BEHAVIOURISM: LEARNING AS HABIT FORMATION

• The focus of the behavioral approach is on how the environment impacts overt
behaviour. Two approaches to Behaviourism
 Classic conditioning: occurs when a natural reflex responds to a stimulus (Pavlov,
Watson)
 Operant conditioning: occurs when voluntary behaviours are used to control the
environment (Skinner)
Behaviourism, also called the learning perspective (where any physical action is a
behaviour) is a psychological theory based on the proposition that all things which
organisms do — including acting, thinking and feeling — can and should be regarded
as behaviour.
1. THE BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH IN 1st LG. ACQUISITION:
Human behaviour has been shaped by past experiences.
 Learning takes place when learners have the opportunity to practise making the
correct response to a given stimulus.
 Learners imitated models of correct language (i.e stimuli) and receive positive
reinforcement if they are correct and receive negative reinforcement if they are
incorrect.
=>Learners might hear the sentence: Give me a cake, use it themselves and thereby
rewarded by achieving their communicative goal (= by being given a cake when they
wanted one)
 Behaviourists believed that lg. learning is the result of imitation, practice, feedback
on success & habit
formation. Children imitate sounds & patterns they hear around them & receive
positive reinforcement, thus forming habits of lg. use.
 Conditioning is the result of a 3-stage procedure: stimulus - response -
reinforcement.
DEFINITION
1. a stimulus: that which produces a change or reaction in an individual.
 Conditioned Stimulus (CS) - a stimulus that will elicit a predictable response
because of its previous pairing with a previously occurring reflex.
 Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) - a stimulus that, without conditions, will elicit a
predictable response.
2. a response: the behaviour which is produced as a reaction to a stimulus.
 Conditioned Response (CR) - a predictable response to a stimulus that has influence
because of its previous pairing with a previously occurring reflex.
 Unconditioned Response (UCR) - a response that, without conditions, results
predictably from an unconditional stimulus.
3. reinforcement: A consequence that increases or decreases the probability that a
behavior will occur or not occur again.
 Positive reinforcement: reinforcement which increases the likelihood of a response.
 Negative reinforcement: reinforcement which decreases the likelihood of a
response.
2. HOW BEHAVIOURISM AFFECTS 2nd LG. LEARNING
1. In reality
Children learn to speak by imitation. Parents then reinforce or correct their speech.
2. In lg. teaching
Behaviourism is used in education. It is often used by teachers, who reward or
punish student behaviours. The Audio-Lingual method is based on the theory that
language learning is a question of habit formation. Lrs. of 2 nd lg.: Learner as passive
receiver of information
Teachers use a lot of Mechanical drills (repetition drills, substitution drills,
transformation drills) to form the habit in learners.
3. Criticisms of Behaviourism
Behaviourism does not account for all kinds of learning, it disregards the

activities of the mind.
 Behaviourism does not explain some learning - such as the recognition of new
language patterns by young children - for which there is no reinforcement mechanism.
IN A WORD:
• Principle: Learning is a mechanical process of habit formation
How to form habit: A sequence of stimulus, response and reinforcement (positive /
negative)
• Implications:
-The use of Stimulus - Response - Reinforcement model = pattern practice / mechanical
drill in classroom is still widely used but it’s not enough just to teach Ss good habits. The
lr is not a passive participant in the learning process.
-pattern practice / mechanical drill should be considered as one part of the whole
learning process.
Do not use it as the only kind of activity required.
Lrs. should be given opportunities for creative lg. use in lg. production: speaking &
writing
MENTALISM: Thinking as rule-governed activity
PERFORMANCE AND COMPETENCE
Chomsky put forth his own model of competence & performance.
• Competence: a person’s internalized grammar of a lg./knowing what is
grammatically correct.
• Performance: is the actual use of lg. by individuals in speech & writing.
IN A WORD:
• Principle: Learning is acquiring rules, i.e individual experiences are used by the
mind to find the underlying pattern or system.
• Implication:
• Inductive teaching of grammar
• Facilitating Ss’ learning by showing them rules and let them have a go on their
own. Making up their own sentences is the objective.

