The Rise of Nationalism In Europe

In 1848, Frederic Sorrieu, a French artist, prepared a series of four prints visualizing
his dream of a world made up of democratic and social Republic.
In the first print of the series, the peoples of Europe and America are shown marching in
a long train, and offering homage to the statue of Liberty as they pass by it.
The United States and Switzerland passed it, France having revolutionary tricolour, has
just reached the statue which is followed by the peoples of Germany, bearing the black,
red and gold flag.
During 19th century nationalism emerged forcing many changes in Political and mental
world of Europe.
The concept of a nation state
Most of its citizens developed a common identity. They shared history. This
commonness came as a result of great struggle by the leaders and the common
people.
The French Revolution and the Idea of Nation
▪ The first clear expression of nationalism came with the French Revolution in 1789.
▪ Introduction of various measures and practices created sense of collective identity among
the people of France.
▪ transfer of sovereignty from the monarchy to a body of French citizens.
▪ The ideas of the father land (la patrie) and the citizen (le citoyen).
▪ former royal standard was replaced by new French flag
▪ The Estates General was renamed as the National Assembly.
▪ New hymns were composed in the name of the nation
▪ A centralized administrative was set up, Internal customs duties were abolished and a
uniform system of weights and measures was adopted.
▪ Regional dialects were discouraged French became the common language of the nation
❖ Civil code: The Civil Code of 1804 – usually known as the Napoleonic Code – did away
with all privileges based on birth, established equality before the law and secured the right to
property.
This Code was also implemented in the regions under French control.
In the Dutch Republic, in Switzerland, in Italy and Germany, Napoleon
simplified administrative divisions,
abolished the feudal system
freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues,
guild restrictions were removed.
Transport and communication systems were improved.
❖ In the areas conquered, like in, Holland and Switzerland, as well as in certain cities like
Brussels, Mainz, Milan and Warsaw, the French armies were welcomed as harbingers of
liberty initially but soon turned to hostility.
❖ new administrative arrangements did not go hand in hand with political freedom. Increased
taxation, censorship, forced conscription into the French armies required to conquer the rest
of Europe, all seemed to outweigh the advantages of the administrative changes.

▪ Vienna congress; In 1815, representatives of the European powers – Britain,

Russia,Prussia and Austria met at Vienna hosted by the Austrian Chancellor
Duke Metternich.
The delegates drew up the Treaty of Vienna of 1815.
Objective: To undo most of the changes that had come about in Europe during
the Napoleonic wars and to restore the monarchies that had been overthrown
byNapoleon, and create a new conservative order in Europe.

❖ Consequences of the Vienna congress.

▪ The Bourbon dynasty was restored in France. Louis XVIII became king
▪ A number of states were set up on the boundaries of France to prevent French
expansion in future - kingdom of the Netherlands was set up in the north and
Genoa was added to Piedmont
▪ Prussia was given important new territories;
▪ Austria got control of northern Italy.
▪ Russia was given part of Poland.
Following the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, European governments were driven by a
spirit of conservatism. Conservative regimes set up in 1815 were autocratic.

Conservatives:

Conservatives believed that established, traditional institutions of state and society – like
the monarchy, the Church, social hierarchies, property and the family –should be
preserved.

I. Earlier, they opposed to the idea of change.

II. By the 19th century, they accepted that some change was inevitable but through a
slow process.
III. believed that the past had to be respected
Most conservatives realised from the changes initiated by Napoleon, that
modernisation could in fact strengthen traditional institutions like the monarchy. It
could make state power more effective and strong. A modern army, an efficient
bureaucracy, a dynamic economy, the abolition of feudalism and serfdom could
strengthen the autocratic monarchies of Europe.
❖ The making of Nationalism in Europe: Europe in the beginning of 19th century
Political Conditions:
1. Germany, Italy and Switzerland were divided into kingdoms, duchies and cantons
whose rulers had their autonomous territories. They did not see themselves as
sharing a collective identity or a common culture.
2. Eastern and Central Europe were under autocratic monarchies within the
territories of which lived diverse peoples. They did not see themselves as sharing
a collective identity or a common culture.

