TCW Module 2

B.
S T R U C T U R E S OF GLOBALIZATION
STRUCTURES OF GLOBALIZATION
This introduces the learners to economic

and political arenas as structures of globalization.
These structures include The Economic
Globalization in which the discussion focuses on the
process of making the world economy an integral
element of the whole. It also elaborates on the
important players of economic globalization.
Market Integration covers the position of
international financial institutions in global market integration. The Political Globalization
tackles the consequences of globalization on governments and institutions that govern nation-
state relations. Meanwhile, the Contemporary Global Governance presents the United Nation’s
role, function, and the challenges of global governance.
OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this section, the learners are expected to:
1. Define economic globalization;
2. Analyze the actors that facilitate economic globalization,
3. Articulate a stance on global economic integration,
4. Explain the role of international financial institutions in the creation of a global
economy, and;
5. Infer the attributes of global corporations.
DIAGNOSTICS:
Instructions: Write AGREE if you think the statement is correct; otherwise, DISAGREE.
_________ 1. Economic globalization includes borderless exchange of goods and services.
_________ 2. Global economy is influenced by global politics.
_________ 3. Unilever is a multinational corporation.
_________ 4. SM Investment Corporation is a global corporation.
_________ 5. Chowking is a Filipino-based restaurant chain that expanded in Indonesia and
the US in 2008.
ECONOMIC GLOBALIZATION
In a world that tends to economic and
cultural globalization, every effort must
This section introduces the learners to the
be made to ensure that growth and
concept of economic globalization and the
development are put at the service of all
important actors that facilitate the
and not just limited parts of the
interdependence of world economies.
population…. Alongside the
globalization of the markets there must
Steger’s (2014) definition of globalization as
also be a corresponding globalization of
the expansion and intensification of social solidarity; together with economic
relations and consciousness across world time growth there must be a greater respect
and space implies that there are various for creation; alongside the rights of
forms of connectivity. individuals, there must me the
guaranteed rights of those who are a
Globalization is defined as a multidimensional bridge between the individual and the
phenomenon, thereby creating economic, state, the family being the first and
political, cultural, and even technological foremost of such institutions.
forms of connectivity. - Pope Francis -
College of Arts and Sciences – Social Sciences Department For SLSU Use Only 12
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B. S T R U C T U R E S OF GLOBALIZATION
Economic globalization
- the process of making the world economy an ‘organic system’ by extending transnational
economic processes and relations to more and more countries and by deepening the economic
interdependencies among them (Szentes, 2003)
- refers to the expanding interdependence of world economies
- a growing scale of cross-border trade commodities and services, flow of international
capital, and wide and rapid spread of technology
- worldwide interconnectedness in all of contemporary social aspects
- a historical process representing the result of human innovation and technological
progress (International Monetary Fund)
- the economic dimension is one of the major driving forces of
globalization
- increasing integration of economies around the world through the
movement of goods, services, and capital across borders (Transportation
and Communication Revolution)
When did economic globalization start?

 Grills and Thompson, globalization began since Homo sapiens began
from migrating from the African continent to populate the rest of the
world
 Frank and Grills considered the Silk Road or Silk Route (Asia, Europe,
Africa) the best example for archaic globalization 5,000 years ago,
this route also led the discovery of the Philippine islands when
Portuguese and Spaniards were in search of spices, and then laid
colonization
 Adam Smith considered the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus in 1492 and the
discovery of the direct sea route to India by Vasco de Gama in 1498 as the two (2) greatest
achievements of human history
 British Industrial Revolution spread to Continental Europe and North America
 Globalization began in 1571:
 To Dennis O. Flynn and Arturo Giraldez, globalization began when all important populated
continents began to exchange products continuously (directly or indirectly)
 Galleon Trade (Manila – Acapulco monopolized trade)
 This was the first time that Americas were directly connected to Asian trading routes
 Mercantilism trade from 16th to 18th century (protectionism/trade restrictions)
 17th – 19th century, economic nationalism and monopolized trade such as the British (1600)
and the Dutch (1602) East India Companies
 20th century transport revolution is considered the “golden age of globalization” because it
promoted relative peace, free-trade, and financial and economic stability.
International Trading Systems

International trade is economic transactions that are made between countries. Among
the items commonly traded are consumer goods, such as television sets and clothing; capital
goods, such as machinery; and raw materials and food. Other transactions involve services, such
as travel services and payments for foreign patents. International trade transactions
are facilitated by international financial payments, in which the private banking system and
the central banks of the trading nations play important roles.
Benczes (2014) identifies four interconnected dimensions of economy, namely:

(1) globalization of trade of goods and services
 A dimension of economic interconnectedness demonstrated in the establishment of
the World Trade Organization (WTO), established in 1995, that eases trade among
countries. It ensures that trade flows as smoothly, predictably, and freely as possible
(WTO, 2012).
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 The emergence of China as a major supplier and exporter of manufactured goods that
has affected the world economy is another indicator. China-made products or parts
are sent to the United States. In order to meet this demand, China creates more
jobs for its citizens.
 Another example of economic globalization of trade and services is the increasing
number of business process outsourcing (BPO) companies in the Philippines. American
companies set up subsidiaries in the country because of cheap labor cost, English
proficiency, and customer service skills.
(2) globalization of financial and capital markets
 This dimension is evident in the liberalization of financial and capital markets
 It is seen in cross-listing of shares on one or more foreign stock exchange. Cross
border listing involves companies that trade in the stock exchange of their home
country and also on a stock exchange in another country. It gives rise to the
possibility of arbitrage opportunities, as identical assets are trading in two different
markets.
 Also seen in cross-hedging and diversification of portfolio. Cross hedge is an
investment strategy that involves taking a position on a commodity followed by an
equal but opposite futures position on a different commodity with similar price
movements.
 And in round-the-clock trading, at any time of the day, worldwide
(3) globalization of technology and communication
 Emphasizes that various transactions and interactivities that transpire instantly due
to the internet and communication technology
 With the Internet, telecommunications, broadband, cell phone technology,
handheld wireless mobile devices and other communication technology,
geographically dispersed workers can now interact and collaborate as though they
all were located together in a downtown high-rise. In fact, communication
technology has advanced to the point where instant communications across the
globe can be so ubiquitous that no one really thinks about it anymore.
(4) globalization of production
 This dimension is best illustrated by the existence of multinational corporations
(MNCs) and transnational corporations (TNCs)
 Some examples of MNCs are:
o The Coca-Cola Company – based in Atlanta, Georgia, USA, this company
manufactures only syrup concentrates and sells to various bottlers that hold
exclusive territories in different countries including the Philippines.
o Toyota Motor Corporation – through its subsidiaries in Japan and in the other
parts of the world, it has been selling millions of vehicles every year since
1998.
Market integration shows the contributions of the different financial and economic institutions
that facilitated the growth of the global economy. There are different views on the actors that
facilitate economic globalization:
1) Nation-state
 some scholars believe that it is still the nation-state but of different level
 the role of nation-states as manager of the national economy is being redefined by
the globalization, but still act as buffer to globalization’s negative effects (Boyer &
Drache, 1996)
 the government acts as ‘midwives’ of globalization (Brodie, 1996), meaning that nation-
states are still relevant despite assuming a global perspective and act as mediators
between the effects of globalization and the national economy
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2) Global corporations
 existed as the primary economic organization unit in the
global market, meanwhile, nation-state has ceased
Watch Mark Achbar
 have vast influence under globalization as their economic
and Jennifer Abbott’s
power can make or break a country’s economy
documentary film “The
 some have bigger valuation than the GDP of several
develop countries
Corporation (2003)” to
 These global corporations include the MNCs, TNCs, and
further visualize how
ICs: powerful corporations
o Multinational Corporations are.
- a firm that has the power
to coordinate and control operations in more than two
Which Asian countries
corporations do - grown more powerful than the nation-state
you think are - there are about 61,000 MNCs in the world today
among Fortune’s - account for about a tenth of the world's GDP
Global 500? How - about a third of total world exports
did these - activity is measured by foreign direct investment,
companies achieve portfolio investment, greenfield investment
such status? Are
there Filipino o Transnational Capitalism (TNC)
companies - a firm that operates in one or more countries
included in the - Economic transnational practices able to transcend
list? geographical boundaries, great importance is political
and focused on culture-ideology
- more complex organizations which have invested in
Check the foreign operations, which a central corporate facility
Fortune’s Global but give decision making, research and development,
500 list at marketing powers to each individual foreign market
www.fortune.com/
global500/. o International Corporation (IC)
- are importers and exporters, typically without
investment outside of their home country
3) International monetary systems (IMS)

 refers to internationally agreed rules, conventions, and institutions for facilitating
international trade, investments and flow of capital among nation-states
 Historically, there are three global IMS – the gold standard, the Bretton Woods
System, and the European Monetary System (EMS)
o The gold standard – functions as a fixed exchange rate regime, with gold as the
only international reserve and participating countries determine the gold content
of national currencies (Benczes, 2014)
o The Bretton Woods System
- the US dollar was the only convertible currency
- inaugurated in 1944 and agreed by 44 countries to adopt the gold-
exchange standard
- to prevent catastrophes of the early decades of the century from
reoccurring and affecting international ties
- influenced by the ideas of British economist John Maynard Keynes, in
the so-called global Keynesianism
- created two financial institutions as key players in economic
globalization: the International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development (IBRD), now World Bank, is responsible for post-war
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reconstructions, and International Monetary Fund (IMF), is to promote

international financial cooperation and strengthen international trade
o European Monetary System (EMS)
- came after the collapse of the Bretton Woods System
- became successful in the stabilization process of exchange rates
- developed international trade and trade policy
Economic globalization affects all nations and citizens through the increasing integration
of economies around the borderless world. With its important players, re: nation-states, global
corporations, and the international monetary systems, though some people believe that economic
globalization brings unity of all economic movements, others believe that globalization furthers
the separation among nation-states around the world.
What do you think, did globalization

unites or divides the world?
After the Second World War, almost all countries around the world faced the great
challenge of bringing their feet back on the ground. Corporate enterprises helped to create a
wealthy class in society which enjoyed excessive political influence on their government in the
US and Europe. Neoliberalism surfaced as a reaction by these wealthy elites to counteract post-
war policies that favored the working class and strengthened the welfare state.
Neoliberal policies supporter market forces and commercial activity as the most efficient
methods for producing and supplying goods and services. At the same time, they ignore the role
of the state and discourage government intervention into economic, financial and even social
affairs. The process of economic globalization is driven by this ideology; removing borders and
barriers between nations so that market forces can drive the global economy. The policies were
readily taken up by governments and still continue to pervade classical economic thought, allowing
corporations and affluent countries to secure their financial advantage within the world
economy.
Neoliberalism and Its Discontents

 The high point of global Keynesianism came in the mid-1940s and early 1970s, government
poured money into their economies, allowing people to purchase more goods and then increase
demand for these products. As the demand increased, so did the prices of these goods.
 There is an increase in the prices of oil as a result of OAPEC (from the Arab member-
countries of OPEC) in the early 70s, imposed an embargo in response to the United States
and other countries to resupply the Israeli military with the needed arms during the Yom
Kippur War
 stagflation phenomenon occurs – in which a decline in economic growth and employment
(stagnation) takes place alongside a sharp increase in prices (inflation)
 Friedrich Hayek and Milton Friedman argued that pouring money into economy had caused
inflation, and argued that government intervention in economies alter the proper function
of the market
 Then emerged the neoliberalism, a new form of economic thinking. Economists used the
economic turmoil to challenge the consensus around Keynes’s ideas.
 Neoliberalism became the codified strategy called the Washington Consensus
 Washington Consensus
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- Influenced by Friedrich Hayek and Milton 10 points of Washington Consensus