CONSTRUCTIVISM
“Constructivism is a philosophy of learning founded on the premise that, by
reflecting on our experiences, we construct our own understanding of the world we live
in. Each of us generates our own “rules” and “mental models,” which we use to
make sense of our experiences. Learning, therefore, is simply the process of adjusting
our mental models to accommodate new experiences”
• Based on the work of Jean Piaget and Jerome Bruner, Lev Vygotsky.
• Constructivism views learning as a process in which the learner actively
constructs or builds new ideas or concepts.
Constructivism has roots in philosophy, psychology, sociology, and education.
This is an educational theory that places emphasis on the learner.
 a theory about how people learn
 learning is constructed, not received
=> Learners build new knowledge on the basis of old language
=> They don’t receive it.
What it means is ….
 In order to understand something, we MUST be able to relate it to something else
 If at all possible, apply this knowledge during the lesson to foster concrete
connections
 Differs from traditional view in which the mind is a slate. Constructivism views
knowledge as “assimilated”=incorporated into existing schema
2 types of C.:
• cognitive constructivism which is about how the individual learner understands
things, in terms of
developmental stages and learning styles,
• social constructivism, which emphasises how meanings and understandings grow
out of social encounters.
Zone of proximal development
Lev Vygotsky's notion of zone of proximal development, often abbreviated ZPD,
is the gap between a learner’s current or actual development level determined by
independent problem-solving and the learner's emergency or potential level of
development.
Scafolding:
The teacher:
provided the conditions which allowed children to complete the activity
reminding, prompting, encouraging, drawing attention, modelling –
 These things helped to structure the activity for learners so they could
carry it out. This teacher support is called scaffolding. Scafolding will:
• temporary help which will enable a learner to carry out a task he/she cannot
manage
• designed to bring a learner to a stage where he/she can do similar tasks
independently.
PRINCIPLES
1. A CONSTRUCTIVIST VIEW OF LEARNING
 Learning is active (mental or physical)
 People learn to learn as they learn
 Learning involves language
 Learning is a social activity
 Learning is contextual
 Learning needs knowledge
 Learning takes time
2. CONSTRUCTIVISM APPLIED TO TEACHING
In the Classroom: the emphasis is placed on the learner rather than the T.
• The constructivist T sets up probs. & monitors ss’ exploration, guides the
direction of st’s inquiry &
promotes new patterns of thinking.
• T asks open-ended Qs & allows wait time for responses.
• St autonomy and initiative are accepted & encouraged. (The learner constructs
his/her own
conceptualizations & solutions to probs.)
• Higher-level thinking is encouraged.
• Ss are engaged in dialogue with T and with each other.
• Ss are engaged in experiences that challenge hypotheses & encourage discussion.
• The class uses raw data, primary sources, manipulative, physical, and interactive
materials.
Important roles of the Teacher
T becomes one of many resources that the Ss may learn from, not the primary
source of info.
• Watching & Listening: Having the ability to observe and listen to students and
their experiences in the classroom.
• Encouraging the spirit of questioning by asking thoughtful, open-ended Qs.
• Encouraging thoughtful discussion among ss. It usually means encouraging
students to use
active techniques (experiments, real-world problem solving) to create more
knowledge and then to reflect
on and talk about what they are doing and how their understanding is changing. The
teacher makes sure
she understands the students' pre-existing conceptions, and guides the activity to
address them and then
build on them, prompt ss to formulate their own Qs (inquiry).
• Encouraging & accepting st autonomy & initiative: allow multiple
interpretations & expressions of
learning. Engaging ss in experiences that challenge previous conceptions of their
existing knowledge.
• Using cognitive terminology such as "classify," "analyze", & "create" when
framing tasks.
• encouraging group work & the use of peers as resources (collaborative
learning)
• Insisting on clear expression from ss. When ss can communicate their
understanding, then they have
truly learned.
How does the constructivist teacher make this style work?
• He/she is flexible.
• She/he creatively incorporates ongoing experiences with real-life situations.
• Students work in small groups.
• Students work individually.
• Interactive activities become main focus (if materials can be related to an interest
of the child, they are
more apt to remember them).
In conclusion: Constructivism:
1. Allows for students to become engaged with one another =>Work in groups.
2. Ss learn through own experiences based on their lives.=> Learning is active.
3. Ss remember information down the road of life instead of memorization.=>
Engage the students on their
own cognitive level.
Active learning & Task-based teaching are the application of this theoretical
background
HOW CONSTRUCTIVISM IMPACTS LEARNING
Constructivism represents one of the big ideas in education. If our efforts in
reforming education for all students are to succeed, then we must focus on
students. To date, a focus on student-centered learning may well be the most
important contribution of constructivism.
In its strict sense, CONSTRUCTIVISM:
Curriculum – Constructivism calls for the elimination of a standardised
curriculum.
Instead, it promotes using curricular customized to the students’ prior
knowledge. Also, it emphasizes hands-on problem solving.
Instruction – Under the theory of constructivism, educators focus on making
connections between facts and fostering new understanding in students.
Instructors tailor their teaching strategies to student responses and encourage
students to analyse, interpret, and predict information. Teachers also rely heavily on
open-ended questions and promote extensive dialogue among students.
Assessment – Constructivism calls for the elimination of grades and standardized
testing. Instead, assessment becomes part of the learning process so that students
play a larger role in judging
their own progress.
THE AFFECTIVE FACTORS
The Theory:
• Learners as emotional beings: People think, but they also have feelings. Lrs are
emotional beings.
• Learning as an emotional process: Before lrs. actually think a/b sth., they must
want to think a/b it.
I. A POSITIVE LEARNING CYCLE
 Affective factors = emotional factors which influence learning.
 They can have a negative or positive effect.
 Negative affective factors = affective filters
II. LEARNER CHARACTERISTICS
Learner characteristics can influence SLA both positively & negatively.
Lr characteristics are differences b/t lrs which influence
o their attitude to learning a lg & how they learn it (A lr's attitude to English, to
the T, to otherlrs in the group & to herself are all affective factors & have impact on
how well she learns.)
o How they respond to different learning styles & approaches in the classroom,
o How’s successful they are at learning a lg.
What are the differences included?
The differences include:
 age ,language level, past language learning experience, personality
(introverted/extroverted), learner’s motivation, learner’s style (right/left-
brain dominance), learning strategies
III. MOTIVATION
Motivation is the set of reasons that determines a person’s desire to do sth.
According to the writer,
motivation is the relationship between the cognitive and emotional aspects of
learning.
Two forms of motivation
1. Instrumental/External motivation
Definition: Extrinsic motivation refers to motivation that comes from outside an
individual.
The motivating factors are external, or outside such as money or grades. These
rewards provide satisfaction & pleasure that the task itself may not provide.
e.g.: Lrs want to learn a lg. because it will be useful for certain “instrumental”
goals: getting a job, passing an exam,
getting a scholarship, …
2. Integrative/Internal/Intrinsic motivation
Definition: Intrinsic motivation refers to motivation that comes from inside an
individual rather than from any external or outside rewards, such as money or
grades. Intrinsic motivation drives sb to do things just for the fun of it, or because
s/he believes it is a good or right thing to do.
In other words, Intrinsically motivating activities are those in which people will
engage for no reward other than the interest and enjoyment that accompanies
them.