3. The Habsburg Empire that ruled over Austria-Hungary was a patchwork of many
different regions and peoples.

European Society

1. Aristocracy: Socially and politically, a landed aristocracy was the dominant

class on the continent. They spoke French for purposes of diplomacy and in
high society.

2. Peasantry: The majority of the population was made up of the peasantry. To the
west, the bulk of the land was farmed by tenants and small owners, while in
Eastern and Central Europe the pattern of landholding was characterised by vast
estates which were cultivated by serfs.
3. Middle class: In Western and parts of Central Europe Industrialisation led to the
rise of middle classes made up of industrialists, businessmen, professionals.

Liberal Nationalism
The term ‘liberalism’ derives from the Latin root liber, meaning free.

Political view
I. wanted a nation to tolerate all religions.
II. freedom for the individual and equality of all before the law
III. opposed the uncontrolled power of dynastic rulers.
IV. emphasised the concept of government by consent , the end of autocracy and
clerical privileges
V. supported for a representative, elected parliamentary government
VI. They were not democrates - advocated men of property mainly should have
the vote.

Econimic view:
I. Advocated freedom of markets and the abolition of state-imposed restrictions
on the movement of goods and capital
II. Supported inviolability of private property.
III. In 1834, a customs union or zollverein was formed at the initiative of Prussia
which abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from
over thirty to two.
 Giuseppe Mazzini
I. Italian revolutionary Giuseppe Mazzini was born in Genoa in 1807.
II. He became a member of the secret society of the Carbonari (secret
organization was formed in 1810 in Naples) in 1827.
III. He was sent into exile in1831 for attempting a revolution in Liguria.
IV. He founded underground societies -Young Italy in Marseilles in 1831 and
Young Europe in Berne in 1834.
V. Young Europe were like-minded young men from Poland, France, Italy and
the German states.
VI. Mazzini believed that God had intended nations to be the natural units of
mankind. So Italy could not continue to be a patchwork of small states and
kingdoms. It had to be forged into a single unified republic within a wider
alliance of nations.
VII. Metternich described him as ‘the most dangerous enemy of our social
order’.

July Revolution [1830]

The Bourbon kings who had been restored to power during the conservative reaction
after 1815, were overthrown by liberal revolutionaries and installed a constitutional
monarchy with Louis Philippe at its head. Metternich once remarked, ‘When France
sneezes, the rest of Europe catches cold.’
The Greek war of Independence
❖ Since the 15th century Greece had been a part of Ottoman Empire. The growth of
revolutionary nationalism in Europe sparked off a struggle for independence.
❖ Poet and artist mobilized public opinion to support its struggle. The English poet
Lord Byron organised funds and later went to fight in the war, where he died of
fever in 1824.
❖ The treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognized Greece as an independent
nation.
The Romantic Imagination (cultural nationalism)
Culture played an important role in creating the idea of the nation: art and poetry, stories
and music helped express and shape nationalist feelings.

I. German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder claimed that true German culture
was to be discovered among the common people – das volk. True spirit of the
nation (volksgeist) was popularized through folk songs, folk poetry and folk
dances.
II. The Grimm brothers also saw French domination as a threat to German culture,
and believed that the folktales they had collected were expression of a pure and
authentic German spirit. Grimms’ Fairy Tales is a familiar name.
III. The use of Polish language came to be seen as a symbol of the struggle
against Russian dominance.
IV. Karol Kurpinski in Poland, celebrated the national struggle through his operas
and music, turning folk dances like the polonaise and mazurka into nationalist
symbols.
V. Allegories, like, Germania, Marianne, Statue of Liberty….

The great economic hardship in Europe in 1830s

Reason: Increase in population, unemployment, migration, price rise, stiff
competition in the market, bad condition of peasants.
In 1845, weavers in Silesia had led a revolt against contractors
February Revolution [1848]
On 22nd February 1848, food shortages and widespread unemployment brought the
population of Paris out on the roads, Louis Philippe was forced to flee.
It was led by the educated middle classes.
National Assembly proclaimed a Republic, granted universal suffrage to all adult
males above 21, and guaranteed the right to work.
National workshops were set up to provide employment.

