and Santos (2014).
250 In this sense, according to the Instituto de Pesquisa Ambiental da Amazônia
251 (IPAM, 2015, p. 1), the deforestation that occurs in the interior of these areas is generally
252 associated with activities carried out by non-indigenous people, such as, the invasion for
253 illegal logging, gold mining activity and the invasion of land for agricultural use (Santos
254 et al., 2021). In general, the deforestation of significant forest remnants in the Amazon
255 region occurs through vicinal roads that are connected to main roads, a pattern known as
256 "fishbone" due to the established visual character (Barber et al., 2014; Paiva et al., 2020).
257 Along these vicinal roads, clearings are opened, which serves as a storage yard for
258 machinery and a camp for workers (Paiva et al., 2019). Once this scenario is established,
259 the removal of wood of economic value begins, which is extracted and starts to give way,
260 in many cases, to pastures to expand extensive cattle raising (Barber et al., 2014; Condé
261 et al., 2019; Jusys, 2016).
262 Despite this scenario, the proportion of deforestation was the variable with the
263 lowest spatial variability (Figure 4). This have revealed the importance of indigenous
264 lands for the conservation of the Amazon rainforest. According to Santos (2014), even in
265 the 21st century, the indigenous population live in harmony with the forest, so the
266 proportion of deforested areas is low. Such analysis is in line with other researches that
267 states that ILs have a lower percentage of deforestation (Barber et al., 2014; Begotti &
268 Peres, 2020; BenYishay et al., 2017; Ferrante et al., 2020; Lima et al.., 2020; Rorato et
269 al., 2020; Villén-Pérez et al., 2020). In the proposed model, the majority presented 'low
270 pressure' for deforestation, 17 were of 'medium pressure', 4 had 'high pressure', and 3
271 presented 'very high pressure'. These indigenous lands with the highest-pressure levels
272 are located in the eastern portion.

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273
274 Figure 4. Socioenvironmental pressure of the variable Proportion of Deforestation.
275
276 The general Socioenvironmental Pressure, calculated based on map algebra, in
277 indigenous lands was shown in Figure 5. The Raposa Serra do Sol, Yanomami,
278 Jacareacanga, Alto Turiaçú and Araribóia were observed and classified as 'very
279 pressured'. In addition, 15 indigenous lands were considered to have 'high' pressure. Even
280 so, a large part of these areas remained with 'low pressure'.

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281
282 Figure 5. Index of Socioenvironmental Pressure of Indigenous Lands in the Amazon
283 Biome.
284
285 The identified results from this research are corroborated with those found by
286 Rorato et al. (2021), where it was verified that the Parque do Xingu, Apyterewa, Alto Rio
287 Guamá, and Parque do sse Indigenous Lands were grouped in the high threat class by the
288 authors. In addition, the study noted the increased severity of threats to land in the arc of
289 deforestation (Rorato et al., 2021).
290 Most lands with very high pressure are also included in the arc of deforestation,
291 which is a region where the highest rates of deforestation are caused as a result of the
292 advance of the agricultural frontier towards the forest (Rorato et al., 2021).
293 The variables deforestation and the proportion of deforestation influenced the high
294 socio-environmental pressure in the Rio Guamá Indigenous Territory (Figure 6), in the
295 Northeast portion of the State of Pará, in which the largest deforested area was observed
296 between the years of 2007 to 2019, of 1,025.19 km². This means that 36.63% of its area
297 has already been deforested. In other words, of the entire deforested area in the interior
298 of all indigenous lands in the Amazon Biome, 6.9% were mapped in the Alto Rio Guamá.

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299
300 Figure 6. Deforestation inside and outside of Indigenous Land Alto Rio Guamá.
301
302 Figure 6 also shows that two state highways, the PA-108 and the PA-252, cross
303 the Alto Rio Guamá Indigenous Territory, and according to the results of the research
304 conducted by Santos (2014), the indigenous lands are easily accessible by the highway
305 system are those with the highest Anthropic Pressure Index.
306 The indigenous lands Parque do Xingu and Maraiwatsede, on the other hand, are
307 in an expansion area of the agribusiness in the State of Mato Grosso, in which the areas
308 of pasture and soy cultivation have a fundamental role in the deforestation of the Brazilian
309 Amazon, as highlighted by Piccoli et al., (2020). The highway system for the flow of
310 production has favored these economic activities.
311 In addition to these, the Kayapó Indigenous Land, located in the south of the State
312 of Pará, suffers from a significant process of contamination, deforestation, destruction,
313 and illegal mining (Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, 2021). The map of conflicts involving
314 environmental injustice and health in Brazil has also revealed changes in the reproductive
315 cycle of fauna, changes in the traditional regime of use and occupation of the territory,
316 silting up of water resources, contamination or intoxication by harmful substances,
317 deforestation, and/or burning, erosion of the soil, invasion/damage to the protected area

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318 or conservation unit, air pollution, water resource pollution, soil pollution, noise pollution
319 and precariousness/risks in the work environment.
320 In addition, according to the map of conflicts involving environmental injustice
321 and health in Brazil, from the Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (2021), the Apyterewa
322 Indigenous Land is under various pressures, such as invasions, deforestation, and
323 wildfires. Despite being homologated in 2007, the indigenous land still has 80% of its
324 territory occupied by non-indigenous people, especially people working as loggers,
325 miners, and illegal landholders in the region (Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, 2021).
326 According to Loureiro (2010), the paving of the Santarém-Cuiabá highway (BR-
327 163) encourages access by loggers and land invaders to the lands of the Zoe Indians from
328 the Tumucumaque Indigenous Land. Thus, this land has been the target of deforestation
329 and the indigenous population is in constant threat by loggers (Loureiro, 2010).
330 The Arariboia Indigenous Land is located at the western end of the Amazon
331 Biome, in the State of Maranhão, which already is a consolidated area of non-indigenous
332 occupation. In this sense, according to Varga (2008), the lack of action by the State has
333 led to devastation, genocide, diseases, and misery in the contemporary frontiers of the
334 Amazon, in Maranhão. This land was influenced by the Buriticupu Agricultural
335 Colonization Project, which was one of the colonization projects directed at the Pre-
336 Amazon region under the responsibility of the Maranhão State government, which was
337 in force from the years of 1973 to 1987.
338 It is worth highlighting the fact that this dynamic of occupation sustained by the
339 National State has materialized itself through the activities of the Instituto Nacional de
340 Colonização e Reforma Agrária (INCRA) that were grouped into Integrated Colonization
341 Projects (ICP's), Managed Settlement Projects (MSP's) Settlement Projects (SP's)
342 (Santos, 2014). In addition, there are colonization projects under the Plano do Programa
343 de Desenvolvimento Integrado do Noroeste do Brasil (POLONOROESTE), which was
344 carried out during the 1980s, with resources from the Brazilian Government and the
345 World Bank (Santos, 2014).
346 According to Loureiro (2010), the ethical posture that places land as a central
347 element of the dispute is exercised in several ways. One of them is the simple execution
348 of judiciary decisions that affect the reduction of indigenous lands or when it authorizes
349 the execution of ventures that have an effect on the population, without forcing the
350 Executive to adopt less harmful alternatives.

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351 In addition to deforestation, the illegal mining variable have pressed for the
352 proposed index. For Ribeiro et al. (2019), mining on indigenous lands in the Amazon can
353 contribute to social vulnerability and socio-environmental impacts. According to the
354 Mining Observatory (2020), the Yanomami and Raposa Serra do Sol indigenous lands,
355 located in the State of Roraima, are under pressure from large and medium-sized mining
356 companies. In addition, the massive invasion of miners, who took advantage of the
357 COVID-19 pandemic to further intensify illegal extraction, both of ore and timber
358 extraction (Brancalion et al., 2020; Observatório da Mineração, 2020; Vale et al., 2021).
359 In addition, empirically, especially in border areas, indigenous people have
360 revealed invasions by fishers, since the rivers located inside those areas have a large
361 amount of fish (Santos, 2014).
362 In fact, according to FUNAI (2019), in a route of more than 1.800 km along the
363 fluvial axis of the Purus River, teams from the agency and the Instituto Brasileiro do Meio
364 Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais Renováveis (IBAMA) and the Batalhão de
365 Policiamento Ambiental da Polícia Militar do Amazonas seized several environmental
366 offenses, for example: fishing for pirarucu fish, turtles, hunt, wood and forbidden
367 materials, mainly predator fishing gear and tools.
368 The phases of land tenure regularization of indigenous lands reveal a lengthy,
369 conflicting process that exposes the indigenous population (Machado, 2015). According
370 to Tourneau (2018), with the ultraconservatives currently in power in Brazil, the greatest
371 opponents of the rights (especially land rights) of indigenous people are today in a
372 position of conflict. Therefore, they try to advance their agenda, especially regarding the
373 weakening and, if possible, the reduction of indigenous lands (Tourneau, 2018), such as,
374 the recent bill for mining activity in ILs (Siqueira-Gay et al., 2020).
375 Associated with the conflicts that can generate varied pressures on indigenous
376 lands, the murders are little explored in these analyzes. However, this variable was
377 observed to be relevant to the global pressure. This type of conflict is associated with
378 indigenous lands where the demarcation process does not advance at FUNAI or at the
379 bodies responsible for demarcation. According to Dambrós (2019), from the verification
380 of the main historical and institutional facts, of the State's action on the indigenous issue,
381 it is possible to understand the context of struggle and resistance of these populations, as
382 well as the genocidal pressure due to the advance of agribusiness, mining and large
383 enterprises, such as hydroelectric plants. According to the author, the years 2000 to mid-
384 2018 were marked by resistance and struggle.

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385 Also, according to the same author, in these nearly twenty years, there have been
386 significant advances in terms of indigenous protection. Despite this, the government has
387 also encouraged the production of agricultural and mineral commodities, which have
388 increased pressure on indigenous areas and lands, generating conflicts and, in recent
389 years, intensifying murders.
390
391 4. Conclusions
392 The results presented here contribute to the numerous studies that have been
393 carried out in the Brazilian Amazon and that focus on indigenous lands, as well as
394 endogenous and exogenous factors that influence environmental and social impacts. The
395 findings of this study contribute to the effort to understand the peculiarities of indigenous
396 lands concerning potential social and environmental threats in a way that highlights the
397 need for public policies aimed at these protected areas.
398 The findings of this study contributed to the effort to understand the peculiarities
399 of indigenous lands about potential socio-environmental threats to highlight the need for
400 public policies aimed at these conservation units. It was possible to conclude that despite
401 all the unfavorable scenarios around the indigenous lands, there is an expressive area of
402 preservation of the Amazon forest in the interior of these lands.
403 In addition, the results found through this research allow us to conclude that:•
404 The Pressure Index of the Deforestation variable was, among those analyzed, the
405 one that presented the greatest threat to indigenous lands. In this sense, 18 indigenous
406 lands were listed as 'very pressured';
407 • The Deforestation variable was relevant for the Socio-environmental
408 Pressure index; however, its proportion to the total land areas was not. Therefore, it is
409 possible to affirm that deforestation occurs in isolated areas. This reveals the importance
410 of indigenous lands for the conservation of the Amazon rainforest in Brazil;
411 • The largest number of indigenous lands classified as 'High' and 'Very High'
412 pressure is observed over the state of Maranhão, in the far east of the Amazon;
413 • This study also concluded that the deforested area in the interior of the Alto
414 Rio Guamá Indigenous Land corresponded to 6.9% of the total deforested area in all other
415 indigenous lands. This reinforces that deforestation in the interior of indigenous lands is
416 an isolated phenomenon;

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417 Finally, it was observed that, despite all the unfavorable scenarios around the
418 indigenous lands, there is expressive preservation of the Amazon forest within these
419 areas.
420
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