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Manufacturing Aspects of Advanced Polymer Composites for Automotive

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Article in Applied Composite Materials · April 2012

DOI: 10.1007/s10443-012-9258-7

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Appl Compos Mater (2013) 20:107–128
DOI 10.1007/s10443-012-9258-7

Manufacturing Aspects of Advanced Polymer Composites

for Automotive Applications

Klaus Friedrich & Abdulhakim A. Almajid

Received: 26 January 2012 / Accepted: 27 January 2012 / Published online: 10 February 2012
# Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012

Abstract Composite materials, in most cases fiber reinforced polymers, are nowadays used
in many applications in which light weight and high specific modulus and strength are
critical issues. The constituents of these materials and their special advantages relative to
traditional materials are described in this paper. Further details are outlined regarding the
present markets of polymer composites in Europe, and their special application in the
automotive industry. In particular, the manufacturing of parts from thermoplastic as well
as thermosetting, short and continuous fiber reinforced composites is emphasized.

Keywords Polymer composites . Manufacturing . Automotive

1 Introduction

1.1 Fundamentals of Polymer Composites

Composites enable the construction of safe automobiles, aircrafts with high range, and
extremely light machine components. With this material class the refurbishment of buildings
and bridges as well as the manufacturing of medical implants can be accomplished.
Composites contribute decisively to the sustainable development within our society [1].
Wherever advancing technology has created a need for combinations of properties no
single material can provide, composites are becoming the material of choice. By dispersing
fibers or particles of one substance in a matrix, or binder, of another, the designer of a
composite can arrive at properties neither material shows on its own (Fig. 1). Already the
need for stiffness and strength combined with low density has led designers of military and
commercial aircraft, sports equipment and cars to turn to composites for some components.

K. Friedrich (*)
Institute for Composite Materials (IVW GmbH), Technical University Kaiserslautern,
67663 Kaiserslautern, Germany
e-mail: friedrich@ivw.uni-kl.de

K. Friedrich : A. A. Almajid
CEREM, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
108 Appl Compos Mater (2013) 20:107–128

Composite Materials

Continuous Phase Reinforcing Phase

(Matrix) (Fibers, Particles)

Polymer Metal Ceramic Architecture Material

Glass
Carbon
Continuous Aramid
Thermoset Thermoplastic Discontinuous
Polymer
(TS) (TP) Natural
Elastomer Ceramic
Epoxy (EL) PP
Polyester Short Uni-
PA6 Particles Textile
Phenolic Rubber PEEK Fibers directional
TPE

Fig. 1 Principle composition of composite materials

The relative importance of fibers and matrix on various properties of the composites is
illustrated in Fig. 2 [2]. The strength and stiffness of the composite remain very much a
function of the reinforcing material, but the matrix makes its own contribution to properties.
The ability of the composite material to conduct heat and current, for example, is heavily
influenced by the conductivity of the matrix. The mechanical behavior of the composite is
also governed not by the fibers alone but by a synergy between the fibers and the matrix. The
reason is that matrix materials are usually ductile: elastic or plastic. As the broken ends of the

Properties Matrix Fiber

• Stiffness
• Strength
• Toughness
• Damage Tolerance
• Fatigue
• Impact Behaviour
• Corrosion Resistance
• Temperature Resistance
• Chemical Resistance
• Electrical Properties
• Processability
Courtesy: A. K. Schlarb, UniKL