Frankfurt Parliament (May 1848)

I. In the German regions a large number of political associations decided to
vote for an all-German National Assembly.
II. On 18 May 1848, 831 elected representatives attended the Frankfurt
parliament convened in the Church of St Paul.
III. They drafted a constitution for a German nation to be headed by a monarchy
under Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia, but he denied and crushed it .
IV. So liberal initiative to nation-building was, however, repressed by the
combined forces of the monarchy and the military, supported by the large
landowners (called Junkers) of Prussia.
V. Reasons of failure:
1. Unwillingness of Prussian king to be a constitutional monarch
2. While the opposition of the aristocracy and military became stronger, the social
basis of parliament eroded.
3. The parliament resisted the demands of workers and artisans and consequently
lost their support.
4. Women were admitted in Parliament only as observers to stand in the visitors’
gallery
The process of unification of Germany:
Earlier German confederation of 39 states was set up by Napoleon .
By 1848, the popular effort failed to succeed in installing constitutional monarch in
Germany.
There after the task for unification of Germany was taken over by Prussia and its Chief
Minister Ottovon Bismarck was the architect of this process, followed a policy of
 "blood and Iron" and within a period of seven years(1864-71) three wars were fought
with Demark, Austria and France. These states were defeated.
Prussia - Denmark war(1864-65) and Treaty of Gastein – Alliance with Austria.
Holstein was given to' Austria and Schleswig was handed over to Prussia.
4. Prussia - Austria war and Treaty of Prague(1866) – France was neutral.
5. Franco - Prussian War(1870-71) and Treaty of Frankfurt- Napolean III was
defeated.
On 18th January, 1871, in Versailles Palace Bismarck enthroned the German King
William I.

The process of unification of Italy:

❖ During 19 century, Italy was divided into 7 states: Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled by
an Italian princely house, north was under Austrian Habsburgs, the centre was
ruled by the Pope and the southern regions were under the domination of the
Bourbon kings of Spain.
1. Carbonari- This secret organization was formed in 1810 in Naples.
2. Young Italy- Young Italy was founded in 1831 by Mazzini.
3. Cavour believed that the unification of Italy is possible only under the
leadership of Piedmont. Victor Emmanuel appointed him as the Prime Minister in
1852 CE. Cavour was a practical, diplomatic and political person and was the
supporter of monarchy, he made a tactful alliance with France and defeated
Austrian forces in 1859.
4. Garibaldi- He formed an organization of patriots named "Red shirt" and on its
basis he managed to enter into Sicily.attacked Sicily on 5th May, 1860.. led the
famous expedition to south Italy and freed the states from Bourbon rulers of Spain.
❖ In 1861 Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of united Italy.
❖ Finally in 1870 when, during the war with Prussia, France withdrew its troops from
Rome that the Papal States were finally joined to Italy and process of unification
completed.

❖ Phases of unification:
1st Phase1859: Lombardy was given to Sardinia.
2nd Phase1860: States of central Italy.
3rd Phase1860: Merger of Naples and Sicily.
4th Phase1866: Venetia was handed over to Italy.
5th Phase1870: Italy occupied Rome from Pope (and made it capital in 1871).
❖ In fact, the unification of Italy became possible due to the sacrifice of
innumerable patriots, ethical power of Mazzini, sword of Garibaldi, diplomatic
policies of Cavour and practical wisdom of Victor Emmanuel.
 The Making of United Kingdom
In Britain, in earlier times the ethnic groups consisted of the English, Welsh, Scot and
Irish had their own culture and political tradition.

The English parliament had seized power from the monarchy in 1688.
The act of union[1707] made Scotland to come under England that resulted in the
formation of the ‘United Kingdom of Great Britain’ .