Friedman - Fiscal policy discipline
- Pushed for minimal government spending to - Effective public spending
reduce government debt - Tax reform
- 1980s to 2000 - Competitive exchange rates
- USA, WB, IMF and WTO (1995) codified - Trade liberalization
strategy - Financial market liberalization
- Neoliberalism - Liberalization of foreign direct investment
- Advocates were US President Ronald - Privatization
Reagan and UK Prime Minister Margaret - Deregulation
Thatcher - Security of property rights
The Global Financial Crisis and the Challenge to Neoliberalism

 Neoliberalism came under significant strain during the global financial crisis when the world
experienced the greatest economic downturn since the Great Depression. This global
financial crisis traced back when the United States removed banking and investment
restrictions
 Russia's case was just one example of how the “shock therapy” of neoliberalism did not lead
to the ideal outcomes predicted by economists in perfectly free markets
 American government authorities failed to regulate bad investments occurring in the US
housing market, taking advantage of “cheap housing loans” and sold them as “mortgage-
backed securities” to mitigate them
 The crisis spread beyond the US since many investors were foreign governments,
corporations and individuals. The loss of their money spread like wildfire back to their
countries
 Iceland's banks heavily depended on foreign capital, so they failed to refinance their loans.
Three of Iceland’s top commercial banks defaulted and resulted their debt to increase more
than seven-fold
 Countries like Spain and Greece are heavily indebted, and debt relief has come at a high
price. Greece has been forced by Germany and IMF to cut back on its social and public
spending, slowed down growth and high unemployment
 US recovered because of the Keynesian-style stimulus package that President Obama
pushed
 In Europe, economic crisis sparked a political upheaval, unfairly blamed immigrants,
resentment with utter hatred and racism.
In conclusion, economic integration is a central tenet of globalization. Economics is just

one window into the phenomenon of globalization. Nevertheless, much of globalization is anchored
on changes in the economy. Global culture and globalization on politics are largely contingent on
trade relations. Nowadays, many events of foreign affairs are conducted to cement trading
relations between and among states. Although global free trade can be scaled back, policies
cannot do away with it as a whole. Governments must continue to devise ways of cushioning the
mist damaging effects of economic globalization, while ensuring that its benefits accrue for
everyone.
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Exercise 1: The Influences of Economic Globalization

Exercise 1: Globalization and I
Name: ______________________________ Date: ____________
Name: ______________________________ Date: ____________
Course and Section: ____________________ Score: ___________
Instructions: Dress the human outline with the apparel and accessories that you
Instructions: Find, read and attach an opinion-editorial (op-ed) article
are currently wearing. Draw at least ten items and label them. Then, write your
discussing globalization. Extract the underlying concept of globalization
own definition of economic globalization and elaborate it below.
explained in the article.
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Title and Author of the Chosen Article
1. Based on the article, is globalization a process, a condition, or an ideology?

Explain your choice.
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2. On whose perspective is the definition of globalization anchored (political

scientists, economists, or culture and communications experts) Give at least
three (3) reasons to support your choice.
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Exercise 2: Local Becoming Global

Name: ______________________________ Date: ____________
Instructions: Choose one Filipino global corporation. In an essay, discuss its

history, worldwide reach, and attributes as a global corporation.
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Assignment 1: Metacognitive Reading Report

Name: ______________________________ Date: ____________
Instructions: Read the attached referenced article and complete the

statements that follow.
 Portes, A. (1997). Globalization from below: The rise of transnational
communities. New Jersey, USA: Princeton University.
1. The three (3) things that I significantly learned from the readings are ………..
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2. The three (3) things that are still unclear to me are ……………..
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3. I used to think that ……………..

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4. The three (3) questions that I want to ask about the readings are ……………..
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Globalization from Below: The Rise of Transnational Communities*

Alejandro Portes WPTC-98-01
Princeton University September 1997
*An earlier version of this essay was published in W.P. Smith and R.P. Korczenwicz, Latin
America in the World Economy, Westport, CN: Greenwood Press, 1996, pp. 151-168.
The aphorism “capital is global, labor is local” lies at the base of an edifice built continuously during the
last half century. From different theoretical quarters, this edifice has been celebrated as the final
triumph of free trade and economic rationality or denounced as the tomb of proletarian consciousness
and national liberation. Whatever the outlook, the narrative that follows portrays an increasingly bound
global economy with capital--in the form of direct corporate ventures or portfolio investment--criss-
crossing the earth in search of accumulation. The success of these initiatives is generally correlated
inversely with the economic autonomy achieved by national states and the social and economic
prerogatives earned by local labor. For the most part, however, the momentum acquired by global
capitalist expansion is such as to sweep away everything, in its path, confining, past dreams of equality
and autonomous national development to the dustbin of history.
The process of capital going abroad in search of valorization is, of course, nothing, new and is indeed
the cloth from which numerous accounts of the evolution of the capitalist world system have been
fashioned. What is new in the contemporary period are the modalities and intensity of the process,
driven by technological improvements in communications and transportation. Today instantaneous
investments and disinvestments are made in the bourses of remote Asian and Latin American countries
and, as Castells (1980) puts it, a garment design conceived in New York can be transmitted
electronically to a factory in Taiwan, and the first batches of the product received in San Francisco in
a week's time. The advantages of the process seem to be entirely on the side of those best able to
avail themselves of the new technologies, thus turning globalization into the final apotheosis of capital
against its adversaries, be they state managers or organized workers.
Yet, as social scientists professionally trained to look at the dialectics of things, we understand that a
social process of this magnitude cannot be all one-sided. By its very momentum, the process is likely
to trigger various reactions giving rise to countervailing structures. In the end, the technology-driven
revolution that we are witnessing at century's end may not usher the era of unrestrained global
capitalism after all, but a new form of the struggle of exchange vs use values and of the formal
rationality of law vs the substantive rationality of private interests.
As a contribution to this analysis, I attempt in this paper to give theoretical form to the concept of
transnational communities, as a less noticed but potentially potent counter to the more visible forms of
globalization described in the recent literature. I embark in this task not without some hesitation since
the concept of transnationality, like that of globalization itself, threatens to become part of one of those
passing fads that grip social scientists' attention for a while only to fade into oblivion. I believe, however,
that there is enough real substance here to make the effort worthwhile. If successful, the concept may
actually perform double duty as part of the theoretical arsenal with which we approach the world system
structures, but also as an element in a less developed enterprise, namely the analysis of the everyday
networks and patterns of social relationships that emerge in and around those structures. The latter
goal belongs properly in the realm of a mid-range theory of social interaction which I will attempt to
at least outline in the following comments.
The Onset of Transnational Networks

The actual working-class response to the globalization of capitalist production has been more subtle
than the creation of international trade unions or the attempt to get national states to impose labor
standards on Third World exports. Both attempts have proven ineffective because the competitive
realities of the world economy undermine any incipient class solidarity alone national lines, leaving the
field clear to footloose capitalist investment. Reasons for the futility of these efforts have been dealt
with at length elsewhere (Portes 1994). Instead, what common people have done in response to the
process of globalization is to create communities that sit astride political borders and that, in a very real
sense, are “neither here nor there” but in both places simultaneously. The economic activities that
sustain these communities are grounded precisely on the differentials of advantage created by state
boundaries. In this respect, they are no different from the large global corporations, except that these
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enterprises emerge at the grassroots level and its activities are often informal. A group of social
anthropologists who pioneered in the identification of this process and the attempt to make theoretical
sense of it put their findings as follows:
We define “transnationalism” as the processes by which immigrants forge and sustain multi-
stranded social relations that link together their societies of origin and settlement. We call these
processes transnationalism to emphasize that many immigrants today build social fields that cross
geographic, cultural, and political borders…. An essential element is the multiplicity of involvements
that transmigrants sustain in both home and host societies. We are still groping for a language to
describe these social locations (Basch, Glick Schiller, and Blanc Szanton 1994: 6).
The puzzled attitude of these authors toward this emergent phenomenon is understandable when we
begin to grasp the bewildering, array of activities that it comprises and the potential social and economic
weight that it possesses.
In this and the following sections, I will try to make three main points:
1) That the emergence of transnational communities is tied to the logic of capitalism itself.
They are brought into play by the interests and needs of investors and employers in the advanced
countries.
2) That these communities represent a distinct phenomenon at variance with traditional
patterns of immigrant adaptation.
3) That because the phenomenon is fueled by the dynamics of globalization itself, it has greater
growth potential and offers a broader field for autonomous popular initiatives than alternative ways to
deal with the depredations of world-roaming capital.
Let us begin by looking at the origins of these communities. As the preceding quote indicates, they
are composed primarily by immigrants and friends and relatives of immigrants. Public opinion in the
advanced countries has been conditioned to think that contemporary immigration stems from the
desperate quest of Third World peoples escaping poverty at home.
In fact, neither the poorest of the poor migrate nor is their move determined mainly by individualistic
calculations of advantage. Instead contemporary immigration is driven by twin forces that have their
roots in the dynamics of capitalist expansion itself. These are, first, the labor needs of First World
economies, in particular the need for fresh supplies of low-wage labor. Second, the penetration of
peripheral countries by the productive investment, consumption standards, and popular culture of the
advanced societies.
Contrary to widespread perceptions, immigrants come to the wealthier nations less because
they want to than because they are needed. A combination of social and historical forces has led to
acute labor scarcities in these economies. In some instances, these are real absolute scarcities such
as the dearth of industrial workers in Japan and the deficit in certain professions, like nursing and
engineering in the United States. In other instances, however, the scarcity stems from the culturally
conditioned resistance of native-born workers to accept the low-paid menial jobs commonly performed
by earlier immigrants (Piore 1979; Gans 1992; Portes and Guarnizo 1990).
The list of such stigmatized occupations is large and includes, among others, agricultural stoop labor,
domestic and other personal services, restaurant kitchen work, and garment sweatshop jobs (Sassen
1989).
Because of trade union and public opposition, the continuation of the immigrant labor flow has often
taken place surreptitiously, under various legal subterfuges. In the United States, public outcry at the
volume of unauthorized immigration led to the passage of the 1986 Immigration Reform and Control
Act or I.RCA. This piece of legislation reflects with notable clarity the resilient need for immigrant labor
and the enduring, power of employer associations. Instead of reducing the volume of immigration, the
1986 law actually increased it through several ingenious loopholes.
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By 1990, the foreign born population of the United States had reached almost 20 million, the
largest absolute total in the century (Fix and Passel 1991; Rumbaut 1994). The legislated loopholes
of the IRCA plus new generous provisions of the 1990 immigration Act virtually guarantee that this
absolute number and the proportion that immigrants represent in the total U.S. population will increase
significantly by the century's end. In Germany and France, despite official termination of the foreign
guestworker program in the 1970s, immigrant communities have continued growing ceaselessly
through a variety of legal loopholes and clandestine channels (Zolberg 1989. Hollifield 1994). Today,
Germany has a foreign population of 7 million or roughly 9 percent of the total a proportion quite similar
to that in the United States (Münz and Ulrich 1995; Bade 1995). Even in ethnically homogenous Japan,
labor scarcity has prompted a variety of legal subterfuges including the use of foreign company
“trainees” and visa overstayers to perform line industrial jobs. By 1990, the foreign-born population of
Japan numbered about 1. 1 million, still an insignificant proportion of the total population, but expected
to more than double during the next decade (Cornelius 1992, 1994).
The other side of the equation is the effects of the globalization process on the supply of
potential immigrants. The drive of multinational capital to expand markets in the periphery and,
simultaneously to take advantage of its reservoirs of labor has had a series of predictable social
consequences. Among them are the remoulding of popular culture on the basis of external forms and
art forms and the introduction of consumption standards bearing, little relation to local wage levels
(Alba 1978). This process simultaneously pre-socializes future immigrants in what to expect of their
lives abroad, and increases the drive to move through the growing, gap between local realities and
imported consumption aspirations. Paradoxically, the process does not so much affect the very poor
in peripheral societies, as working and middle class sectors who are frequently the most exposed to
marketing messages and cultural symbols beamed from the centers3 (Grasmuck and Pessar 1991;
Portes and Bach 1985). The fundamental point is that contemporary core-bound immigration is not an
optional process, but one driven by the structural requirements of advanced capitalist accumulation.
As such, the presence of Third World immigrants in cities of the developed world can be confidently
expected to endure and expand. These groups provide, in turn, the raw material out of which the
phenomenon of transnational communities develop.
The Rise of Transnational Enterprise
The continuation of a the de facto open migration policy is prompted by employers' demand
for fresh sources of low-wage labor in the advanced countries, while the relocation of production
facilities abroad is motivated by a similar demand by certain industrial sectors. Peripheral workers who
become employed under these various arrangements are not simply exploitable objects, but can
become aware of the logic of these processes and the constraints that they create for personal mobility.
Itzigsohn (1994) has shown how workers in the Dominican Republic become informal entrepreneurs
in order to avoid the drudgery and minimal remuneration of work in the industrial export sector. In the
Dominican context, the informal economy becomes, paradoxically, a means of popular resistance
against the designs of foreign capital.
Many immigrant workers too soon become aware that the pay and labor conditions in store for
them in the advanced world do not go far in promoting their own economic goals. To by-pass the
menial dead-end jobs that the host society assigns them, they must activate their networks of social
relationships. Immigrant social networks display two characteristics that those linking domestic
workers generally do not have. First, they are simultaneously dense and extended over long physical
distances. Second, they tend to generate solidarity by virtue of generalized uncertainty. Exchange
under conditions of uncertainty creates stronger bonds among participants than that which takes place
with full information and impartially enforced rules.
The sociological principle, established both in field studies and experimental observation, applies
particularly well to immigrant communities (Kollock 1994). Their economic transactions both internal
and with outsiders tend to occur with little initial information about the trustworthiness of exchange
partners and the character and reliability of state regulation. This high uncertainty creates the need to
“stick together” and to stay with the same partners, regardless of tempting outside opportunities, once
their trustworthiness has been established.
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Geographically extended, dense, and solidary networks can put into play for a number of
economic initiatives. In one such instance, highlighted by Sassen (1994), they lead to lone, distance
labor markets where job opportunities in far away locations are identified and appropriated. In
another, described by Zhou ( 1992), they lead to pooling resources to lower consumption costs and
produce enough savings for business or real estate acquisition. In a third, extensively studied by Light
(1984) and his associates (Light and Bonacich 1988), they lead to the emergence of informal credit
associations where pooled savings are allocated on a rotating, basis. A fourth such initiative consists
of appropriating the price and information differentials between sending, and receiving countries
through the creation of transnational enterprises.
This fourth strategy is not necessarily incompatible with the others, but is distinct in that it
deepens on transactions that occur regularly across political borders. To be feasible, such
transactions require extraordinarily resilient networks to insure timely supplies, deliveries, and
payments cinder conditions where little or no external regulation exists. Grassroots transnational
enterprise benefits from the same set of technological innovations in communications and
transportation that underlie large-scale industrial re-structuring. A class of immigrant transnational
entrepreneurs who shuttles regularly across countries and maintains daily contact with events and
activities abroad could not exist without these new technologies and the options and lower costs that
they make possible. More generally, this form of popular response to global restructuring, does not
emerge in opposition to broaden economic forces, but is driven by them. Through this strategy, labor
(initially immigrant labour) joins the circles of global trade imitating and adapting, often in ingenious
ways, to the new economic framework.
This parallel between the strategies of dominant economic actors and immigrant
transnational enterprise is only partial, however. Both make extensive use of new technologies and
both depend on price and information differences across borders, but while corporations rely primarily
on their financial muscle to make such ventures feasible, immigrant entrepreneurs depend entirely
on their social capital (Guarnizo 1992; Zhott and Bankston 1994). The social networks that underlie
the viability of such popular initiatives are constructed through a protracted and frequently difficult
process of immigration and adaptation to a foreign society that gives them their distinct
characteristics. In turn, the onset of this economic strategy tends to strengthen such networks. Thus
transnational entrepreneurs expand and thicken, in a cumulative process, the web of social ties that
make their activities possible. This cumulative growth of networks and firms grounded simultaneously
in two countries eventually leads to a qualitatively distinct phenomenon. This qualitative change, that
represents the terminal point of my inquiry, may best be ushered by some examples from the recent
literature.
The Construction of Transnational Communities
There exists today in the Dominican Republic literally hundreds of small and medium
enterprises that are founded and operated by former immigrants to the United States. They include
small factories, commercial establishments of different types, and financial agencies. What makes
these enterprises transnational is not only that they are created by former immigrants, but that they
depend for their existence on continuing ties to the United States. A study of 113 such firms
conducted in the late 1980s found that their mean initial capital investment was only $12,000, but that
approximately half continued to receive periodic capital transfers from abroad averaging $5,400.
Moneys were remitted by kin and friends who remained in the U.S. but were partners or co-owners
of the firm. In addition to capital, many firms received transfers in kind, producer goods or
commodities for sale (Portes and Guarnizo, 1990:16).
In the course of fieldwork for this study, the authors found a second mechanism for capital
replenishment, namely owners' periodic trips abroad to encourage new potential immigrant investors.
These trips are also used by factory owners and managers to sell abroad part of their production.
Proprietors of small garment firms, for example, regularly travel to Puerto Rico, Miami, and New York
to sell their wares. It is common practice to have a prearranged verbal agreement with buyers abroad,
including small clothing stores. On their way back to the Dominican Republic, the informal exporters
fill their empty suitcases with inputs needed for business such as garment designs, fabrics, and
needles.
\\\
To the untrained eye, these loaded down international travellers appear as common migrants
visiting and bearing gifts for their relatives back home. In reality, they are engaged in a
growing form of transnational informal trade. The information requirements for this dense traffic are
invariably transmitted through kin and friendship networks spanning the distance between places of
origin and destination. By the same token, it is clear that the men and women who operate these
firms are not “return immigrants” in the traditional sense of the term. Instead, they made use of their
time abroad to build a base of property, bank accounts, and business contacts from which to organize
their return home. The result is not final departure from the United States, but rather a cyclical back-
and-forth movement through which the transnational entrepreneur makes use of differential economic
opportunities spread across both countries (Portes and Guarnizo 1990: 21-22).
There is a remarkable disparity between the dynamism of transnational enterprise and

governmental misunderstandings or ignorance of the phenomenon. Officials of the Dominican and
U.S. governments are mostly interested in the size and channelling of immigrant remittances and
appear unaware of the intense entrepreneurial activity going on underneath. In the capital city of
Santo Domingo, research conducted during the last two years reveals how returned immigrants have
pioneered a number of business lines based on ideas and skills learned in the United States. These
include fast food borne delivery, computer software and video stores, the selling and rental of cellular
phones, automobile detailing and many others. Meanwhile, executives of the Dominican construction
industry admit that many of their firms could not survive without demand for second homes and
business space generated by Dominicans abroad. Entire new sections of the city, especially toward
the west and near the international airport, have been built with the immigrants in mind.5 Popular lore
has designated this population with a distinct name-dominicans ausentes (absent Dominicans) or
Dominican Yorkers (because of their concentration in New York City). They loom increaslingly large
in the tourism, garment, electronics, construction, and entertainment sectors of the local economy.
By and large, the Dominican state in the past has been indifferent and generally unaware of
these developments (Guarnizo 1994).
A similar story, but with a unique cultural twist is told by David Kyle (1994) in his study of the
Otavalan indigenous community in the highlands of Ecuador. Traditionally, the region of Otavalo has
specialized in the production and marketing of clothing, developing and adapting new production skills
since the colonial period under Spain. During the last quarter of a century or so, Otavalans have
taken to travelling, abroad to market their colorful wares in major cities of Europe and North America.
By so doing they appropriate the exchange value pocketed elsewhere by middlemen between Third
World indigenous producers and final consumers. After years of travelling abroad, they have also
brought home a wealth of novelties from the advanced countries, including, newcomers to their town.
In the streets of Otavalo it is not uncommon to meet European women attired in traditional indigenous
dress- the wives of transnational traders who met them and brought them back from their long
distance journeys.
During the same period, semipermanent Otavalan enclaves began to appear abroad. Their distinct
feature is that their members do not make their living from wage labor or even local self-employment
but from the commercialization of goods brought from Ecuador. They maintain a constant
communication with their home town in order to replenish supplies, monitor their telares (garment
shops), and buy land. The back-and-forth movement required by this trade has turned Otavalans into
a common sight not only at the Quito airport but also at street fairs in New York, Paris, Amsterdam,
and other large cities. According, to Kyle, Otavalans have even discovered the commercial value of
their folklore and groups of performers have fanned throughout the streets of First World cities in
recent years.
The sale of colorful ponchos and other woolens accompanied by the plaintive notes of the
quena flute have been quite profitable. The economic success of these indigenous migrants is
evident in their near universal refusal to accept wane labor abroad and in the evident prosperity of
their town. Otavalo is quite different in this respect from other regions in the Andean highlands. Its
Indian entrepreneurs and returned immigrants comprise a mood portion of the local upper strata,
reversing the traditional dominance of white and mestizo elites.
\\\
Like the Dominican Republic, El Salvador is a country profoundly influenced by the

transnational activities of its expatriate communities. In this case, out-migration was initially prompted
by a violent Civil War that sent enough Salvadorans out of the country to decisively alter the country's
economic and social fabric. By 1996, remittances totaled approximately $1.26 billion, exceeding the
sum total of the country's export (Landolt 1997). The influence of Salvadoran transnational
enterprises goes well beyond this figure. Major travel and package delivery firms have grown out of
small informal concerns to service the manifold needs of the immigrant community and their
counterparts at home. Immigrant capital has funded everything from new “Tex-Mex” food stands in
the capital city of San Salvador to well-stocked computer software and video stores in the capital and
'In provincial cities such as San Miguel.
In turn, Salvadoran banks and major businesses have come to see the large immigrant
concentrations in cities like Los Angeles as a new market and a means of rapid expansion. Thus, the
Constancia Bottling Company, a beer and soft drinks concern, set up a plant in Los Angeles to cater
to the needs of the immigrant population. Similarly, the Salvadoran Chamber of Industry and
Construction (CASALCO in the Spanish acronym) has held real estate fairs in Los Angeles, seeking,
to expand the already sizable demand for new housing by Salvadorans abroad. As in the Dominican
Republic, expatriates have also acquired a new name in Salvadoran culture, el hermano lejano (the
distant brother). Having access to the solidarity and resources of such “brothers” has become a vital
means of survival, not only for families but for entire communities.
Because of its origins in a harsh civil war and perhaps because of its mostly rural
backgrounds, Salvadorans abroad maintain strong, emotional ties with their hometowns. Dozens of
comites de pueblo (town committees) have been created in Los Angeles, Washington D.C., and
Houston to Support the respective communities and advance local development projects. Landolt
(1997:20) summarizes the developmental significance of such efforts:
Like the contrast between families that receive remittances and those that do not,
municipalities that receive this “grassroots transnational aid” versus those that do not, highlight the
economic relevance of collective remittance strategies. Towns with a home town association abroad
commonly have paved roads and electricity. Their soccer teams have better equipment, fancier
outfits, and perhaps even a well-kept field where they practice.
A final example involves immigrant communities of considerably greater economic power.

The very growth of Asian communities in the United States, particularly the Chinese, has created
opportunities for moneyed entrepreneurs from Taiwan and Hong-Kong to invest profitably in the
United States and, in the process, become themselves part of the transnational community. Smith
and Zhou (1995) explain how the rapid growth of Chinese home ownership in the New York suburb
of Flushing has been largely financed by new Chinese banks established with Taiwanese and Hong
Kong capital. The rapidly growing Chinese population in Flushing and adjacent cities in the borough
of Queens is very oriented to home ownership but lacks the knowledge of English and credentials to
seek credit from mainstream institutions. To meet the burgeoning demand for housing loans
processed in their own language, local entrepreneurs have cone to Taiwan and Hone, Kong to pool
capital for new banks, and new immigrants have come to the United States bearing the necessary
resources. As a result, Chinese-owned banks in Flushing proliferated. Although small by conventional
standards, they serve simultaneously the economic interests of the immigrant community and of their
overseas investors.
Three thousand miles to the West, the city of Monterey Park, California has been transformed
into the “first suburban Chinatown” largely by the activities of well-heeled newcomers (Fong 1994).
Many Taiwanese and Hong-Kong entrepreneurs established businesses in the area less for
immediate profit than as a hedge against political instability and the threat of a Chinese communist
takeover. Opening, a new business in the United States facilitates obtaining permanent residence
permits and many owners bring their families along to live in Monterey Park, while they themselves
continue to commute across the Pacific.
\\\
The activities of the “astronauts”, as these entrepreneurs are dubbed locally, adds a new
layer of complexity to the transnational community. In this instance, returned immigrants do not invest
U.S.-accumulated savings in new enterprises at home but rather immigrants brine new capital to
invest in firms in the United States. The birth of a child in American soil guarantees U.S. citizenship
and anchors the family definitively in their new setting, As a result of the twin processes of successful
investments and citizenship acquisition, Chinese immigrants have moved swiftly from the status of
marginal newcomers in Monterey Park to the core of the city's business class (Fong 1994).
I have dwelled on these examples at some length to give credibility to a phenomenon that
when initially described, strains the imagination. A multitude of similar examples could have been
used, as illustrated in the pioneering collection by Basch and her collaborators (Basch, Glick Schiller
and Blanc-Szanton 1994). The central point that these multiple examples illustrate is that, once
started, the phenomenon of transnationalization acquires a cumulative character expanding not only
in numbers but in the qualitative character of its activities. Hence, while the original wave of these
activities may be economic and their initiators can be properly labeled transnational entrepreneurs,
subsequent activities encompass political, social, and cultural pursuits as well.
Alerted by the initiatives of immigrant entrepreneurs, political parties and even governments
establish offices abroad to canvass immigrant communities for financial and electoral support. Not to
be outdone, many immigrant groups organise political committees to lobby the home government or,
as in the case of multiple Salvadoran and Dominican immigrant initiatives, to influence the local
municipality on various issues. To provide yet another example, Mexican immigrants in New York
City have organized vigorous campaigns in support of public works in their respective towns. Smith
(1992) tells about the reaction of the Ticuani (Puebia) Potable Water Committee upon learning that
the much awaited tubing has arrived and, with it, the final solution to the town's water problem. They
immediately made plans to visit the new equipment:
On first sight, this is no more than an ordinary civic project . . . Yet when we consider certain
other aspects of the scene, the meaning becomes quite different. The Committee and I are not
standing in Ticuani, but rather on a busy intersection in Brooklyn ... The Committee members are not
simply going, to the outskirts of the town to check the water tubes, but rather they are headed to JFK
airport for a Friday afternoon flight to Mexico City, from which they will travel the five hours overland
to their pueblo, consult with the authorities and contractors, and return by Monday afternoon to their
jobs in New York City.
Churches and private charities have joined this movement between home country and
immigrant community with a growing number of initiatives involving both. Finally, the phenomenon
acquires a cultural veneer as borne performers and artists use the expatriate communities as
platforms to break into the First World scene and as returnee artists popularize cultural forms learned
abroad. The end result of this cumulative process is the transformation of the original pioneering
economic ventures into transnational communities, characterized by dense networks across space
and by an increasing number of people who lead dual lives. Members are at least bilingual, move
easily between different cultures, frequently maintain homes in two countries, and pursue economic,
political, and cultural interests that require a simultaneous presence in both. It bears repeating that
the onset of this process and its development is nurtured by the same forces driving large-scale
capitalist globalization. Marx describe the proletariat as created and placed into the historical scene
by its future class adversaries, so global capitalism has given rise to the conditions and incentives for
the transnationalization of labor.
It is important to note, however, that not all immigrants are involved in transnational activities,
nor everyone in the countries of origin is affected by them. The sudden popularity of this term may
make it appear as if everybody is “going transnational,” which is far from being the case. In this sense,
little is gained, by the re-labeling, of immigrants as “transmigrants” since the new term adds notliina
to what is already known. It is preferable to reserve the term “transnational” for activities of an
economic, political, and cultural sort that require the involvement of participants on a regular basis as
a major part of tlieli- occupation. Hence, the Salvadoran merchant who travels regularly back home
to replenish supplies or the Dominican builder who comes periodically to New York to advertise
among his compatriots Is a transnational entrepreneur; the immigrant who buys one of those houses
or who travels home yearly bearing gifts for his family and friends is not. Reasons for the emergence
of this novel phenomenon and its bearing, on international and domestic inequalities are explored
next.
\\\
The Structure and Consequences of Transnationalism
If conditions confronting today's immigrants bore some similarity to those faced by their U.S.
bound European predecessors at the turn of the century, it is likely that they would not have moved
so decisively in the direction of transnational enterprise as a means of survival or mobility. That earlier
era featured two significant conditions distinct from those today. First, a plethora of relatively well
paid wage jobs in industry; second, costly and time-consuming long distance transportation. The first
condition militated against widespread entrepreneurial ventures and gave rise over time to stable
working-class ethnic communities. Most Poles and Italians in the United States became workers and
not entrepreneurs because labor market opportunities in the American industrial cities where they
arrived made this an attractive option. By contrast, today's uncertain and minimally paid service sector
jobs strongly encourage immigrants to seek alternative economic paths.
Second, communications and transportation technologies were such as to make it prohibitive

for turn-of-the-century immigrants to make a living out of bridging the cultural gap between countries
of origin and destination or lead simultaneous lives in both. No trans-Pacific commuting was possible.
No means were available for Polish peasants to check how things were going at home over the
weekend and be back in their New York jobs on Monday. Although some activities that could be
dubbed “transnational” according to a strict definition of the term did occur among earlier European
immigrants, the present process is characterized by three features: First, the near-instantaneous
character of communication across national borders and Iong distances. second, the numbers
involved in these activities; and third, the fact that, after a critical mass is reached, they tend to become
“normative.”
Airplanes, telephones, fax machines, and electronic mail facilitate contact and exchange
among common people on a scale incommensurate with what could be done a century earlier. For
this reason, and given the economic political, and cultural incentives to do so, more immigrants and
their home country counterparts have become involved in transnational activities. Once the process
begins, it can become cumulative so that, at a given point, it can turn into “the thing, to do” not only
among the pioneers, but even among those initially reluctant to follow this path. Immigrant
communities like Monterey Park near Los Angeles and highly transnationalized towns in El Salvador
and the Dominican Republic have begun to approach this stage
It bears repeating that grassroots transnational enterprises are not set up in explicit opposition
to the designs of large banks and corporations. What the world-ranging activities of these major
actors do is to provide examples, incentives, and technical means for common people to attempt a
novel and previously unimagined alternative. By combining their new technological prowess with
mobilization of their social capital, former immigrant workers are thus able to imitate the majors in
taking advantage of economic opportunities distributed unequally in space.
The long-term potential of the transnationalization of labor runs against growing international
inequalities of wealth and power as well as intra-national ones in the countries of out-migration. What
the process does, above all, is to weaken a fundamental premise of the hegemony of corporate
economic elites and domestic ruling classes. That premise, noted at the start of this chapter, is that
labor and subordinate classes remain “local”, while dominant elites are able to range “global”. So far
the process has not run its course to the extent of threatening, Third World labor supplies for runaway
multinationals or the abundance of immigrant workers for employers in the advanced world. It has
gained sufficient momentum, however, to earn the attention of authorities in small countries like El
Salvador and in states of large countries like Mexico that have initiated policies designed to control
or co-opt these grassroots ventures.
If, in the long run, transnational enterprise can become an equalizing, force, in the short term,
it can have the opposite effect. Reasons have already been noted by Landolt in her comment about
growing disparities between sending localities that possess a committee among its migrants abroad
and those that do not. Pioneering transnational entrepreneurs who have become successful favor
their own families and perhaps their home communities, bait also seek to restrict competition from
others. Successful political activists who have mobilized support among immigrants strengthen their
own parties at home, while trying to prevent others from gaining access to the same resources.
Hence, to the extent that the process of transnationalization is short-circuited by the regulatory or co-
\\\
-optive activities of established elites, it may simply incorporate a minority of successful

entrepreneurs into these elite ranks, while continuing to exclude others. Inequalities among Third
World families and local communities would be exacerbated, not reduced by the transnational
activities of immigrants.
There is reason, however, to be optimistic about the long-term effects of this phenomenon.
Despite the predictable, indeed inevitable, co-optive and control activities of sending governments
and transnational corporations, the process of capitalist globalization is so broadly based and has
generated such momentum as to continuously nourish its grassroots counterpart. Every new
attempt to market wireless telephones, internet access, or cheaper airline tickets in less developed
countries; every effort of employers in New York or Los Angeles to re-supply themselves with new
pools of docile immigrant labor strengthens this feedback process. The targets of such initiatives
are not simply “customers” or “laborers”, but individuals capable of reacting creatively to the new
situation in which they find themselves. Multinational elites and national governments may believe
that the process of transnationalization is still too feeble to pose any significant challenge to the
status quo. In reality, the tiger may have already left the cage and there would be little point in
closing it after him.
\\\
CONTEMPORARY INTERNATIONAL
ORGANIZATIONS
This introduces the learners on how to analyze
the dynamics of transnational cooperation and how
governments are affected by globalization. This section
also enables the learners to look into the meaning of
global governance through the discussion of the United
Nations’ (UN) roles and functions.
OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this module, the learners are expected to:

1. Define and explain the meaning of state, nation and nation – states ;
2. Explain the various impacts of globalization on nation – states ;
3. Enumerate and explain the functions of intergovernmental organizations;
4. Identify the roles and functions of the United Nations (UN); and
5. Define and differentiate the concept internationalism from globalism
DIAGNOSTICS:
_________ 1. The Human Rights Watch is an international advocacy organization.
_________ 2. Internationalism and internationalization are two similar ideas.
_________ 3. The Asia Pacific Economic Forum is an intergovernmental organization (IGO).
_________ 4. The United Nations is a global government.
_________ 5. UN’s fiver permanent security council members have a veto power.
Weber (1997) defines the state as a compulsory political organization with a centralized
government that maintains the legitimate use of force within a certain territory. He explicated that it is
normal for the state to use force and/or violence to suppress lawlessness in its territory as well as to protect
itself from other states. On the other hand, the concept of nation emphasizes the organic ties that hold
groups of people together and inspire a sense of loyalty and belonging – i.e., ethnicity, language, religion,
and others (Schattle, 2014). Combining these two, a nation – state can then be defined as a political
community that emanates from civic society to legitimately execute peace. Thus, civic society is the basis
of the people’s oneness.
Weber explained that the state has the monopoly

of the legitimate use of force. Although we know
how destructive fire arms are, this is the reason
why we do not question soldiers using them or the
police. We have learned to accept this as
legitimate or natural.
© maxdefense.blogspot.com
Though some scholars like Appadural and Ohmae claim that globalization has superseded
the individual function and jurisdiction of nation – states, this is still arguable. In fact, nation –
states can manipulate competitive advantages with international and political issues, transnational
civil society organizations, and multinational companies. They are also accountable for a host of
international norms and standards, find themselves in subordinate positions to protect their
economy, and face new kinds of pressures of supranational integration and focus of local
fragmentation (Schattle, 2014). However, if nation – states no longer have power in today’s
globalized world, then why does the United Nations (UN), with its increasing number of states,
remain relevant in global decision making? The 194 member states of UN prove that globalization
has affected the dynamics of nation – states in the context of their agency as legitimate holders of
force in their jurisdiction.
\\\
The United Nations was established after the Second World War with once central mission
– to maintain international peace and security. Aside from maintaining international peace and
security and protecting human rights, UN also carries the functions of delivering humanitarian aid,
promoting sustainable development, and upholding international law. It is composed of six organs:
a. The General Assembly – which serves as the main deliberative policy-making and
representative organ.
b. The Security Council – is the organ which has the commitment to preserve peace and security.
c. The Economic and Social Council – is the main organ for cooperation, policy, review, policy
dialogue, and advice on economic, environmental and social issues.
d. The Trusteeship Council – is the organ tasked to administer international oversight for trust
territories and to make sure that adequate procedures are taken for independence and self –
government.
e. The International Court of Justice – is the UN’s prime judicial organ.
f. The Secretariat – is the organ tasked to execute the daily activities as assigned by the five other
organs.
Globalization has, in a way, reshaped the role and functions of nation – states as governing
bodies in their particular territories.
First, globalization is seen to impose a forced choice upon nation – states. Either they
conform to the neo – liberal ideas and free – market principles of deregulation, privatization, and
free trade or run the risk of being left behind in terms of development. Of course, the nation –
states, in this contemporary age, are forced to submit themselves to the demands of globally
accepted free – market principles. Though government policies can be put in place, nation – states
are forced to realign their policies to be congruent with the principles of free trade because of the
pressures from global corporations. To illustrate, the member states of the Association of Southeast
Asian Nations (ASEAN), including the Philippines, established the ASEAN Free Trade Area
(AFTA) in 1999. Its goal is to encourage the member – states to deepen their commitments in
investment, trade, and industrial collaboration to brace them for the increase in the region’s
economic activity.
Second, is the establishment of economic and political integrations. One good example is
the European Union (EU) and the North America Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). EU has
become a supranational body with 28 members. It has a single currency and monetary system
among 17 states, parliament with legislative powers, with common citizens’ right to live, work,
vote and run for office, with developed collective mechanism to resolve crises and assist those in
need, and with intercontinental jurisprudence in the case of the European Court of Justice and the
European court of Human Rights. The statehood of the members is not dissolved, what has
changed is only how nation – states function, in terms of economy and politics, as part of a whole
(Schattle, 2014).
The third effect of globalization is the establishment of international laws and principles.
This is observable in the establishment of the UN that operates as a forum for nation – states to air
their differences and try to resolve them. The UN Security Council has powers that include the
creation of peacekeeping operations and international sanctions and the authorization of military
action. Also, UN’s International Criminal Court (ICC) prosecutes individuals accused of crimes
against humanity such as genocide. The founding of ICC is based on the adoption of the Rome
Statue of International Criminal Court in 1998, with the vote of 120 to 7, with 21 abstentions. It
began functioning in 2002 when the statue officially came into force. However, the United States,
China and India are not signatories. Thus, the treat is not binding to these economic powers.
Moreover, there are also universal principles that are adopted by nation – states in relation to the
\\\
dynamism of globalization. Two of them are the Universal Declaration of Human Rights that
affirms an individual’s rights and the other is the United Nations Convention of the Law of the Sea
that defines the rights of nation – states on the use of the world’s oceans.
These three mentioned effects are vertical effects. Aside from this, globalization also has a
horizontal effect which can be observed in the formation of transgovernmental Networks
(Slaughter, 2004). National government offices connect with their counterparts in other nation –
states in order to establish linkages that would benefit all parties. As institutions, policies are
agreed upon and individual state – participants are conscious that their home country policies
should not be violated.
The fourth effect of globalization is the rise of transnational activism (TNA). Such happens
when activist groups of nation – states connect with their counterparts in our states. For example,
an advocacy – based organization in the Philippines may connect itself with and get support from
other human rights groups in Europe to pressure the Philippine government to realign its stance
and actions in upholding human rights.
The fifth and last effect of globalization is the creation of new communication network.
Globalization binds communities through digital media. With new technologies in communication,
political interaction can happen in a virtual sphere. People can exchange political perspectives
through internet, therefore stirring political discourse on an online platform. Because of the so –
called network society (Castells, 2009), nation – states must reshape themselves to become part of
global networks in the arena of finance, education, science, technology, arts and sports. This can
be seen in the proliferation of online education from universities outside the Philippines.
Conversely, Philippine universities offer online courses to non – Filipinos. Thus, digital media has
become the platform for strategic communications at home and abroad wherein the nation – states
can utilize the internet to gather feedback from the citizens. Social media gives people the power
to air their sentiments, and also, serves as an avenue to discuss issues. In the case of authoritarian
and repressive states like China, Russia, and North Korea, the governments make us of media
technologies to filter content that can be viewed by their citizens. On the other hand, digital media
can also be used by governments to gain public support in their campaigns. Thus, social media, in
particular, can become an alternative to mainstream media that advances its biased perspective.
In order to facilitate connections among nation – states, intergovernmental organizations
(IGOs) were established. Their aim is to foster strong economic, political, cultural, educational,
and technical intergovernmental relationships. Here are some examples:
Name Date Members Objectives
Established
Association of 1967 10 – state 1. Accelerate economic, social and cultural
Southeast Asian members growth and development;
Nations (ASEAN) 2. Promote regional progression;
3. Advance peace and sustainability;
4. Promote active and beneficial cooperation
and mutual assistance in economic, technical,
cultural, administrative and scientific fields;
5. Provide assistance to each other in the
framework of training and research
installations in the educational, professional,
technical, and administrative spheres;
6. work hand in hand for more effective and
greater use of agriculture and industries;
7. advance Southeast Asian research; and
8. Preserve close and beneficial collaboration
with current international and regional
institutions with similar aims and purposes.
\\\
European Union November 28 – state 1. Promote peace, its values, and the well –
(EU) 1993 members being of its citizens;
2. Offer freedom, security, and justice
without internal borders;
3. Uphold sustainable development based on
balanced economic growth and price
stability;
4. Combat social exclusion and
discrimination;
5. Promote scientific and technological
progress;
6. Enhance economic, social, and territorial
cohesion and solidarity among members
countries;
7. Respect cultural and linguistic diversity;
8. Establish an economic and monetary union
(europa.eu).
World Trade January 1, 164 – The sole IGO that caters to rules of trade on
Organization 1995 member a global scale. It aims:
(WTO) states 1. To ensure that trade runs as smoothly,
predictably, and freely as possible;
2. To encourage trade by lowering trade
barriers that may hinder how products and
services flow from nation to nation.
Organization OF September 13 Member To coordinate and unify the petroleum

Petroleum 10 – 14, Countries policies of its Member Countries and ensure
Exporting 1960 the stabilization of oil markets in order to
Countries (OPEC) secure an efficient, economic and regular
supply of petroleum to consumers, a steady
income to producers and a fair return on
capital for those investing in the petroleum
industry. (opec.org)
The intensification of relations among nation – states gave birth to the idea of
internationalism and globalism. The former is the theory and practice of interdependent
collaboration while the latter is an attitude. Internationalism is basically anchored on the opinion
that nationalism should be outrun because links that bind people of different countries are more
powerful than those that disconnect them (Anora, 2014). Immanuel Kant (1795) stated that
agreements among nations must be reached. He conceptualized the idea of liberal internationalism
which proposes that nations must give up their freedom and submit to a larger system of laws that
is embodied by common international principles. Thus, a form of global government is needed to
create and enforce these laws.
Socialist interactionalism, on the other hand, contradicts liberal interactionalism. This is
based on the view that capitalism is a global system and that the working class must unite as a
global class to forward the struggle against capitalism. Its notion is linked to the goal of a world
evolution – to end class struggle globally. The Second International (1889 – 1916), the original
socialist international, was an organization of labor and social parties established in Paris in 1889.
It is best known for declaring the International Worker’s Day (May 1) and International Women’s
Day (March 8) and for initiating the campaign for the eight – hour work day.
On the other hand, globalism emerged as an attitude that seeks to understand all the
interconnections of the modern world and to highlight patterns that underlie them. It pursues to
describe and explain a world that is characterized by a network of connections that spam multi –
continental distances.
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Overall, the global interstate system is a facet of contemporary political globalization that
seeks to form collaboration among nation – states through the establishment of intergovernmental
organizations. It is rooted on the idea of internationalism.
Exercise1:1:Am
Exercise Globalization and I
I Part of IGO?
Name: ______________________________ Date: ____________
Name: ______________________________ Date: ____________
Instructions: Below are organizations that govern international relations. Compare two of
Instructions:
them in terms ofFind, read and roles
their objectives, attach
andan opinion-editorial
functions. Write your (op-ed) article
answers in bullet form.
discussing globalization. Extract the underlying concept of globalization
1. International Criminal Court (ICC)
explained in the article.
2. Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)
3. Asia – Pacific Economic Cooperation
___________________________________________________
4. European Union (EU)
Title andAtlantic
5. North AuthorTreaty
of the Chosen Article
Organization
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1. Based on the article, is globalization a process, a condition, or an ideology?
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Explain your choice.
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2. On whose perspective is the definition of globalization anchored (political
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scientists, economists, or culture and communications experts) Give at least
three (3) reasons to support your choice. _______________________________
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Name: ______________________________ Date: ____________
Instructions: Read the attached referenced article and complete the statements that follow.
 Karlsrud, J. (n.d.). The UN at war: Examining the consequences of peace-
enforcement for the UN peacekeeping operations in CAR, DRC and Mali.
Third World Quarterly, 36(1), 40-54.
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Referenced article: Source: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01436597.2015.976016
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THE GLOBAL DIVIDES: THE NORTH

AND THE SOUTH
This section enables the learners to

know the concepts of the Global South and
how this is seen in both affluent and
impoverished countries.
OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this module, the learners are

expected to:
1. Explain the term Global South; and
2. Differentiate the Global South from the
Third World
DIAGNOSTICS:
_________ 1. The Philippines is an example of Global South.
_________ 2. First World countries are communist nation – states.
_________ 3. Second World countries include the United States of America.
_________ 4. The Philippines is a Third World country.
_________ 5. A Global South country is characterized as a poor nation.
Since the process of globalization is uneven, it follows that there is an imbalance in the
socio-economic and political categories of the world. The world is divided into north and south,
and first, second, and third.
Overseas Filipino workers (OFWs) in Europe, Australia, and America tend to see the big
difference between the ways of living in the Philippines and in Western countries. Some of them
come home as “one- day millionaires” giving our presents to their family, relatives, neighbors, and
friends. Although their incomes are relatively higher than if they work in the Philippines, they
realize that life is still tough despite the remittances they send to their families and the taxes that
the country gains from these. Furthermore, they cannot escape the reality that their occasional
vacations in the Philippines are temporary because they would need to go back to work in order to
continue making a living in another country. This is a reflection of the global divide between the
north and the south as experienced by these Filipinos.
The term Global South is a metaphor for interstate inequality and a product of Western
imagination (Claudio, 2014). Historically, there had been divisions and labeling among the
different nations of the world. Countries that were colonized by the Spaniards in the southern part
of the American continent are collectively called Latin America. By virtue of the Treat of
Tordesillas in 1994, the newly discovered lands outside Europe were divided into two – the West
belonging to the Crown of Castile (now part of Spain) and the East belonging to the Portuguese
Empire. There is also a split based on labor – the core, the semi – periphery, and the peripheries.
From these divisions, the Global South refers to the socio – economic and political divide primarily
focused on the southern hemisphere of the 1569 – designed Mercatorian map. It also includes the
regions of Latin America, Asia, Africa, and Oceania (Dados & Connell, 2012). It connotes
developing countries as opposed to rich, industrialized, and wealth nations. On the contrary, the
Global North is the home of all members of the Group of Eight – Canada, France, Germany, Italy,
Japan, United Kingdom, Russia, and the United States of America. It is also the abode of the four
powerful permanent members of the United Nations Security Council. It also refers to the
developed countries in Asia, Australia, and New Zealand.
Although usually associated with developing nations, the Global South is also found in
developing countries. Economically poor families, underprivileged individuals, unfair labor
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practices, and suppression of human rights, and other violation of basic rights in Europe, Australia,
US, and Canada are the pieces of evidence that people from developed countries also share similar
experiences with people from developing countries.
By now, one can say that the

terms Global South and Third World are
conceptually the same. But the term
Third World is the antecedent of Global
South (Claudio, 2014). The classification
of nations as First World or Third World
emerged during the Cold War. The term
“Third World” historically, was coined
by Alfred Sauvy in 1952 in an article
entitled “Three Worlds, One Planet”
(Andrews, 2018). In this original context,
the First World included the United
States and its capitalist allies in places
such as Western Europe, Japan and
Australia. The Second World consisted
of the communist Soviet Union and its 1www.atlasworld.com
Eastern European satellites. The Third
World, meanwhile, encompassed all the other countries that were not actively aligned with either
side in the Cold War. These were often impoverished former European colonies, and included
nearly all the nations of Africa, the Middle East, Latin America and Asia (Andrews, 2018). To
illustrate, India was considered a Third World country for it was a colony of the United Kingdom.
Later, the category was used to refer to countries that were neither capitalist nor socialist. Since
many countries were impoverished, the term was also used to refer to the poor world. These
countries were considered to be non – industrialized and newly industrialized. They lacked the
standard systems in banking, finance, and trade.
Hence, it is outdated to say that countries in Southeast Asia belong to the Third World for
the term has ended its usage after the Cold War. These countries may be classified as the Global
South through some of their citizens experience the Global North within their territories.
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Exercise 1: Global North and Global South

Name: ______________________________ Date: ____________
Instructions: Choose one city / town in the Philippines where you can observe or
experience the Global North and the Global South. List down the specific scenarios below:
Name of City / Town: __________________________
Global North Global South

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ASIAN REGIONALISM
This section investigates the mechanism of how Asian region integrates and how nation –
states approach the challenges of world homogenization and division.
OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this module, the learners are expected to:
1. Differentiate between regionalization and globalization;
2. Identify the factors that lead to a greater integration of Asian regions; and
3. Analyze how different Asian states confront the challenges of globalization and
regionalization through regionalism.
DIAGNOSTICS:
_________ 1. Russia is a part of Asia.
_________ 2. Lebanon is in Asia.
_________ 3. East Timor is the youngest state in Asia.
_________ 4. The term Asia was coined by Asians themselves.
_________ 5. Japan colonized some parts of Asia.
Among all
the continents, Asia
has the biggest
population of at least
two – thirds of the
world’s inhabitants –
with China being a
home of more than
1.4 billion people
based on the 2018
population projection
of the United Nations
which makes it
country as one of the
economic super © www.foreignpolicy.com
giants of the world.
Asia is most probably
one of the biggest
because the continent
comprises one – third
of the world’s land
mass. In terms of economy, emerging and developing Asian countries and the Associations of
Southeast Asian Nations 5 or the ASEAN 5 (Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Vietnam, and
Thailand) had
an average of 6.3% and 5.1% GDP growth, respectively, compared to the world average growth
of 3.5% as of 2016 (Obiols, 2017). In 2016, China was the world’s leading exporter of goods
valued at $1.99 trillion, followed by the United States with $1.45 trillion (Dillinger, 2018).
Since the European Union is in its mature state of regionalism, the world is now focused
on Asia. Most countries want to have collaborations with East Asian countries and the Association
of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) members because economic and political growths in these
regions have started to shape up. As a result, the United States strategically takes care of its allies
in Asia to maintain and further enhance its supply of raw materials, human technological skills,
and even its military force. At the same time, Europe keeps its strong relationship with Asian
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countries to expand its growing business in the field of medical science and research. It cannot be
denied that Asia is gaining worldwide attention.
In this light, globalization, regionalization, and regionalism are compared. Also, exposures
to the different factors that bring about better homogenization of Asia and how member – states
collectively and separately address the challenges they are facing are discussed.
The terms regionalization and globalization are both related to integration. However, while
globalization refers to the expansion and intensification of social relations and consciousness
across world – time and world – space; regionalization, on the other hand, is the “growth of
societal integration within a region and to the often undirected process of social and economic
interaction” (Hurrel, 1995). In terms of scope, it is clear that globalization happens around the
world while regionalization happens only in a specific geographical region. Social and economic
reciprocal actions of regionalization are undirected because of diversity – which comes in different
levels of development (from the rich Singapore to the poor Laos), politics (from democracy to
dictatorship and everything in between), economics (from free markets to capitalism and more),
and religion (Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, and more) (Richter & West, 2014).
Another concept commonly confused with regionalization is regionalism. Regionalism

refers to regional concentration of economic flows and also pertains to the process of
intergovernmental collaborations between two or more states (Eliassen & Arnadottir, 2012), while
regionalization refers to a political process by economic policy if cooperation and coordination are
present among countries (Mansfiled & Wilmer,1993).
Asian regionalism is a new concept among the continental communities. New to

cooperation and collaboration goals, it has the 50 – year – old ASEAN group and the failed East
Asia Economic Group (EAEG). The ASEAN community is comprised of three pillars – political
security community, economic community, and socio – cultural community.
The political security community gives importance to human rights, drugs, foreign
relations, defense, law, and transnational crimes. The association adheres to significant roles of
monitoring – economic ministers, finance ministers, central bank governors, free trade area,
investment area, agriculture and forestry, transport ministers, telecommunications and information
technology ministers, science and technology, energy, minerals, tourism, free trade agreements
with dialogue partners, and sectoral bodies in the arena of economic community. In the socio –
cultural community, there is an avenue for cooperation among the ministers responsible for culture
and arts, sports, disaster management, education, environment, health, information, labor, rural
development and poverty eradication, women, youth, and civil service matters.
ASEAN has also partnered with three East Asian countries – China, Japan, and South
Korea. It is called the ASEAN +3. Its goal is to address the 1997 Asian financial crisis and help
each other cope with the crisis. In this context, ASEAN has concretized regionalism in the Asian
region.
Similar, to the goal of ASEAN in achieving greater integration within the region, other
countries form groups for various reasons. The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA),
a free trade pact between Canada, United States and Mexico was created to help reduce trading
costs, increase business investment, and help North America to be more competitive in the global
marketplace (NAFTA, 2018). The European Union (EU) was established to ensure free movement
of people, goods, services, and capital within the EU’s single market (EU, 2018).
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Moreover, there are some aspects that led to a greater Asian integration.
 First, integration has been market – driven. Within Asia, there are a variety of systems,
institutions, procedures, social relations, and infrastructures that are put into place for
countries to engage in exchange.
 Second, formal institutions such as the Asian Development Bank (ADB) were established.
The ADB which was conceived in the 1960s, is composed of 67 members, 48 of which are
from the Asia – Pacific region. It promotes social and economic development and serves
as a financial institution that aids its members and partners by providing loans, technical
assistance, grants, and equity investments. Initially, ADB focused its assistance on food
production and rural development to serve a predominantly agricultural region.
 Third, economic grants and overseas development assistance are made available by better
Asian economies.
 Fourth, production networks have expanded. Economies are mainly on comparative
advantage through the regional division of labor.
 Fifth, cooperation among the ASEAN and East Asian countries ensued the ASEAN +3
Financial Ministers’ Process that established two economic structures – the Chiang Mai
Initiative and the Asian Bond Markets Initiative. The process aims to strengthen policy
dialogue, coordination, and collaboration on common financial, monetary, and fiscal
issues.
 Last, ASEAN follows a consensus rule as an approach to decision making. The process
prevents collision of cultural beliefs and economic policies that are understandably not east
to unite because of the region’s diversity of archipelagic lives.
In facing the challenges brought about by globalization, Asian countries have responded
with regional alternatives as big group, small group and local communities.
As a big group, Asian countries established their own Asian Development Bank (ADB)
that is more focused on Asia and the Pacific as a reaction to global economic integration. Asian
nations work in the form of loans, grants, and information sharing on topics such as terrorism
and regional security.
The establishment of the ASEAN is also another initial reaction to globalization. It fosters
the spirit of regionalism and oneness of Asian nations. As a group, it sets out in the ASEAN
Declaration the following aims and purposes:
1. To accelerate economic growth, social progress, and cultural development in the region;
2. To promote regional peace and stability;
3. To promote active collaboration and mutual assistance on matters of common interest;
4. To provide assistance to each other in the form of training and research facilities;
5. To collaborate more effectively for the greater utilization of their agriculture and
industries;
6. To expand trade, improve their transportation and communications facilities, and raise
the living standards of the people;
7. To promote Southeast Asian Studies; and
8. To maintain close and beneficial cooperation.
More so, Asian countries respond to globalization as a small group by doing bilateral or
multilateral agreements. For example, Philippines has standing bilateral agreements with China in
trade, defense, infrastructure, transnational crimes, tourism, education, health, and many others.
Reaction to globalization (and the West) also gave rise to terror groups, like the Islamic
State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) which has spread to the Muslim communities in Southern
Philippines, Indonesia, and Malaysia. To combat global terrorism, these countries made use of
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their available resources to minimize and ultimately stop the effects of civilian – victims such as
displacement and suffering. More so, they reached military multilateral agreements to address this
common problem. In 2017, the Philippines, Indonesia, and Malaysia had a trilateral security
meeting wherein they agreed that they need to conduct joint navy patrols within their boundaries
to prevent he entry and exit of the terror group (Antiporta, 2017).
Other reactions to globalization came in the form of disengagement from globalization that
transpired locally. Santi Suk village in Thailand created its own currency, called the bia, that was
regulated by a central bank in a village. This homemade currency can only be used in participating
villages, and cannot be exchanged for Thailand’s baht. This trend is a manifestation of self –
sufficiency movements that emerged after the Asian financial crisis of 1997. Other forms of
disengagement appeared in the formation of self – sufficiency groups, community – owned rice
mills, and the preference for local products (Kimura, 2014).
To conclude, globalization and regionalization are the same for they refer to integration.
Their difference lies on the scope. Globalization is worldwide, while regionalization focuses on a
specific geographical region. As a response to world homogenization and division, regionalism
that comes in various forms of regional alternatives to globalization spawned within and among
regions in Asia. Asian integration did not happen based only on one historical event for there were
different factors that led to this alliance.
Exercise 1: Towards a Formidable Asian Integration

Name: ______________________________ Date: ____________
Instructions: Identify two strengths of the Philippines that may contribute to a greater
integration among countries in the Asian region. Explain
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Exercise 2: PH and the World

Name: ______________________________ Date: ____________
Instructions: Identify and enumerate how the Philippines reacts to regional and global
challenges in the table below. Choose only two (2) and list down three (3) actions for each.
 International Terrorism
 International Monetary Fund (IMF)
 Asia – Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)
 Asian Development Bank (ADB)
 Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
Challenges Actions
1. a.
b.
c.
2. a.
b.
c.
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MEDIA AND CULTURE
This section exposes the learners to the different

forms of media in worldwide integration and how
digitization of media affects our cultural practices.
OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this section, you are expected to:
1. Define and explain the different forms and functions of
media; and
2. Analyze the impact of digitization of media in our cultural
practices
DIAGNOSTICS:
_________ 1. Television is a form of media?
_________ 2. Cultures are never erased nor forgotten.
_________ 3. Cultures are static and fixed.
_________ 4. All cultures are equal.
_________ 5. Globalization of culture will not happen without media.
Culture refers to the unified style of human knowledge, beliefs, and behavior from which people
learn, and the ability to communicate knowledge to the next generations. Its development has been mainly
influenced by media.
The word ‘media’ means middle and is often used to describe its location between the media
industry or institution creating the content (the sender) on the one hand and the audience member (or
receiver) on the other (Cinque, n.d.). Media are the vehicles or channels which are used to convey
information, entertainment, news, education, or promotional messages are disseminated; it includes every
broadcasting and narrowcasting medium such as television, radio, newspapers, billboards, mails, telephone,
fax, internet etc. (the main means of mass communication) (Mehraj, et al., 2014). Media fulfills several
basic roles in our society –it provides an entertainment for the people, educates and informs the public,
serves as a public forum to discuss important issues, and acts as a watchdog for government, business and
institutions (y University of Minnesota, 2010).
Historically, media underwent five stages of development from the earliest forms to the complex
one. These stages affect globalization progressively (Lule, 2014).
The first stage started with oral communication. Language allowed humans to communicate and
share information. Moreover, language became the most important tool for exploring the world and the
different cultures. It helped people move and settle down. Oral communication led to markets, trade, and
cross – continental routes.
The next stage is the invention of script. Distance became a hindrance to oral communication.
Script allowed humans to communicate over a larger space and for a much longer duration. It allowed the
permanent codification of economic, cultural, religious, and political practice. Knowledge, beliefs, and
behaviors were written and made available for transmission to the next generation and to other nations and
cultures.
Third stage is printing press. The advent of printing press allowed continuous production,
reproduction, and circulation of print materials. Written documents were produced in large volumes which
gave everyone access to information that was only available to the wealth, powerful and religious. This era
of media development had an impact in globalization by transforming various institutions such as schools,
markets, businesses, churches, governments, and armies, among others.
Followed by the next stage, which is the emergence of electronic media as characterized by its use
electricity. Electronic media includes the telegraph, telephone, radio, film, and television. The wide reach
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of these media continues to open up new perspectives in the economic, political, and cultural processes of
globalization. Both radio and television became medium to observe international events.
The last stage is the digital media which relies on digital codes. It can be created, modified, and
stored in any digital electronic device. Digitalized content is transmitted over the internet and computer
networks. In politics, candidates often use this media as their campaign tools. In economics, it serves as a
platform for advertisement of products and online business transactions.
HOW DOES DIGITAL MEDIA OR “NEW MEDIA” AFFECT US?
The term ‘new media’ comprises content that is created, stored or retrieved in digital form,
encompassing text, still pictures, audio and video. New media forms are differentiated from legacy media
in that they are instantaneous, globally accessible, fast and efficient ways of passing on news and
information. New media has also created an almost virtual world. There are online games in which a person
will be creating an avatar which serves as the person’s ‘alter ego’ living in a virtual world, offers an escape
from the reality (Mehraj, et al., 2014).
Through the process of digitization, interactions from individuals from all over the world is possible
and thus results in the integration of cultures. Pieterse (2004) asserts that the only outcomes of the influence
of globalization on culture are cultural differentialism, cultural convergence, and cultural hybridity.
Cultural differentialism views cultural difference as immutable. As the West and non – Western
civilizations interact or are brought in contract through globalization, clash of civilizations such as that of
the West and Islam logically follows.
Cultural convergence suggests that globalization engenders a growing sameness of cultures.

However, the culture of powerful and progressive countries becomes culture. Example is the Korean Pop
Culture. Some Filipino adolescents prefer to style themselves like their South Korean idols. Most of them
have also joined different fan clubs as to show their admiration and support of their Korean idols.
Cultural hybridity suggests that globalization spawns an increasing and ongoing mixing of
cultures. An example of this is the Chabacano, a Spanish – based creole language of the Zamboanga City
and of some hybridity in language prompted by the merging of two cultures. This trend will further bring
about new cultural forms, not only in language but also in food, fashion, arts, music, among others.
These outcomes set the dynamics between local and global cultural production. Glocalization,
coined from globalization and localization, is a rather new concept brought about by the increased frequency
of contact among cultures. This reinforces the fact that local cultures are not weak, static, or fixed; they are
built and understood new each day in a globalized world (Lule, 2014). Local cultures continue to
accommodate and assimilate cultures of the world due to globalization.
All in all, the five stages of development of media have greatly influenced the globalization of
culture. From pamphlets to Facebook media has produced and reproduced cultural products around the
globe. Moreover, the increase in cultural interactions generated by media results in outcomes that exhibit
the vigor of local cultures influenced by the global culture.
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Exercise 1: Globalization without Media

Name: ______________________________ Date: ____________
Instructions: Write an argumentative essay presenting your stand on the topic: Gloalization
does not need media for global integration.
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Name: ______________________________ Date: ____________
Instructions: Read the attached referenced article and complete the statements that follow.
Kraidy, M. (2002). Globalization of culture through the media. In J.R. Schemet
(Ed.), Encyclopedia of communication and information, Vol.2 (pp. 359-363). New
York, NY: Macmillan Referenes USA.
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GLOBAL VS LOCAL CULTURE

This section delves into the difference between
what is local and what is global culture, the tensions
between them, and in their material and non-material
manifestations in our everyday lives.
Intended Learning Outcomes:
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1.) differentiate global from local culture; and
2.) analyze the erosion of local culture due to the dominating forces of global culture.
In the preceding section, we already encountered what cultural hybridization and glocalization is
about, and that they cannot be separated from globalization itself. Basically, the former is an increased
mixing of different cultures while the latter is the accommodation by local culture of foreign ones (Brazalote
and Leonardo 2019). However, these two are too simplistic and fail to show us the more nuanced and
complicated version of how local and global cultures interact. There is nothing new with the interaction of
different cultures with one another, with the consequence that at least one of them changes. But in this case,
such phenomena have been accelerated to a large degree by the forces of globalization. But before we go
to such nuances, definitions are in order:
1.) Local Culture – cultural configuration which characterize the experience of everyday life in
specific, diverse and identifiable localities1.
2.) Global Culture – way of life that is governed by a set of ideas, beliefs and values that are based
on the exposure and consumption of cultural products uniformly produced for everyone irrespective
of their background2.
Based on the definitions stated above, we can see that the two are essentially polar opposites. However,
we should note that even though this is true, their existence is dependent on each other. This means that
what is global cannot make sense if it is not contrasted with the local, and the same can be said vice-versa.
In addition, we can only recognize the diversity of local cultures if it is placed side-by-side with the
uniformity of global culture. Take one Filipino staple party food, for example: spaghetti bolognese. It is
global in the sense that you can basically find it everywhere in the world, but it would only bversion of the
pasta dish only exists because there are other versions globally, too. To better illustrate the point, here is a
table that provides an overview of the respective characteristics of global and local culture 3:
Characteristics Global Culture Local Culture
Primary Uniformity Diversity

emphasis
Geographic scale Large Small
Objective To be everywhere, to consume To retain roots, to be sustainable
Point of origin Western origins, particularly American Different localities as points of
origin
Value Economic efficiency, “everything can be a Continuing long-held traditions,
commodity” authenticity
Nature of To be a spectator To be a participant
Activity
Relationship with Buying, having, entertainment Making, being, authentic
cultural products experience
To give us a better idea of these general differences, here is another table with some examples:
Examples Global Local
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Travel Tourist: tourist packages, exclusive Traveler: makes his/her own flexible
transportation, standardized itinerary, itinerary (if at all), commutes like the
hotels, international food, lives like a locals do, inns, local food, tries to live
visitor like a local
Food and Fast food chains, food companies and Family-owned restaurants, street stalls,
Dining corporations small-scale businesses
Clothes Ready-to-wear outfits, trend-based Hand/tailor-made clothes, indigenous
garments
Music and Film Mass-produced and mainstream Independent projects
Consumption of Products that need extensive marketing Products are the advertisements
Products and advertisement themselves; word of mouth
Reason for What is trendy nowadays? What would last a long time?
Buying
As you can see in the table above, it is evident that the presence of global culture may cause erosion
to local cultures. Basically, what happens is that a culture loses many of its fundamental elements
because of the arrival of a new one. When such changes, happen there are always positive or negative
effects. Positive effects may include the improvement of the way things are being done or being thought
off, doing away with obsolete and inefficient practices, or clearer understanding of things that we
experience. Negative consequences may be that things that are already good and working may be replaced
with something worse, being efficient but not effective, or being confused on how things really work.
On a more material level, this means that new jobs will be available, but those working on old ones
will be unemployed; and it is not a simple manner to learn new things when you are used to doing other
ones. Consumers can have new choices on what products to buy,
but this is not a guarantee that the new ones are better overall. The
influx of new products would also mean that old ones will be
disposed of even if they are still working perfectly fine, which
means that it generates more waste than necessary. Big businesses
may flourish, but smaller scale ones would suffer; this benefits the
rich more than it does the poor. These are things that happen when
global culture causes erosion of local ones.
Lucban’s Pahiyas festival is a good example. It is
celebrated during May 15 to honor San Isidro Labrador, the patron
saint of farmers. However, in recent years, we can see that the Pahiyas is becoming less and less of a
religious celebration, because people, especially those visiting Lucban for it, are more interested in its
extravagance. The people visiting Lucban for Pahiyas look for food, drinks, the intricate house decorations,
contests and celebrities; in short, the pageantry of the festival that everybody can uniformly look forward
and relate to. Fewer and fewer people attend and participate in the religious events of the festival itself,
which are parts of the authentic experience of Pahiyas itself. This is also true of the locals, as evidenced
by the declining number of younger people interested in
participating with the traditional preparation of its colorful
decors (Mallari 2017). Surely, there is nothing wrong with
looking forward to the pageantry and extravagance of
Pahiyas because it is one of the most beautiful festivals in
the country; but it is quite disheartening that its original
religious component, the reason for why it is celebrated
in the first place, is slowly being forgotten.
The example above is not exclusive to Pahiyas. The
same holds true of Bacolod’s MassKara, Davao’s
Kadayawan, Iloilo’s Dinagyang, Baguio’s Panagbenga or
Cebu’s Sinulog. The religious components and community camaraderie are being overshadowed by the
encroachment of telecommunications companies, fast food chains, celebrity appearances, band concerts
and broadcast networks that attract droves of visitors to flock into these communities, with the effect of
making these festivals look and feel more and more similar with one another year after year. The
authentic differences between them are slowly being felt less and less every year they are celebrated. This
© www.google.com
\\\
is what the erosion of local culture looks and feels like, and this happens because of the forces of global
culture are slowly exerting its dominance.
Things like these can be averted. Local and indigenous cultures can serve as pockets of resistance
to the steamrolling effects of global cultures. The continuing emergence of independent art projects (films
and music), do-it-yourself movements, travelogues, blogs and vlogs found online that promote local cultural
products, and efforts by local government units in the Philippines to bring local cultural products to the fore
of the market (i.e. Niyogyugan festival) all bring a halt to the dominance of global culture in the Philippines.
Although the effects may be small and short-lived, through the support of small consumers like us, such
efforts can be sustained so that the erosion of local cultures can be averted.
Exercise 1: Global vs Local Culture

Name: ______________________________ Date: ____________
Instructions: For you to have a better idea about the differences between global and local
culture, let’s do a little exercise. In the table below, make a list of the pros and cons of
having fast food chains (Jollibee, Chowking, etc.) in Lucban.
Exercise 1: Fast Food Chains in Lucban (10 pts)

Pros Cons
1.) 1.)
2.) 2.)
3.) 3.)
4.) 4.)
5.) 5.)
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Exercise 2: Odd One Out