Fig. 2 Relative importance of fiber and matrix

Appl Compos Mater (2013) 20:107–128 109

fiber pull apart, elastic deformation or plastic flow of the matrix exerts shear forces,
gradually building stress back into the fragments. Because of such load transfer the fiber
continues to contribute some reinforcement to the composite. The stress on the surrounding
intact fibers increases less than it would in the absence of the matrix, and the composite is
able to bear more stress without fracturing. The synergy of the fibers and the matrix can thus
strengthen the composite and also toughen it, by increasing the amount of work needed to
fracture it [1].
However, the properties of an advanced composite are shaped not only by the kind of
matrix and reinforcing materials it contains but also by a factor that is distinct from
composition: the geometry of the reinforcement. Injection moldable short fiber reinforced
thermoplastics represent one kind of composite in which only the concentration of the
strengthening fibers is controlled, not their exact dimensions or orientation. For two reasons
most high performance composites are therefore strengthened with much longer fibers,
usually bundled into continuous yarns. If a composite is to benefit fully from the great
strength of the reinforcing material, the reinforcement must be capable of accepting loads
that stress it to its breaking point. Otherwise the composite will fail at a load that falls short
of the stress the fibers could theoretically sustain; they will simply pull out of the matrix
without breaking as the composite disintegrates [1].
Since load is transferred from the matrix to the reinforcing fibers by means of shear forces
acting on their surface, their surface area must be large in relation to their cross-sectional
area. In other words, an efficient reinforcing element will be much longer in one dimension
than it is in the other two. For most reinforcements the critical aspect ratio, or the ratio of
length to diameter at which the fiber becomes capable of sustaining enough stress to break it,
is about 100:1. The exact figure depends on the strength of the fiber, the character of the
matrix and the degree of bonding between them [3, 4].
Long fibers therefore reinforce a composite more efficiently than short fibers or particles do.
There is a second reason continuous fibers have become the dominant form of reinforcement in
advanced composites: their orientation can be controlled precisely. The internal structure of the
composite can thereby be designed to anticipate the stresses it will face in use (Fig. 3).
The internal geometry of conventional high-performance composites resembles that of
plywood: they are built up of thin layers, each layer reinforced by continuous fibers running

0.1 mm

Fig. 3 Multi-directional composite laminate [0,90,0,90,0]

110 Appl Compos Mater (2013) 20:107–128

in a single direction. The usual means of making advanced polymer-matrix composites, the
pre-impregnation of tapes or sheets and their assembly by hand, lends itself to the production
of such laminated structures. Successive layers can be oriented in different directions to give
the assemblage stiffness and strength along several axes, but such composites are handi-
capped by the fact that no reinforcing fibers run from layer to layer or transversely within the
layers. Under extreme stress the composite can delaminate, i.e. its layers peeling apart, and
also the parallel fibers in the individual plies can separate [1].
Such unidirectional laminates also lack impact resistance. In a thermoplastic matrix
composite, for example, the matrix on its own may be quite ductile and therefore tough.
The introduction of a dense array of fibers to which the polymer is strongly bonded can
embrittle it, however, by limiting its ability to dissipate the energy of an impact through
plastic deformation. It cracks instead, and in a conventional laminated composite the crack
can easily find a path between the layers of fibers. As a result an impact that would only have
dented an unreinforced polymer might produce extensive damage in a composite in which
the same polymer serves as the matrix [1]. If bending stresses and super light-weight
construction are the major concern in design, thin laminates are often combined with a light
weight honeycomb core (Fig. 4).
The controllable microstructure of a composite allows it to be tailored to match the
distribution of stresses to which it will be subject. At the same time components must
come to reflect the distinctive nature of composites: their directional properties and the
intricate forms they can be given through processes such as injection molding, filament
winding and three-dimensional weaving. The complexity inherent in conceiving compo-
nents and their materials at the same time suggests engineering design will grow
increasingly dependent on computers and multidisciplinary teams. Such an approach will
harness the full potential of composites for the technologies of the future [1]. Figures 5, 6
and 7 give some hints concerning the major differences between metallic materials and
polymer composites, as well as some typical data for polymeric matrices and reinforcing
fibers frequently used.

Cover Layer (Laminate)

Adhesive Layer

Core (Honeycomb)

Foam Core Balsa Wood Honeycomb Separation Fabric Functional Core

Fig. 4 Composite sandwich structure

Appl Compos Mater (2013) 20:107–128 111

1 kg
Courtesy: A. K. Schlarb, UniKL

Weight Deflection u Weight at u = 1.9 mm

Steel 7.8 kg 1.9 mm 7.8 kg 100 %

Aluminum 2.7 kg 5.7 mm 3.9 kg 50 %
CFRP [0 /+45 /90 /-45 ]S 1.5 kg
O O O O
4.9 mm 2.1 kg 26 %
CFRP [0 / 90 ]nS O O
1.5 kg 3.3 mm 1.8 kg 23 %
CFRP[0 ]n O
1.5 kg 1.7 mm 1.4 kg 18 %

Fig. 5 Materials in comparison: weight of beam vs. deflection [2]

1.2 Markets for Composite Materials

The world market of fiber reinforced polymer composites is almost equally distributed
between North America (39%), Europe (34%) and Asia (24%) (Fig. 8). Within the early

Material Property K (Tension) Spec. Material Property, i.e. K/ρ

10 10
9 E/E(AlMg3) 9 spec. E/E(AlMg3)
8 8
Rm/Rm(AlMg3) spec. Rm/Rm(AlMg3)
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
C45

UD/CF 60
AlMg3

UD/GF 60
PP-GF 30
C45

UD/GF 60

UD/CF 60

AlMg3

PP-GF 30

Courtesy: A. K. Schlarb, UniKL

Fig. 6 Mechanical properties of fiber- polymer- composites (PP-GF 30030% short glass fiber reinforced
polypropylene; UD/GF 60060% unidirectional continuous glass fiber epoxy; UD/CF 600DTO. with carbon
fibers) in comparison to metals (AlMg 300Aluminum magnesium alloy; C 450Carbon steel) [2]: E Modulus;
Rm Strength
112 Appl Compos Mater (2013) 20:107–128

a) b)
900 4.5 EP - Resin
4 PEEK

Tensile Modulus [GPa]

800
Tensile Modulus [GPa]

700 3.5
UP - Resin PA
600 3
CF VEU - Resin
500 2.5 PSU
400 2
PP
300 1.5
200 NF AF GF
1 Starch
100 0.5
0 0
b) 0 2500 5000 0 20 40 60 80 100
Tensile Strength [MPa] Tensile Strength [MPa]
Fig. 7 Modulus and strength of reinforcing fibers (a) and polymeric matrices (b) [2] (EP Epoxy; UP
Unsaturated polyester; PEEK Polyetheretherketone; PA Polyamide; PSU Polysulfone; PP Polypropylene;
CF, GF, AF, NF Carbon-, Glass_, Aramid-, and Natural- Fibers, Respectively)

years of this century (i.e. between 2002 and 2005), the increase in value of components
made of polymer composites amounted to 25% (i.e. from 33 Bill € to 41.5 Bill €). The
majority of these components went into the field of transportation (including aerospace,
automotive, railway, marine), followed by applications in civil engineering (construction),
sporting goods, electrical engineering, and other industrial sectors. Although these values
stem from numbers between 2004 and 2006, they still represent, more or less, today’s
situation [5].
From the viewpoint of public interest, an evaluation of visitors interested in user sections
at the world’s largest composite fair (JEC, Paris), reflects a slightly different trend, i.e. the

E&E Industry
North 14% 10%
Europe Amerika
34%
10%
39% Sport

35%
Transport
31%
24% RoW Construction
3%
Asia
Source: JEC-Composites 7/8, 2004
JEC-24.2.2006

Fig. 8 World market of fiber reinforced composites (components)

Appl Compos Mater (2013) 20:107–128 113

majority of visitors was interested in the use of polymer composites in the transportation
sector (Fig. 9). In terms of the types of fiber reinforcements used in the European composite
market, almost 99% relate to glass fiber reinforced plastics (GFRP), whereas carbon fiber
reinforced polymer composites (CFRP) are still a minority. Looking, however, at the share in
value, this ratio changes from 9% for CFRP to 91% for GFRP (Fig. 10). Prognoses for the
future market development were quite promising, especially regarding the transportation
sector, where growth rates between 7 and 9% per year for 2008 and later were estimated [6].
Although the economic recession in 2009 strongly turned down these expectations, the new
trends in 2011 show that especially in the automotive sector an optimistic growth in the
performance index is visible (Fig. 11) [7].