Revolt led by Wolfe Tone and his United Irishmen (1798) was crushed and Ireland was
forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801

The symbols of the new Britain – the British flag (Union Jack), the national anthem (God
Save Our Noble King), the English language – were actively promoted..
Nationalist tension in Balkans:
Last quarter of the 19th century nationalism became a narrow creed with limited ends,
Intolerance in Balkan regions became the scene of big power rivalry for owing to World
War I.
The Balkans was a region of geographical and ethnic variation comprising modern-day
Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina,
Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro whose inhabitants were broadly known as the Slavs.
Ethnic variation led to the spread of nationalism. Disintegration of Ottoman Empire,
claim of independence by using history to prove that they had once been independent.
Area of intense conflict, Mutual jealousy matters were further complicated because the
Balkans also became the scene of big power rivalry.
Ultimately it led to the First World War in 1914.
❖ Visualizing the Nation
Allegory means an abstract idea (for instance, greed, envy, freedom, liberty) is
expressed through a person or a thing.
French Revolution artists used the attributes of Liberty, Justice and theRepublic through
specific objects or symbols

Attribute
Broken chains
Breastplate with eagle
Crown of oak leaves
Sword
Olive branch around the sword
Black, red and gold tricolor
Rays of the rising sun
Red cap.
Significance
Being freed
Symbol of the German empire – strength
Heroism
Readiness to fight
Willingness to make peace
Flag of the liberal-nationalists in 1848, banned by the
Dukes of the German states
Beginning of a new era
Liberty

blindfolded woman carrying Justice

a pair of weighing scales
Similarly artists in the 18th and 19th centuries personified a nation as female figures did
not stand for any particular woman in real life but to give the abstract idea of the nation
a concrete form - allegory of the nation.

1. Marianne represented the idea of a people’s nation of France. Her

characteristics were drawn from those of liberty and the Republic – the red cap,
the tricolour, the cockade.
Marianne images were marked on coins and stamps.
2. Similarly, Germania became the allegory of the German nation.

Key Terms:
1. Absolutist – Literally, a government or system of rule that has no restraints on
the power exercised. In history, the term refers to a form of monarchical
government that was centralised, militarised and repressive
2. Utopian – A vision of a society that is so ideal that it is unlikely to actually exist
3. Conservatism – A political philosophy that stressed the importance of tradition,
established institutions and customs, and preferred gradual development to quick
change
4. Allegory – When an abstract idea (for instance, greed, envy, freedom, liberty) is
expressed through a person or a thing. An allegorical story has two meanings,
one literal and one symbolic
5. Nation-state - majority of its citizens, and not only its rulers, came to develop a
sense of
common identity and shared history or descent.
6. Plebiscite – A direct vote by which all the people of a region are
asked to accept or reject a proposal.

NATIONALISM IN EUROPE- DATES

1848: Frédéric Sorrieu, a French artist, prepared a series of four prints

visualising his dream of a world made up of ‘democratic and social Republics’
1804: Civil Code of 1804 – usually known as the Napoleonic Code
1797: Napoleon invades Italy; Napoleonic wars begin.
1807: Giuseppe Mazzini born in Genoa
1813: Napolean lost battle of Leipzig
1815: Fall of Napoleon; the Vienna Peace Settlement. Conservative regimes
set up
1821: Greek struggle for independence begins.
1832: Treaty of Constantinople, recognised Greece as an independent nation.
1830: July Revolution in France. Constitutional monarchy was setup with Louis
Philippe at its head.
1831: Giuseppe Mazzini was sent into exile for attempting a revolution in
 Liguria.
1833: Giuseppe Mazzini founded Young Europe in Berne
1834: Customs union or zollverein was formed at the initiative of Prussia
1848: February Revolution in France, France became republic. Frankfurt
parliament
1859-1870: Unification of Italy.
1859: Chief Minister Cavour of Sardinia-Piedmont defeated the Austrian forces
1861: Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of united Italy.
1866-1871: Unification of Germany.
1871: Prussian king, William I, was proclaimed German Emperor in a ceremony
held at Versailles.
1905: Slav nationalism gathers force in the Habsburg and Ottoman Empires.
1707: The Act of Union between England and Scotland that resulted in the
formation of the ‘United Kingdom of Great Britain’
1798: Revolt led by Wolfe Tone and his United Irishmen
1801: Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom