Easter College

Teacher Education Department

Easter School Rd, Guisad, Baguio City

Midterms

Course: GEC 6

Course Title: Ethics

Course Schedule: BSN 4: MT 7:30-9:00, HBM: MTW 9:30-10:30, BSN 1B: MTW 1:00-2:00, BSN
1C: MTW 3:00-4:00, BSN 1D: MTW 4:30-5:30, Criminology: ThF 9:00-10:30, BSN 1A: ThF 1:00-
2:30, BSN 1E: ThF 2:30-4:00

Consultation Hours: Wednesday 10:00 AM- 3:00 PM ( You can get in touch with me via text
message or email 09095024608/mballoguing@eastercollege.ph or you can go directly at TED
Faculty Office (Brown House) at the given time frame and day)

Topic 3: virtual ethics

Course Learning Outcomes:

1. Define virtual ethics;
2. Reflect on the importance in living virtuously;
3. Evaluate a situation based on the four cardinal virtues.

Time Frame: 4 Hours

Learning Experiences:

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 Theories that fall under the heading of virtue ethics are all an
evolution and exploration of philosophical themes first
outlined thousands of years ago in the writings of Aristotle. In
virtue ethics, moral fortitude is based on rules, but only
because the rules are applied by the agent, or person. Virtue
ethics is agent based, because agents use a moral code they’ve
adopted for themselves, and that moral code is made up of
true, honorable, and just virtues that guide their actions. Most
of these virtues are qualities (which are, by nature, positive or
“quality” character traits) that the individual’s culture or
society has ingrained upon him or her as being very important.
These virtues are the building blocks of a truly mora
individual.

Understanding virtue ethics begins by recalling deontological

theories. Like virtue ethics, deontological theories involve living by steadfastly held moral truths. In
deontology, these virtues are examined closely so as to become second nature, and used to develop good,
moral character habits. In virtue ethics, by contrast, those ethics don’t require thought or careful planning
or thinking because they become second nature and affect, in theory, every thought and action an
individual undertakes without the individual even realizing it.

Although it’s difficult to find universal truths about most any aspect of ethics, the same cannot be said for
virtues. How virtues are applied and defined may vary wildly from person to person, culture to culture, or
era to era, but certain character traits nonetheless have become bona fide virtues due to their almost
universal acceptance and admiration. Such character traits that are turned into virtues include things like
wisdom, generosity, justice, temperance, keeping a level head, and kindness. Another virtue that’s
important in applied ethics is passing on those virtues: it’s virtuous for adults to pass on virtues to their
children, as it is their responsibility to do so.

Some of the ethical notions that come under the “virtue ethics” umbrella that we’ll discuss in this chapter
include:

Divine command theory, the idea that all good behaviors—and the virtues that guide them—are laid out
explicitly by a divine figure, such as God. If God said it’s good, it’s good, and if God said it’s bad, it’s
bad.

Natural law ethics, a theory developed by Thomas Aquinas that finds human nature is one and the same
with the ethical goodness, and that it is human nature to adopt virtues and act virtuously.

Relativism, the notion that virtues—and thus ethical strictures— can vary from culture to culture because
of the different values and needs of each culture. Relativism holds that it’s not correct to judge or make
statements about absolutes.

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Moral realism is an opposing viewpoint to relativism. Under this philosophy, there are some moral truths
and values that are objectively good, whether or not an individual or even community chooses to accept
them as such. (Moral antirealism then is the idea that there are no objectively morally right virtues.)

So far we’ve covered two of the three primary approaches to moral

philosophy, or ethics. More specifically, we’ve discussed
mainstream or normative ethics. We have also examined
deontological ethics and utilitarian ethics. This leaves us, finally,
with virtue ethics, which is also called virtue theory.

Let us return for a moment to a few of the ethics theories we’ve

discussed. Recall that deontology seeks to find the secrets of ethics
with rules and duties, and consequentialism and utilitarianism are
about the potential ramifications (good or bad) of human actions. A
utilitarian would point to a person needing help and find that the
consequences of helping maximizes well-being, suggesting a
positive moral act. A deontologist will help a person if doing so follows the moral rule that it is good and
right to help. Deontology provides a subtle but important difference from virtue ethics.

A virtue ethicist acts because helping another is charitable, benevolent, or just the “right” thing to do. It’s
a virtue-based, not rule based ethic. The ideas or principles behind the rules that a deontologist sets are
what a virtue ethicist follows, and similarly, such rules are what must be followed. Or perhaps it’s the
other way around? That is: the deontologists make and follow their rules based on the virtues that the
virtue ethicists established. All three approaches to ethics make room for virtues, especially deontology,
because virtues inform those rules that must be adhered to. (Any good normative ethical theory will have
something to say about all three concepts.) What makes virtue ethics different, and its own discipline, is
the centrality of virtue in the theory itself. The others use virtues as a means to an end, not the end in and
of itself.

The Need for Virtues

Virtue ethics were the dominant school in moral philosophy until the Enlightenment of Europe in the
eighteenth century, and, after falling out favor somewhat, they returned to become the dominant school in
the twenty-first century. Perhaps this is because the moral philosophy of virtue ethics is the only major
school that takes into consideration the interplays between virtues and vices, motives and morality, moral
education, wisdom and discernment, relationships, a concept of happiness, and what sorts of persons we
ought to be.

Defined simply, a virtue is a highly regarded personality trait or aspect of character. While many so-
called virtues are almost universal, they are broadly defined as a deeply held value by a person that
intrinsically leads him or her to behave in a certain way.

Virtues affect how we absorb the world around us and act in the world. Virtues influence actions,
feelings, desires, choices, and reactions—all of which are predictable in a person, if that value is
deeply held. And while these values may lead a person to act out instinctively, they are learned behaviors
that are well thought out and deeply felt on the level of a religious belief. The most precious

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virtues seem like they are intrinsic to a person’s nature, so affirmed they can be. These virtues are
authentic and adhere to rules that are nice for the way people live and function together in a society.
These virtues also take feelings into consideration, as well as personal wellbeing and the well-being of
others. (Contrast this approach to deontology with its assertion that “the rule says it’s right.”)

Virtuous people are not perfect, but this does not affect the purity or inspirational component of the virtue
itself. In its application, human frailty, weaknesses, and contradictions come into play. This is due to the
very human lack of practical wisdom or moral wisdom.
Such knowledge could also be called applied wisdom, as these actions demonstrate virtues. Virtuous
actions make a person good, and it is those actions that make a person good, not just good intentions, as
other ethical schools may argue.

The ancient Greeks named ten virtues to be the most essential. They are: wisdom, justice, fortitude, self-
control, love, positivity, hard work, integrity, gratitude, and humility.

There are a few different approaches to virtue ethics, although each shares the same core argument in
putting virtues first and foremost. The three approaches that concern us here are eudaimonism, ethics of
care, and agent-based theories.

Eudaimonism
In ancient Greece, and up through the medieval era, the type of virtue ethics now called eudaimonism was
synonymous with virtue ethics. This approach holds that the ideal goal of human existence is individual
eudaimonia, which translates variously (but similarly) to “happiness” or “well-being” or “the good life.”
This goodness is attainable by the acting out of those virtues (which the Greeks called phronesis) day in
and day out in one’s thoughts and actions. The main problem is that eudaimonia, or happiness, is vaguely
defined, self-defined, and quite subjective. It’s hard to have a universal approach to the ethical outlook of
humanity if everyone defines the goal differently. What is objective and seemingly universal, however, is
that phronesis is the tool by which happiness can be achieved. However, good intentions are not
enough—one must act ethically to be ethical.

Ethics of Care
Another form of virtue ethics is ethics of care. It’s a relatively recent addition to the world of ethics, and
it was developed in the late twentieth century as an outgrowth of feminist theory, particularly the works
of Annette Baier (1929–2012). The theory supposes that normative gender roles influence the way a
person thinks and acts, particularly as it concerns that person’s ethical outlook. Generally speaking, men
form philosophies based on linear, “masculine” ideals such as justice and personal autonomy, which are
more abstract, objective, and less emotionally based or sympathetic. Women, on the other hand, may
think less linearly, and consider whole beings and take empathy and care into consideration more so than
masculine-based ideals.

Ethics of care argues for an approach to moral philosophy from a more traditionally “female”
viewpoint—and that the most important virtues are taking care of others, being patient and nurturing, and
being willing to sacrifice one’s own happiness so as to bring happiness to others. Out go universal
standards established over the course of thousands of years by a male-thought dominated society, and in
come the virtuous ideas of community and relationship-building from a female point of view. In such a
female viewpoint, the interests of those close to us take on importance with our own interests, although
they are still above those of strangers (although the community can and should always be growing so as
to become ever more unified).

Agent-based Theories

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The third type of virtue ethics fall under the umbrella of agent-based theories. A twentieth-century
development, primarily by philosopher Michael Slote, these theories rely on creating virtues from
commonsense notions about what virtues are. This approach uses the largest, the most normal, and the
most lauded virtues across time and culture. Such general virtues, for example, include being kind and
showing mercy. Agent-based theories move the burden of ethics to the inner life of the agents who
perform those actions, and
away from the interpreter of the moral philosophy. Virtue-based ethics exist in other, morally decent
people, and so we try to be more like them, as we do our best to embody and adopt their virtues as our
own.

CARDINAL VIRTUES
The four cardinal virtues are very old concepts that have been highly valued. The Roman philosopher and
statesman Cicero states “Virtue may be defined as a habit of mind (animi) in harmony with reason and
the order of nature. It has four parts: wisdom (prudentiam), justice, courage, temperance.” (De
Inventione, II, LIII)

The cardinal virtues are listed in the Bible. In the book Wisdom of Solomon 8:7 states, "She [Wisdom]
teaches temperance, and prudence, and justice, and fortitude, which are such things as men can have
nothing more profitable in life.

1. Prudence

The Greek hated a thing overdone, a gaudy ornament, a proud title, a fulsome compliment, a high-flown
speech, a wordy peroration – Aeschylus

The dictionary meaning of prudence is discretion, cautiousness, care, forethought or good sense.
Prudent individuals avoid rashness and recklessness and tend to be wary of needless risk taking. They
tend to be conventional and stick to the well-trodden path. They may not be adventurous, and instead
seek safety and comfort. Prudence is an inappropriate basis of morality. Early Christianity called for
purity of heart and rejected prudence, fear and desire for afterlife in paradise as grounds for piety or
virtue. Mere calculating prudence or a desire for social conformity should not be the basis of
morality. A prudent individual may simply observe the external forms of religion without putting his
heart into it.

Aristotle, however, considered prudence as eminently desirable practical wisdom. It is a habit of

intellectual perception that enables the virtuous man to discover the golden mean of moral virtue.

For Aristotle, virtue is a mean between two other qualities which represent its two extremes – for
example courage is a golden mean between timidity and rashness. Aristotle believed that no moral
virtue comes into play without prudence. In any given situation, it is the judgement of the prudent
man that hits upon the mean of virtue. For example, without prudence, fortitude becomes rashness,
justice becomes vindictiveness, clemency becomes weakness and religion becomes superstition.

Aristotle regarded prudence as a skill which enables one to identify virtue and pursue it. The golden
mean has to be defined by reason, according to the particular circumstances of each case. However,
the actual pursuit or choice of right ends depends on the strength of one’s moral will. Prudence
identifies and shows the route for only virtuous actions. If the ends are impure, prudence will have
nothing to do with them. In pursuing dubious ends, people are guided by other qualities like
shrewdness, sagacity or cunning.

Aristotle believed that virtuous conduct presupposes prudence. For prudence is the practical

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wisdomwhichenablesonetosteerbetweenthetwoextremeswithinwhichliesvirtue.Tociteanother example,
in the absence of prudence in a judge, justice may end up in undue severity or in undue leniency.
Since virtue for Aristotle is a mean, he values prudence as a method of discovering and pursuing
virtue.

Prudence in the sense of moderation and practical wisdom is a highly desirable virtue in civil
servants. In modern administrative contexts, prudence can be seen as consisting in avoiding extreme
positions, and adopting moderate courses of action. People usually dislike one sided or unduly harsh
actions. Policies which avoid extremes are likely to appeal to the majority of people. Views based on
consensus are likely to find wide acceptance.

2. Justice
“Justice cannot be for one side alone, but must be for both.”

St. Thomas Aquinas ranked justice as the second of the cardinal virtues, behind prudence, but before
fortitude and temperance. Prudence is the perfection of the intellect ("right reason applied to
practice"), while justice, as Fr. John A. Hardon notes in his Modern Catholic Dictionary, is an
"habitual inclination of the will." It is "the constant and permanent determination to give everyone his
or her rightful due." While the theological virtue of charity emphasizes our duty to our fellow man
because he is our fellow, justice is concerned with what we owes someone else precisely because he
is not us.

What Justice Is Not:

Thus charity may rise above justice, to give someone more than he is rightfully due. But
justice always requires perfect precision in rendering to each person what he is due. While
justice is often used in a negative sense today—"justice was served"; "he was brought to
justice"—the focus of the virtue is positive. While lawful authorities may justly punish
evildoers, our concern as individuals is with respecting the rights of others, particularly when
we owe them a debt or when our actions might restrict their exercise of their rights.

The Relationship Between Justice and Rights: Justice, then, respects the rights of others,
whether those rights are natural (the right to life and limb, the rights that arise because of our
natural obligations to family and kin, the most fundamental property rights, the right to
worship God and to do what is necessary to save our souls) or legal (contract rights,
constitutional rights, civil rights). Should legal rights ever come into conflict with natural
rights, however, the latter take precedence, and justice demands that they be respected. Thus,
law cannot take away the right of parents to educate their children in the way that is best for
the children. Nor can justice allow the granting of legal rights to one person (such as the
"right to an abortion") at the expense of the natural rights of another (in that case, the right to
life and limb). To do so is to fail "to give everyone his or her rightful due."

Justice is the virtue that seeks to promote fair play. It’s the desire and resolves to give each
person his due. It demands that you reward goodness and punish evil. Justice can be one of
three different types:

a. Commutative justice is based on the principle of quid pro quo, which is Latin for this
for that. Commutative justice requires, for example, that a customer pay a fair price

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 for worthwhile goods.
b. Distributive justice involves the relationship between one and many — between an
individual and a group — a person and the government, for example.
c. Social justice concerns the relationships between individuals and groups between one
another and everyone. The common good and equal treatments are the cornerstones
of social justice.

3. Fortitude
“Fortitude is the marshal of thought, the armour of the will, and the fort of reason.” —Francis
Bacon

They say that fortitude, courage, endurance or bravery acts as a guardian and protector of other
human virtues.

Aristotle mentions fortitude as the means by which men can control their fear of death. Soldiers often
face threats to life in battle fields. As Archibald B.C. Alexander puts it: “Death is truly the limit to
human existence: for, though the soul be immortal, the being of flesh and blood, that we call man, is
dissolved in death, and, apart from supernatural hope of the resurrection, extinct forever.” Fortitude
enables one to contain this fear by the dictate of the reason. Soldiers without fortitude will desert the
battle field. In one sense, reason asserts that there are better things than life and things worse
than death for men of honour. Fortitude is a mean between fear and rashness; cowardice leads one
to fear, and daring to rashness. Fortitude moderates the two opposing tendencies.

Life is precious and should not be lightly thrown away or risked for trivial or ignoble ends. The
courageous person is circumspect. It is not that the brave man fears no danger; he rather controls
the fear in his mind through rational means. The recklessness of an angry man is not fortitude. It
is also not fortitude to be brave from ignorance and folly. The brave man faces real danger in full
consciousness of its gravity, but goes on in pursuit of duty or a noble cause. Older philosophers
regarded magnificence, magnanimity and patience as parts of fortitude. Of these, patience can still
be considered as part of endurance. But magnificence and magnanimity are seldom mentioned in
modern discussions of fortitude.

Fortitude is not a virtue relevant only to warlike situations. Christian writers mention fortitude in
thecontextofsaintswhohavebecomemartyrsdefendingtheirfaith.Inthisregard, we should recall
with reverence the martyrdom of some Sikh gurus. In modern times, voluntary workers sometimes
perish while rushing to the aid of others in danger. In fact anyone risking life in line of duty or in
order to relieve others from affliction shows fortitude. Fortitude can be shown by ordinary people
in many situations of life. Many people-like sincere teachers, nurses and many others serve society
silently with little recognition and few rewards. Their services are also heroic. “Life is a battle, and
there are other objects for which a man must contend than those peculiar to a military calling.”
Fortitude is one of the four cardinal virtues which Plato and Aristotle identified–the others
being wisdom, temperance (self-control) and justice. Plato identified three aspects of human nature
and paired each, as shown below, with a particular cardinal virtue.

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While the above virtues relate to an individual’s own personality, the virtue of justice pertains to
his interactions as a social being with others. These virtues are considered essential in any rational
conception of human life. They are necessary for the goodness of human character.
Courage acts as shield of other virtues. In its absence, they are rendered nugatory or become
nothing. Suppose an innocent passenger in a train is being harassed by some goons. One may
want to rush to his support in a kindly spirit. But, then cowardice may intervene and urge against
running any risk. These occurrences are not infrequent on the trains and streets of Indian cities.
In such situations, the kindly sentiment simply gets stifled in the absence of courage or fortitude.

Hence, Locke observes: “Fortitude is the guard and support of the other virtues”. This is also
the meaning of Bacon’s observation that fortitude is the armour of the will. Although one may
have noble intentions, one needs courage to act on them. Shakespeare’s observation refers to the
virtue of fortitude in its meaning as endurance. The true test of this virtue lies in bearing one’s
misfortunes without complaint and coping with them. Confucius says that an individual acquires
strength of character by manfully facing difficulties and struggling against odds.

In administrative situations, civil servants need to have moral courage or the courage of conviction.
They should display firm resolve, and adhere to rules, norms and follow courses of action that
promote public welfare. They should not yield to illegal pressures or allow themselves to be won over
by inducements. Nor should they yield to subtle threats or intimidation. This is easier said than done,
especially since there are so many alluring prospects for civil servants. In the recent past, many
instances have come to light in which the guardians of public welfare have decided to close their eyes
to obvious wrongdoing. This shows that it is not enough to mouth high-minded moral sentiments;
they have to be acted upon with necessary courage of conviction

4. Temperance
“Temperance is the moderation in the things that are good and total abstinence from the things
that re foul.”
Temperance is a virtue which brings to bear the judgement of reason on human cravings for food,
drink and sex. As we saw earlier, temperance promotes self-control and checks other rash impulses
like anger. But temperance stands for moderation in food and drink as opposed to gluttony, and for
chastity as opposed to lust. Men naturally tend to overindulge in matters which delight them.

By cultivating the habit of temperance, one can avoid the harm which excessive indulgence causes.
Of course, in many matters, the same prescription will be inapplicable; it has to be relative. For
example, temperance in food will be different for a saint and an athlete.

Temperance is said to be made up of abstinence, chastity and sobriety. In a secondary sense,

temperance includes moderation and selfcontrol. Ancient moralists were concerned with which are
the vices harder to avoid. Men in whom the rational nature is strong are able to overcome sensuality,
but they succumb to temptations of ambition, power and glory. They have an exaggerated sense of
self- esteem and lack humility largely because they have no religious feeling. Men in whom the
animal nature dominates give in easily to sensual pleasures.

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 Modesty is reflected in an individual’s outward demeanour, style of dress and carriage. It refers to an
individual’s comportment or manner of conduct. A modest individual’s outward manner reflects his
temperate habits. In Plato’s phrase, modesty indicates the presence of temperance “set
upon holy pedestal” within an individual’s heart. A modest individual will avoid brash or impudent
behaviour, and will show due courtesy and respect to others.

MORAL VIRTUES

The theological virtues of faith, hope and charity can be thought of as sublime, incomparable gifts that are
indispensable to human flourishing as well as attaining perfect human happiness. While each of these
virtues has its specific purpose and character, each also works together in unity in order to “adapt man’s
faculties for participation in the divine nature” and in this way shape human life in its most ultimate
sense.

1. Faith
To one who has faith, no explanation is necessary. To one without faith, no explanation is
possible—St. Thomas Aquinas

The virtue of faith is indeed a gift, one which cannot be arrived at by mere reasoning, as a man
might make a scientific discovery or come to a mathematical conclusion. Faith is also a mystery
in a number of ways. Those who have faith know they have it; those who do not, cannot
understand it nor why people claim to possess it. This, of course, does not mean faith is
unreasonable or irrational or that Christians operate on “blind faith.” On the contrary, Christian
faith—faith in Christ and all that the Church proposes for belief—is entirely reasonable. But what
is the virtue of faith, exactly?

In part, to have faith is to believe; yet it is also more than that. William C. Mattison III notes that
it is human to believe in things, to accept what we are told as true, and to live in accordance with
what we believe to be true; yet Christian faith takes a person beyond simply believing in things or
even in some-thing or living in what might be considered an ordinary way. Christian faith is a
distinct and in fact very different way of believing, and has as its object not some-thing or some
idea but Someone: Jesus Christ. Christian faith answers the important big-picture, life and death
questions, and thus leads to a very extraordinary way of living in contrast to the world.

Faith is the theological virtue by which we believe in God and believe all that he has said and
revealed to us, and that Holy Church proposes for our belief, because he is truth itself. By faith
man freely commits his entire self to God. For this reason the believer seeks to know and do
God's will. The righteous shall live by faith.

Faith is a gift from God that gives to the person specific, elevated abilities and desires, which
direct man toward his fulfillment in God who is truth itself. It enables man to give free assent of
intellect and will to everything God has revealed and everything the Church proposes for belief.
Faith moves us to look toward God, listen attentively and devoutly, and accept totally and
lovingly what he has said or transmitted through his deeds and words in history, and especially
through his Son, Jesus Christ. To say, “The righteous live by faith” (Rom. 1:17; Gal. 3:11),
implies Christian faith is something necessary for living in right relationship to God and to
others. This claim can be made precisely because of the way in which big-picture beliefs shape
the way we live and choose and act. The person of virtuous faith seeks what is true and strives to

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 live by it. The man of faith walks by the light of faith, choosing based on what God has revealed
as true, in order to live in a way that is really true and authentic within the context of God’s plan
of love.
2. Hope
Hope is the theological virtue by which we desire the kingdom of heaven and eternal life as our
happiness, placing our trust in Christ's promises and relying not on our own strength, but on the
help of the grace of the Holy Spirit.

Hope is the God-given gift that instills in us the desire for heaven and eternal life as our final
state of perfect happiness. It disposes us to trust in the promises of Christ in order to arrive at
such an end, not relying on our own efforts, but embracing the aid of the Spirit of God whose
grace strengthens us spiritually and gives us the ability to live in heaven. Hope serves to focus
our gaze in the right direction and toward the ultimate goal. This is especially important when
facing the trials of life which might tempt us to fall into despair or feel as if there is nothing left
for which to live.

Additionally, as Mattison points out, the human being is a wayfarer in this earthly life, always
seeking to arrive at some new goal or do some new thing. Yet there is always this question: what,
really, is the goal? Hope helps us to understand why we continue to seek a more satisfying or full
life even though we have arrived at some preset goal that was previously viewed as potentially
satisfying. It helps us to understand why some 3 level of disappointment is inevitable, certain
even, because we cannot be fully satisfied by earthly goals or treasures or things. Yet hope does
more than simply temper disappointment, it reorders it and lifts it up so as to enlighten our
understanding and refocus our life.

A life devoid of the virtue of hope is truly a life of darkness, for there is no earthly hope that is
lasting. Hope reminds us that things (creatures) of this world will not bring perfect happiness. It
points us instead to the true path that leads to the fulfillment of all our desires: Jesus Christ. It
thus brings the light of the promise of everlasting life. This has a stabilizing affect on the way we
live life temporally, it fortifies us, positively shaping the choices we make and the directions we
take. Also, the virtue of hope has the characteristic of moving us to respond to the desire for
happiness placed in our heart by the Creator; it takes up earthly hopes that inspire our activities
here, elevating and purifying them, “so as to order them to the kingdom of heaven” (CCC 1818).
Hope gives purpose to our actions, helps to prevent discouragement, and sustains us in times of
trial, suffering, and abandonment, that our hearts may be opened to eternal beatitude.

Further, when afflicted by severe tragedy as we so often are here in this present, earthly life, and
we feel it is impossible to carry on, the virtue of hope lifts our eyes, hearts and minds to the
“glory of heaven promised by God to those who love him and do his will” (CCC 1821). The
promises of Christ that remind us the fullness of life awaits those who love God are indispensable
in withstanding these tragedies. The fact is, while we cannot avoid them, they are passing events
soon to unfold in the light and joy of eternal life, provided we stay the course in virtuous hope
and continue to direct our love toward God.

3. Charity
If I speak in the tongues of men and of angels, but have not love, I am a noisy gong or a clanging
cymbal. And if I have prophetic powers, and understand all mysteries and all knowledge, and if I
have all faith, so as to remove mountains, but have not love, I am nothing. If I give away all I
have, and if I deliver my body to be burned, but have not love, I gain nothing.

Love is the key upon which the entire Christian life turns. To possess the virtue of charity is to

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possess God; without it, one has nothing and is nothing.

Charity is the form of all the virtues. It is the “theological virtue by which we love God above all
things for his own sake, and our neighbor as ourselves for the love of God”. Charity is often
referred to as “Christian love,” and is expressed in Christ’s greatest commandment in the
synoptic gospels: “You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, and with all your soul,
and with all your strength, and with all your mind; and your neighbor as yourself” (Luke 10: 25-
28; see also Matt. 22: 35-40; Mark 12: 28-31). Jesus makes clear its importance: "As the Father
has loved me, so have I loved you; abide in my love” (John 15:9); and “This is my
commandment, that you love one another as I have loved you” (John 15:12). The Gospel teaches
that Christ so loved us as to submit himself to death on a cross for our sake.

Some think charity means loving God and using creatures disinterestedly in order to achieve
union with God; that is, charity moves us to act with a type of love (feigned?) toward our
neighbor only because we love God and he commands us to treat others respectfully. People,
then, are viewed as stepping stones to God. Further, some think charity means loving God so as
to receive reward and avoid punishment. Others say charity is synonymous with alms-giving.
These examples are not what charity is, however.

Christian charity means that we love God for his sake because of who he is, not simply because
of what he can do for us or what he might do to us. It also means we love our neighbor because
he is a child of God, created in God’s image and likeness, redeemed in Christ and destined to
eternal life. We see, then, how charity in the context of love of neighbor is inseparable from
human dignity. Charity means we love all our neighbors, everywhere, unconditionally because in
and through and with God they are of infinite value. This does not mean that it is necessarily
uncharitable to admonish or correct, or that there is no place whatsoever for incarceration, or that
a person should silently endure abuse. Charity does not mean absence of judgment or letting
people carry out any desire. Charity does not approve of disorder and sin but delights in order,
beauty, purity and holiness.

Charity is always ordered toward willing what is truly good for other persons, within the context
of God’s love and plan of salvation. Charity wants what is best for our neighbor and what is
authentically beneficial for him; it moves us to see him as another self; it desires his beatitude. It
is charity that moves the Christian to live selflessly in service to others as did Christ.
Additionally, charity motivates us to give ourselves over entirely to Christ, to think as he thinks,
to will as he wills, to live in complete union with him. Charity is like a divine flame that ignites
the heart with burning, otherworldly love. This love is directed fully toward God and desires to
be united with him even at the cost of the loss of earthly life. It sees God as its Beloved; it desires
to know him more thoroughly and deeply, to be united to him completely and forever. It sees,
experiences and loves others in the context of this divinely infused love of God called charity.

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 The roots of virtue theory lie in pre-Socratic times but
commenced in earnest with Socrates’ infuriating
questioning of the values and beliefs of his fellow
Athenians. The theory was significantly advanced by
Plato and was definitively elaborated by Aristotle himself
in his two ethical treatises, the Nicomachean Ethics and
the Eudemian Ethics. Aristotelian thought was preserved
by Arab scholars during the so-called Dark Ages and
rediscovered by Christian thinkers during the high Middle
Ages. Aristotelian moral philosophy was then
incorporated into Christian moral theology/philosophy,
particularly by Thomas Aquinas.

The moral philosophy of St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) involves a merger of at least two apparently
disparate traditions: Aristotelian eudaimonism and Christian theology. On the one hand, Aquinas follows
Aristotle in thinking that an act is good or bad depending on whether it contributes to or deters us from
our proper human end—the telos or final goal at which all human actions aim. That telos is eudaimonia,
or happiness, where “happiness” is understood in terms of completion, perfection, or well-being.
Achieving happiness, however, requires a range of intellectual and moral virtues that enable us to
understand the nature of happiness and motivate us to seek it in a reliable and consistent way.

On the other hand, Aquinas believes that we can never achieve complete or final happiness in this life.
For him, final happiness consists in beatitude, or supernatural union with God. Such an end lies far
beyond what we through our natural human capacities can attain. For this reason, we not only need the
virtues, we also need God to transform our nature—to perfect or “deify” it—so that we might be suited to
participate in divine beatitude. Moreover, Aquinas believes that we inherited a propensity to sin from our
first parent, Adam. While our nature is not wholly corrupted by sin, it is nevertheless diminished by sin’s
stain, as evidenced by the fact that our wills are at enmity with God’s. Thus we need God’s help in order
to restore the good of our nature and bring us into conformity with his will. To this end, God imbues us
with his grace which comes in the form of divinely instantiated virtues and gifts.

Theory of Virtue
Plato’s theory of virtue follows the Socratic doctrine. He identifies virtue with knowledge. From this
it follows that virtue is teachable, and that men can learn morality just as they can learn any other
subject. Morality is not an innate quality or a contingent gift of nature. Moral beings are not born
but made through education.

Plato makes a fourfold division of morals, and associates them with different parts of the soul. The
four virtues are wisdom or prudence, valour, temperance and justice. Plato regards the virtues as forming
a complex unity–the one can be manifold, or the manifold one. This may seem like philosophical
wordplay, but implies that virtues share common features and look similar from several perspectives.
Plato accords a privileged position to justice as the overarching virtue.

Temperance is generally regarded as self-control. If is further defined by these subcategories: chastity,

modesty, humility, self-regulation, forgiveness and mercy. A man who is temperate does not gossip,

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attempt to manipulate or speak ill of others. This person knows when to speak, and more importantly,
when not to.

Fortitude is most often associated with courage. Courage in this case is further defined as the ability to
face death, fear, pain, uncertainty and hardship. A man who possesses fortitude is willing to stand up for
what he believes in, openly opposes injustice, chooses his family first, takes responsibility for failures and
keeps going even when there is no light at the end of the tunnel.

Prudence is most often associated with insight and wisdom. A man who acts with prudence is viewed as
having a clear understanding of right and wrong, virtuous and vicious, appropriate and inappropriate. A
prudent man uses this knowledge and wisdom to determine the appropriate judgment in any given
situation.

Justice is most often associated with righteousness based on moral, ethical and legal
principles that have become accepted standards. It is basically a concept. A man who embraces this
concept with fervor is viewed as someone who consistently does the right thing, is fair and doesn’t give
advantages to those who have not earned them or condemn them without proper cause. Freemasonry has
for a very long time taught these virtues in order to populate the world with men who possess them and
can use them at will.

The second set of virtues are the theological virtues. These are considered to be gifts of grace from God—
they are given to us freely, not through any action on our part, and we are free, but not required, to accept
and use them. These are the virtues by which man relates to God Himself—they are faith, hope,
and charity (or love). While these terms have a common secular meaning that everyone is familiar with,
in Catholic theology they take on special meanings.

Faith is a common term in ordinary language, but for Catholics, faith as a theological virtue takes on a
special definition. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, theological faith is the virtue "by which the
intellect is perfected by a supernatural light." By this definition, faith is not at all contrary to reason or
intellect but is the natural result of an intellect that is influenced by the supernatural truth given to us by
God.

In Catholic custom, hope has as its object eternal union with God in the afterlife. The Concise Catholic
Encyclopedia defines hope as "the theological virtue which is a supernatural gift bestowed by God
through which one trusts God will grant eternal life and the means of obtaining it providing

one cooperates." In the virtue of hope, desire and expectation are united, even while there is recognition
of the great difficulty of overcoming obstacles in order to achieve everlasting union with God.

Charity, or love, is considered the greatest of the theological virtues for Catholics. The Modern Catholic
Dictionary defines it as the "infused supernatural virtue by which a person loves God above all things for
his [that is, God's] own sake, and loves others for God's sake." As is true of all the theological virtues,
genuine charity is an act of free will, but because charity is a gift from God, we cannot initially acquire
this virtue by our own actions. God must first give it to us as a gift before we can exercise it.

In summary, the greatest of the theological virtues is charity: “So faith, hope, love abide, these three; but
the greatest of these is love” (1 Cor. 13:13). Charity is the origin and goal of the Christian way of life. It is
the form of the virtues; it animates and inspires them; it orders them among themselves, and binds them
together in “perfect harmony” (Ibid.). We might think of charity as the guiding light of well ordered,
perfect and sacrificial love that illuminates, directs and helps to complete all the virtues, both theological

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and moral.

1. What are the philosophers’ requisites in living a

virtuous life?
2. Why is love the greatest among the virtues?
3. Personally, why is it important to live virtuously?

References

Deacon Frederick Bartels. December 28, 2015. The Theological Virtues of Faith, Hope and Charity as
Master Gifts from God Retrieved on March 4, 2021 from https://joyintruth.com/wp-
content/uploads/2018/02/The-Theological-Virtues-of-Faith-Hope-and-Charity-as-Master-Gifts-from-
God.pdf
Roy Chowdhury and Subba, Rao. (2018) Ethics, Integrity, and Aptitude. New Delhi: CL Media LTD
The Cardinal Virtue of Justice. (n.d). Retrieved on March 4, 2021 from
http://www.sjohio.org/assets/templates/mycustom/ethereal/files/lesson/holyspirit/Lesson28ATheCardinal
VirtueofJustice%20.pdf
Thomas Aquinas: Moral Philosophy. (n.d.) Retrieved on March 4, 2021 from https://iep.utm.edu/aq-
moral/#H3

Prepared and Compiled by: M

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