Name: ______________________________ Date: ____________
Instructions: Encircle the one that does not belong to the group (10 pts).
Exercise 2: Odd One Out. Encircle the one that does not belong to the group (10 pts).
Explain why.
1.) Jollibee Chito’s Chowking McDonald’s
2.) Lucban’s Baguio’s Bacolod’s Quezon’s

Pahiyas Panagbenga MassKara Niyogyugan
3.) T’nalak cloth Taka art of Paete Shirts from Kultura Batok tattooing of
by the T-boli Laguna Filipino Kalinga
4.) Local street Hotel buffet Tourist package Travel agency

stalls
5.) Standardized Authentic Uniform Mass-produced
6.) Extensive Family-owned Various Production value

marketing stakeholders
7.) Oral tradition Boxing Beauty pageants Campus

intramurals
8.) Communal Hanging of Making a list of Falling in line for

Cooking banderitas people to invite concert tickets
9.) Abstinence Fasting Going to the beach Joining the

from meat Prusisyon
10.) Preserving Business profit Entertainment Large Scale

traditions
\\\
GLOBALIZATION OF RELIGIOUS PRACTICES
This section examines how religious practices are being

affected by the changes brought about by globalization,
particularly through the realm of information technology.
The tension between global forces and traditional
religious beliefs and practices are also given attention and
how it contributes to new forms of religiosity, or its
disappearance altogether.
© www.google.com
Intended Learning Outcomes

1.) explain how globalization affects religious beliefs and practices; and
2.) analyze the changing forms of religiosity in the face of globalization.
As a reference point, etymologically, we could look at religion through the lens of two Latin words:
religio (respect for the sacred) and religare (to bind in the sense of an obligation). This implies that the
word describes a group of people or an institution that is bound together by a common view on what is good
or sacred. However, the simplest one that encompasses what we want to learn in this module is that religion
is “a collection of cultural belief systems and worldviews that establishes symbols that relate humanity to
spirituality and moral values.1” Now, what does this mean exactly? A breakdown of the definition is in
order. It tells us that religion relates to almost all aspects of our way of life (culture) characterized by what
we see as true or not (belief), our fundamental interpretation of in reality (worldview). Religion does this
by having representations (symbols) that connect humanity to something higher than ourselves (spirituality)
and what is good and worthwhile (moral values).
If that sounds like a lot to take in, well, because it is. The influence of religion is so vast that it can be
observable from our personal lives to our social ones, from the way we act to how social movements occur,
from individual choices to global events. In the case of us Filipinos, a lot of what we believe and do are
rooted on religious beliefs, and we subscribe to the practices of our respective religions one way or another.
Take Christmas, for example. A lot of our values and beliefs as Filipinos are highlighted during the season’s
festivities. The belief of sharing and valuing close family ties are reflected through practices like gatherings,
parties, exchanging gifts and the likes. We partake in and consume things that symbolize sharing our
blessings with one another. That’s why one can say that the Christmas season is the longest holiday in the
Philippines.
Now, where does globalization comes in? According to Brazalote and Leonardo (2019), there are 4 events
where globalization caused the most changes in religion that we could see nowadays:
1.) Religious Nationalism – After World War II, nationalism was very much related to religious
affiliation, hence to a specific set of beliefs. As an example, in the Philippines where most people
are Catholics, laws for religious holidays are legislated and are being observed by most of the
populace even though they do not belong to Roman Catholicism.
2.) Turning of Religion into Public Life – Related to the first item in this list, religious values
extended out beyond the performance and observance of religious sacraments into the domain of
public affairs. Today, religious institutions can exert considerable influence on the laws that
lawmakers legislate, which means that the boundary between church and state is adjusting.
3.) Proliferation of Religious Fundamentalism and Extremism – The digitalization of information

and culture helped spread religious fundamentalism (belief in the prime superiority of religious
teachings over everything and the strict observance on who are the righteous or not) and extremism
(political violence according to the will of a supreme being). Leaders of such groups legitimize the
\\\
conflicts they create and battles they fight using religious texts, much to the loss of innocent life
and disruption of peace in many parts of the world.
4.) Increase of Individual Religiosity – For many who practice such a religiosity, the confidence on
one’s own belief and relationship with a supreme being is a better alternative to the rigid dogmas
that their religious affiliation observes and calls for. The exposure to different information in a
globalized world hugely contributes to this. Some reasons for individual religiosity are the
dissatisfaction from religious institutions, desire for a more personal search for salvation, or just
disliking to belong to any organization.
Isn’t There Something More Concrete?

Although religion is commonly thought of as something concerned with the immaterial, the effects
of it are very material and observable in nature. As we can see, the information age in globalization has
penetrated religions in an accelerated rate, which has various impacts in the methods that religions use to
spread their own respective teachings. The proliferation, increased production and continuous consumption
religious teachings and information can be now seen not only in religious institutions like churches and
schools but also in books and e-books, films, cell phone applications, social media, websites and many
more. In this pandemic, you might have observed that more and more people “attend” televised masses,
download religious texts or search for gospels online in lieu of personally going to church. There is also a
marked increase of accessing computer and cell phone applications to enable parishioners to attend mass,
worship rites or other religious gatherings. This means that because religion is a very important facet of
our lives, many will find ways, through globalization, to continue its practice even in the midst of a
pandemic where gatherings are discouraged.
So far, we have talked about how globalization has contributes to continuing practices that are
religious in nature, albeit in new modified forms. They are very effective indeed, as knowledge propagation
and information dissemination has exponentially improved through information communications
technology. But what about the discontinuity of these same religious beliefs and practices, or more
appropriately, the changing of traditional ones that was unimaginable just 20 years ago?
Even though nationalism also tied to religious beliefs as was stated above, there is an increasing
tendency for religious beliefs to be spread outside of traditional or national boundaries. Today, religion is
rarely tied to national and even continental borders, since traditional ones and new forms of it are vastly
spreading at an accelerated rate through information technology. For example, the current pope, Jorge
Mario Bergoglio (Pope Francis) is from Argentina, in the South American continent. It is the first time that
a pope was selected outside Europe—a sign that the order of power is changing significantly in the Catholic
Church. This may be also a sign that Catholic or Christian religiosity may be already declining in Europe,
its original seat. This makes sense since Europe has the most non-believers among all the continents2.
Due to the digitalization of information and globalization, it is now very easy to do two things:
study religious text or related information and be conscious of religious conflict around the world. These
two are self-explanatory and obvious, but their major impacts deserve attention.
Never before has humanity experienced a time when information, particularly those which pertains
to religion, is readily available. With some clicks on your mouse or taps on your phone, you could study a
myriad of religious knowledge—from the pre-deluge times of Enoch and the Giants to the writings of the
Apostolic Fathers, the ancient Vedas of Hinduism, or the paradoxical koans of Zen Buddhism. This
inevitably leads to the appreciation of other forms of religion, but at the same time may cause one to
question his/her religious convictions. It may also lead to confusion, since a person may be exposed to
differing and contradicting beliefs, values and worldviews. This may ultimately lead a person to conclude
that religious affiliation, as the human inventions that they are, are less important than one’s relationship
with a supreme being.
The exposure to religious conflict and strife around the globe may also lead to the same conclusion,
albeit a more negative one. We have been taught from a young age that one of the major tenets of religious
beliefs is peace, and yet battles and wars are being fought around the world in an unprecedented rate in the
name of religion. Religious fundamentalism and extremism can be seen as a reaction to the threats to
religion brought about by the modernizing forces of globalization. Add to that some news of corruption and
\\\
immoral scandals of religious leaders from time to time and you have a recipe for dissatisfaction with
organized religion. These all may explain the marked increase in individual religiosity around the world.
To conclude this section, we can say that religion is one of the last vestiges of traditional life. This
ironically makes the new influences of globalization the most prominent of all aspects of life since the old
had become very new, so to speak. The contrasting elements of the old and new make religion the most
affected by globalization among the different social institutions. The changes, therefore, are felt on an
individual and societal level. Globalization’s impact on society is very significant, with the greatest effect
being on religion because of its nature. Religion used to bind people as intimate or face-to-face
communities, but globalization has turned this configuration of religious phenomenon upside down. As
people move and communicate around the globe, the increased rate of exchange of ideas through
information technology continually creates changes in many forms of religion. It has positive and negative
effects, which brings forth a lot of confusion. One the one hand, it results into some people holding on to
religion and its more traditional (sometimes extreme) forms. One the other hand, sometimes it results into
people not believing in religion altogether, or at least having only a personal relationship with his/her
supreme being.
References:
Brazalote TM & Leonardo RM (2019). The Contemporary World: Outcome-Based Module. Edited by
Ofalia BC. Quezon City. C & E Publishing, Inc.
Claudio & Abinales (2018). The Contemporary World. Quezon City. C & E Publishing, Inc.
San Juan, David Michael M. (2018). Journeys Through Our Contemporary World. Quezon City. Vibal
Publishing, Inc.
https://bizfluent.com
https://www.britannica.com
https://corporatefinanceinstitute.com
https://google.com
https://www.quora.com
\\\

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B.

This introduces the learners to economic

When did economic globalization start?

International Trading Systems

Benczes (2014) identifies four interconnected dimensions of economy, namely:

3) International monetary systems (IMS)

reconstructions, and International Monetary Fund (IMF), is to promote

What do you think, did globalization

Neoliberalism and Its Discontents

- Influenced by Friedrich Hayek and Milton 10 points of Washington Consensus

The Global Financial Crisis and the Challenge to Neoliberalism

In conclusion, economic integration is a central tenet of globalization. Economics is just

Exercise 1: The Influences of Economic Globalization

1. Based on the article, is globalization a process, a condition, or an ideology?

2. On whose perspective is the definition of globalization anchored (political

Exercise 2: Local Becoming Global

Instructions: Choose one Filipino global corporation. In an essay, discuss its

Assignment 1: Metacognitive Reading Report

Instructions: Read the attached referenced article and complete the

3. I used to think that ……………..

Globalization from Below: The Rise of Transnational Communities*

The Onset of Transnational Networks

The Rise of Transnational Enterprise

The Construction of Transnational Communities

There is a remarkable disparity between the dynamism of transnational enterprise and

Like the Dominican Republic, El Salvador is a country profoundly influenced by the

A final example involves immigrant communities of considerably greater economic power.

The Structure and Consequences of Transnationalism

Second, communications and transportation technologies were such as to make it prohibitive

-optive activities of established elites, it may simply incorporate a minority of successful

At the end of this module, the learners are expected to:

Weber explained that the state has the monopoly

Organization OF September 13 Member To coordinate and unify the petroleum

Assignment 1: Metacognitive Reading Report

3. I used to think that ……………..

Referenced article: Source: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01436597.2015.976016

THE GLOBAL DIVIDES: THE NORTH

This section enables the learners to

At the end of this module, the learners are

By now, one can say that the

Exercise 1: Global North and Global South

Name of City / Town: __________________________

Global North Global South

Another concept commonly confused with regionalization is regionalism. Regionalism

Asian regionalism is a new concept among the continental communities. New to

Exercise 1: Towards a Formidable Asian Integration

Exercise 2: PH and the World

MEDIA AND CULTURE

This section exposes the learners to the different

HOW DOES DIGITAL MEDIA OR “NEW MEDIA” AFFECT US?

Cultural convergence suggests that globalization engenders a growing sameness of cultures.

Exercise 1: Globalization without Media

Assignment 1: Metacognitive Reading Report

3. I used to think that ……………..

GLOBAL VS LOCAL CULTURE

Characteristics Global Culture Local Culture

Primary Uniformity Diversity

Examples Global Local

Exercise 1: Global vs Local Culture

Exercise 1: Fast Food Chains in Lucban (10 pts)

Exercise 2: Odd One Out

2.) Lucban’s Baguio’s Bacolod’s Quezon’s

4.) Local street Hotel buffet Tourist package Travel agency

5.) Standardized Authentic Uniform Mass-produced