2 Trends of Polymer Composites’ Use in Automotives

Startup automakers are using significant amounts of composites for hybrids and battery-
electric vehicles to reduce mass and extend driving range. Traditional automakers are using
composites on high-profile supercars and sports cars to boost performance while meeting
increasingly tough emissions standards, and to attain a certain high-tech cachet. Composites
are also finding their way into more common forms of transportation—from natural fiber-
reinforced interior trim panels and bins in family cars, to boxes and storage systems on
pickups, large panels on commercial buses and medium-duty trucks, entire cabs for heavy
trucks, and energy absorbing composites crash elements. These workhorse applications may
not be as glamorous or get as much attention as advanced composites for fast cars, but
nonetheless are making important inroads displacing traditional materials of construction
while reducing mass, costs, production steps, maintenance, and service life while increasing
design flexibility and increasing passenger safety [8].
Despite—and perhaps because of the 2008 to 2009 petroleum-price spike, global eco-
nomic downturn, and transportation-industry crash, a unique confluence of conditions has
been set in motion that is giving original equipment manufacturers (OMEs) cause to
consider polymer composites in a completely new light, as it was clearly stated by P. Malnati
[8] in a foreword to a book by U. Vaidya on “Composite for Automotive, Truck and Mass
Transit” [9].
It is estimated that 75% of fuel consumption directly relates to vehicle weight [10].
Lightweight composite materials, also commonly referred to as fiber reinforced plastics
(FRP), provide opportunities for reducing vehicle weight by increasing fuel efficiency and
reducing emission of harmful pollutants. The effect of making automobiles lighter is

Fig. 9 JEC 2003 visitors at vari- Others

ous user sectors 13%

Electronics Aerospace
2% 19%
Industrial
5% Transport Automotive
60% 22%
Railway
4%
Construction Marine
14% 15%
Leisure &
Consumer
6%
114 Appl Compos Mater (2013) 20:107–128

Fig. 10 The European market by Tonnage Total 1,0 mio. to Value Total 2,1 bill.
type of FRP

GFRP
CFRP 91%
99%

9%

1%

Growth rate prognosticated: 4 %

Ref. JEC-Composites; April-May 2003, AVK-TV; 2003

compelling. With everything else remaining the same and considering mass compounding,
6–8% increase in fuel economy can be realized for every 10% reduction in weight [11]. This
is much easier to achieve than to offset the increased weight and cost per unit of power of
alternative power trains, such as hybrids and/or fuel cells, with respect to conventional
power trains. By reducing weight, several advantages can be gained: (1) increased perfor-
mance; (2) increased “customer value” while staying within certain limits; (3) decreased
threat from high prices of fuel; and (4) decreased dependency on hybrids and hydrogen-
fueled vehicles.
With 75% of vehicle gas (energy) consumption directly related to factors associated with
vehicle weight, the potential benefits of weight reduction enable smaller power plant
(engine, turbine, fuel cells, etc.) and lighter energy storage (battery, flywheel, etc.) systems.
With continued advances in performance, reduced cost, increased safety and weight savings
offered by composite materials, their use in the automotive and transportation industry is
projected to grow in the coming years [9, 11–14].

Index Jan 2004 = 100

150
Source:
140 Plastics Europe 3_2011

130
120
Automotive
110 Industry
100
90

80

70
60
Manufacturing Electrical Machinery Automotive
50
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

Fig. 11 Strong recovery of plastics industry after deep recession in 2008

Appl Compos Mater (2013) 20:107–128 115

The overall advantages of composites compared to steels for automotive and transporta-
tion are: (1) weight production of 20–40%; (2) styling flexibility in terms of deep drawn
panels, which is a limitation in metal stampings; (3) 40%–60% reduced tooling cost; (4)
reduced assembly cost and time in part consolidation; (5) resistance to corrosion, scratches,
dents, reduced noise vibration harshness (NVH) and higher damping; (6) materials and
process innovations capable of adding value while providing cost savings; and (7) safer
structures due to higher specific energy absorption.
Table 1 compares properties of selected conventional materials and composites [15]. The
advantages of specific strength and modulus of composites over metals can be noted.
As reported by FreedomCAR Fuel Partnership, there has been steady market penetration
of lightweight automotive materials [11]. Aluminum and SMC (sheet molding compound)
body panels are more application-sensitive and have been implemented on an as-needed
basis. Carbon fiber composites, magnesium sheet parts and metal foam are still in the R&D
stages, and applied in low-volume specialty cars. The superior specific energy absorption of
composites, making them attractive for crashworthiness, is depicted in more detail in one of
the following paragraphs. Here it can be seen that thermoplastic composites have even more
superior resistance than thermosets, SMCs and metals [9].
Newer materials and manufacturing options are emerging for automotive composites. For
example: (1) compounders are broadening their product lines; (2) fiber and nanocomposite
concentrates are being offered to specialty compounders and major fabricators; (3) technol-
ogy for direction compounding of long fiber thermoplastics has proliferated; (4) new
materials (e.g natural fibers, biopolymers, nanocomposites) candidates have entered the
supply chain; and (5) modularization is leading to integration of composites in structural
elements such as semi-structural headliners and floor modules [9].

3 Manufacturing Technologies for Composite Automotive Components

3.1 Thermoplastic Composites for Secondary and Structural Parts

The major driving force for the use of polymer composites in the automotive industry,
besides aerodynamic and acoustic emission, is weight saving. In this respect, fiber reinforced

Table 1 Properties of conventional metals and some advanced composite materials [15]

Material Density Tensile Tensile E/ρ σ/ρ

(ρ) g/cm3 Modulus Strength 106 Nm/kg 103 Nm/kg
(E) GPa (σ) MPa

Al 6061-T6 2.70 68.9 310 25.7 115

SAE 1010 steel (cold worked) 7.87 207 365 26.3 46.4
Ti-6Al-4V 4.43 110 1171 25.3 26.4
Polyamide 66 1.14 2 70 1.75 61.4
Unidirectional HS carbon fiber/epoxy 1.55 138 1550 88.9 1000
Unidirectional E-glass fiber/epoxy 1.85 39.3 965 21.2 522
Unidirectional aramid fiber/epoxy 1.38 75.8 1378 54.9 999
Quasi-isotropic carbon fiber/epoxy 1.55 45.5 579 29.3 374
Random glass fiber/epoxy 1.55 8.5 110 5.48 71
116 Appl Compos Mater (2013) 20:107–128

plastics (FRP) offer a substantial weight saving potential. This is due to their high specific
strength and stiffness (cf. Table 2), as calculated by the strength or modulus divided by the
density of these materials (which varies between 1.3 to 1.9 g/cm3 , compared to the density
of aluminium with 2.7 g/cm3, or steel with 7.8 g/cm3).
Examples of some FRP-composites investigated at various research institutes for the use
of load bearing, structural automotive components are illustrated in Fig. 12. These include e.
g. an integrated composite seat for Daimler Chrysler sports cars, a transverse support beam
for Porsche, or a bumper structure for BMW. In all these cases, a continuous glass fiber
reinforcement and a thermoplastic matrix were used.
Other components, that are not as highly loaded as the previous ones, are made of
GMT (glass mat reinforced thermoplastics) or LFT (long fiber reinforced thermoplas-
tics), including dash boards, front ends, spare tire holders etc. (Fig. 13). In fact, these
types of composites have shown increasing use in the market over the last ten years,
which is especially true for the injection moldable LFT’s (Fig. 14). In this respect, a
new impregnation technique, developed and patented at IVW in the year 1997, is based
on a porous impregnation wheel [16] that allows to produce high quality continuous
fiber / thermoplastic tapes or long glass or carbon fiber reinforced pellets (Fig. 15). The
patent was finally taken over by one of the researchers of IVW for setting-up a spin-off
company in Kaiserslautern (FACT GmbH [17]; now belonging to company TICONA),
which produces very successfully long fiber pellets mainly for part suppliers of the
automotive industry (Fig. 16).
In many cases, the production of LFT-components can be made by the use of a
plastification unit (big single screw extruder), which heats up the pellets above the
melting temperature of the thermoplastic matrix. After pushing out a chunk of molten
polymer with a relatively high fiber content, this press mass is transferred into a mould
within an 800 tons—press, which finally allows the flow of this material into the cavities
of the mould in order to form the final shape of the desired component (Fig. 17). The

Safety Seat and Floor Panel

Side Door Structure GF/ PP + PP-Honeycomb
BMW Nissan

Transverse Support Beam Back

GF/ PA 66 Seat
IVW, Porsche Door
Front Bumper
Dashboard Seat GF/ PA 6
Floor Panel BMW
Door
Brake Lever
Bumper

Triangle Joint Integral Seat

GF/ PA 66 GF/ PP + PEI-Foam
Audi IVW, DaimlerChrysler

Fig. 12 FRP in load bearing automobile structures

Appl Compos Mater (2013) 20:107–128 117

Fig. 13 Final parts out of GMT / LFT IN European automotives

resulting components, such as dash boards, front ends, under body panels or trunk lids,
are shown in Fig. 18.
Using the continuous fiber reinforced thermoplastic tapes, as prepared by the above
mentioned impregnation technique, also allows to go through a thermoplastic pultrusion
process [18] for the production of high strength, light weight profiles (Fig. 19).
This technique has been used by another spin-off company of IVW (COMAT GmbH
[19] ; now called CIRCOMP) for the production of GF/PP stiffeners used for the rear
doors of SMART cars (Fig. 20).
A quite interesting technique for the production of intermediate material forms is
also the use of a continuous film stacking process. In this case, a double belt press

Fig. 14 Market development of 100

GMT / LFT UP TO 2005 Source: Quadrant Plastic Composites AG
90

80

70
Amount [ T to]

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Total GMT Europe LFT Europe

118 Appl Compos Mater (2013) 20:107–128

Impregnation Wheel
Extruder

Adjustment for Pulling

Pre-tension and Mechanism
Equalization
Fiber
Rovings Calibration
Tape
Tape Winding Unit Tapes

Fig. 15 Impregnation unit for thermoplastic composites

(DBP) is employed to produce 1–2 mm thick organic sheets, that can be later formed
into complex automotive shapes by a temperature-assisted stamp-forming step. The
schematic process and the corresponding data of the real machine are shown on
Fig. 21 [20].
In fact, a stamp forming process, as schematically illustrated in Fig. 22, was used to
produce the automotive sporting car seats already mentioned in Fig. 12. Here, a sandwich
structure consisting of two organic sheets with a foam core in between was heated in an
infrared field close to the melting temperature of the thermoplastic matrix of the organic
sheets, and then a thermoforming process brought the sandwich into the sheet shape, with
simultaneously welding the edges of the open sheets together. After cooling and demolding,
only a short machining step (“trimming”) of the edges was necessary to have the final seat
ready [21].
Energy absorption by automotive structures in case of an accident is a very critical issue
with regard to passengers’ safety. One possibility to improve this fact is the use of special
crash elements behind the bumper structure (Fig. 23). As part of an EU-project, IVW was
involved in the production of such crash elements from thermoplastic composites and their
testing under realistic crash conditions [22, 23].
In a first step, organic panels were manufactured by the use of a double belt press
technology. Second, these panels were thermoformed by a stamp or roll [24] forming
process into hat-shaped profiles. Third, rectangular crash tubes were manufactured by
joining two hat profiles with each other using either metallic bolts, special adhesives, or

Pellets
Pellets

Fig. 16 Production of thermoplastic long fiber pellets

Appl Compos Mater (2013) 20:107–128 119

Source: M. Sommer, IVW

PP-FSM-Masterbatch
LFT-Pellets Press Mass
with(high) GF-Content

Plastification Unit Press Parts

Fig. 17 Production of LFT-components by flow pressing

special welding techniques. The various manufacturing steps are schematically illustrated in
Fig. 24, and Fig. 25 shows the use of a robot for induction welding of a bumper beam
structure [25].
Using a crash test rig for the study for the energy absorption potential of tubes made of
different materials, it becomes obvious that for the same geometry of the crash elements
(here: double hat profiles), the specifically absorbed energy is highest for the thermoplastic
matrix composites (Polyamide and PEEK in Fig. 26) [26].

Fig. 18 Application examples of pressed LFT-components in automobiles

120 Appl Compos Mater (2013) 20:107–128

Preheating
Pulling Zone Creel
Mechanism Die Stand
System Prewarming
Chamber

Fig. 19 Pultrusion line for thermoplastic compact profiles

Figure 27 demonstrates that the specific energy absorption potential of polymer compo-
sites is much higher than that of various aluminium alloys, whereby the energy absorbing
mechanisms are quite different from each other.

3.2 Thermosetting Composites for Car Body Applications

This better crash behaviour of polymer composites is, in fact, utilized since quite some time
in formula 1 racing cars, which resulted in much less deadly accidents over the last couple of
years. And also quite expensive sports cars from Porsche and Mercedes Benz are using
composite constructions for their passenger cells (Fig. 28).
In these cases, however, the composite structures have still a thermosetting matrix, and
the manufacturing procedure follows conventional concepts, such as autoclave technology

Fig. 20 Continuous glass fiber / polypropylene profiles for stiffening of a plastic door module
Appl Compos Mater (2013) 20:107–128 121

Film Stacking
Processing Data
Operating Width: 620 mm
Length of the Pressure Zone: 1.235 mm
High Temperatures Zone: 70 – 410oC
Specific Pressure: 3 – 50 bar
Process Velocity: 0.1 – 2 m/min

Fig. 21 Double belt press for the production of thermoplastic “organic sheets”

or resin transfer molding (RTM). The latter process is illustrated in Fig. 29. Dry
reinforcing fiber mats are compacted into a fiber perform, which is then placed into a
mold. After injecting the resin under pressure (and/or the aid of a vacuum) and
subsequent curing, the final component can be removed from the mold and used for
its intended application.
In these cases, however, the composite structures have still a thermosetting matrix, and
the manufacturing procedure follows conventional concepts, such as autoclave technology
or resin transfer molding (RTM). The latter process is illustrated in Fig. 29. Dry
reinforcing fiber mats are compacted into a fiber perform, which is then placed into a
mold. After injecting the resin under pressure (and/or the aid of a vacuum) and

Heating Transport Thermoforming Demoulding

Foam Core
Press
Clamping Welding

Organic Sheets
Mold
An optimised joining between the face sheets at the end tails is necessary.
A collapse of the core material due to an overheating must be prevented.

Fig. 22 Thermoforming of a sandwich structure with an integrated welding process

122 Appl Compos Mater (2013) 20:107–128

Flat Structural Parts

Stamp Formed Flat Panels
and Sandwich Structures

Crashbox
e.g. Tubes
Filament Winding
4 - 15 km/h

Bumper
0 - 4 km/h
GMT
PC/PBT
EPP - Foam

Courtesy: M. Maier, IVW

Fig. 23 Automotive front structure with crash absorber elements

subsequent curing, the final component can be removed from the mold and used for its
intended application.
This was also successfully demonstrated in a joint EU-project “TECABS” (synonym for:
Technology for Carbon fiber reinforced modular Automotive Body Structures) between
April 2000 and September 2004. Fifteen partners from six European countries (three

Double Belt Press Stamp- or Roll- Joining Technique

Semi Finished Material Forming Structural Integration

Single Hat Profile

Sine Wave Panel

Rivet Joint
Thermoplastic Welding
Adhesive Joining

Crash Simulation
Crash Test
Fig. 24 Production steps of rectangular crash tubes
Appl Compos Mater (2013) 20:107–128 123

Induction of eddy currents in closed loops of

electrically conductive material Welding
Implicit weldability of carbon fiber Unit
reinforced polymer composites
Welding susceptors needed for glass
Pyrometer
fiber reinforced polymer composites

Consolidation
Roller

Inductor
Inductor Cosolidation
Roller

Plates to
GF/PP
be Welded Bumper Beam

Welding Susceptors
(Metallic Grids)
Courtesy: P. Mitschang,, IVW

Fig. 25 Induction welding of bumper beam

automotive companies; five industrial suppliers; seven universities / research institutes) had
the following project objectives: Development of manufacturing, simulation and design

80

70

60
Load [ kN ]

50 Epoxy Polyamide PEEK

40

30

20 Epoxy Resin
Polyamide
10
PEEK

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Displacement [ mm ]
Fig. 26 Crash load—displacement curves of various CFRP composites
124 Appl Compos Mater (2013) 20:107–128

CF/PA12 Fabric
o
GF/PA12 UD-Fabric 0
o
GF/PA12 UD-Fabric 90

AF/PA6 Fabric

GF/PET Knitted

AlMg3 F23

GMT 30

SMC

20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Specific Absorbed Energy [J/g]

Courtesy: M. Maier, IVW

Fig. 27 Crash absorption potential of different materials (courtesy M. Maier, IVW)

technologies and methods, allowing the realization of a composite body-in-white (BIW)

concept within the constraints of an existing type car, offering 50% weight reduction, 70%
part count reduction, use of low cost heavy tow carbon fiber textile performs, and high speed

IVW was Involved in CFRP Construction

Fig. 28 Polymer composites structures for safety in racing cars (top) and in the passenger cell of a Porsche
Carrera GT (bottom)
Appl Compos Mater (2013) 20:107–128 125

Dry reinforcing
fibers Final
component
p

Preform

Closetool Inject
resin system

Potentials:
-Net-shape working -Closed structures
-Fast tool mounting
-Integration of reinforcing elements
-Any complex components possible or functional groups

Fig. 29 Principle and potentials of RTM process

RTM techniques in a production scenario of 50 units / day. Besides others, one target was the
realization of a complete chassis, of which an explosion drawing is shown in Fig. 30.
The corresponding door sill preforms were supposed to be manufactures by IVW, using a
braiding machine at EADS (Munich, Germany). Figure 31 shows the facility with which
heavy tow CF bundles were braided around a plastic foam core. The braided door sills
were then sent to one of the industrial partners who composed the various preform
structures (according to Fig. 30) and injected the epoxy resin in order to produce the

Preform central
(Non crimp fabric)

Preform rear
(Non crimp fabric)
Foam core cross member

Preform wheel
housing rear
Foam core sill / A pillar (Non crimp fabric)

Preform
cross member
(Non crimp fabric)
Preform front inner
(Non crimp fabric)
Door sill
(Braid)
Preform front outer
(Non crimp fabric)
Foam core firewall

Fig. 30 Individual sections of an automotive chassis

126 Appl Compos Mater (2013) 20:107–128

Foam Core

Braided Door Sills with

Foam Cores inside

Braiding Machine with Heavy Tow

Carbon Fibers on Spools

Fig. 31 Braiding procedure of automotive door sills

final chassis, as one part, without any fasteners (Fig. 32). Crash testing of such a
chassis, especially under side impacts, in the labs of one of the automotive partners
resulted in an excellent performance [27].

4 Conclusions

In this article, the basic principles for the design of composite materials were outlined.
Special emphasis was put on fiber reinforced polymers, which provide a great potential for
light weight constructions with high specific strength and stiffness. The materials allow a
wide variety of isotropic or anisotropic properties, depending on the type, length and volume
fraction of the reinforcing fibers, the choice of the polymer matrix, the selection of the fiber
arrangement, and the combination of different fillers and reinforcements.
The practical application of these materials in various technical fields, in particular
automotive engineering, shows that they have become an important factor in designing light
weight constructions, often with special functions. Prognoses about future markets look
quite positive, so that future research on the design of new composite structures and their use
in other fields of application seems to be quite promising. This includes also the use of
smaller dimensional reinforcements, such as ceramic nano-particles or carbon nano-tubes.
First attempts in this direction opened already many new perspectives.

Fig. 32 Complete CFRP

composite automotive chassis
Appl Compos Mater (2013) 20:107–128 127

Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to the German Research Foundation who funded a lot of
fundamental research works in the fields described. Further thanks are due to the industrial partners, with
whom IVW carried out many bilateralresearch projects. We also appreciate the support of the King Saud
University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, for makingthis joint cooperation possible. Last, but not least, we would like
to thank our colleagues, Prof. M. Maier andProf. P. Mitschang, both IVW, and Prof. A. K. Schlarb, Uni KL,
for providing us valuable information andfigures. In addition, we thank Prof. Uday Vaidya, University of
Alabama at Birmingham, USA, for kindlyaccepting the use of some text and a table from his book on:
”Composites for Automotive, Truck and MassTransit”, DEStech Publ. Inc., USA, 2011, and Prof. T. W. Chou,
University of Delaware, USA, for allowing touse some text from Ref. [1].

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