3. Ways to enhance motivation:

the tasks that learners are asked to carry out,
the way the syllabus is presented
the way the teacher interacts with her pupils can also influence motivation
so that classes that begin with very low motivation can be persuaded to change their
minds.
Where learners are offered the opportunity to communicate, where learners are
asked to take responsibility for their own learning, where learners are treated with
respect, they will acquire higher motivation, and will make more progress.
Teaching recommendations
• Where possible, ask learners to choose what activities they want to do.
• Encourage parents to motivate their children to learn English.
• Remind learners how important English is for getting jobs.
• Choose activities and materials that are motivating
• Bring to the classroom any materials (e.g. brochures, photos, souvenirs) you have
collected on your trip to
English – speaking countries.
• Praise learners frequently but honestly
• Give learners opportunities to use English to talk about their own lives.
Motivation is very important in language learning, so teachers should do all they
can to motivate learners
IV. LEARNING STYLES: Your preferred styles guide the way you learn.
1. Definition: personal, preferred ways to take in, process & remember info. &
skills.
2. Learning styles relates to
• the physical sense we prefer to use to learn,
• our way of interacting with other people (personality: extroverted/ introverted)
• our style of thinking = cognitive style (Right / Left Brain Dominance)
• Left brain Hemisphere controls language.
3. Common learning styles:
• Visual: learn best through seeing (You prefer using pictures, images, and spatial
understanding.)
• Auditory: learn best through hearing. (You prefer using sound and music.)
• Verbal: You prefer using words, both in speech and writing.
• Physical/Kinaesthetic /ˌkɪnɪs'θi:tɪc/: learn best through handling materials &
doing sth. (You prefer using
your body, hands and sense of touch.)
• Logical: You prefer using logic, reasoning and systems.
• Group: learn best through working with others You prefer to learn in groups or
with other people.
• Solitary/Individual: learn best through working alone. You prefer to work alone
and use self-study.
• Reflective: learn best when given time to consider choices.
Note: Lrs with different learning styles learn in different ways & need to be taught
in different ways.
Christison (1996) and Armstrong (1994) give us examples of activities that fit each
type of learning styles:
• Logical/mathematical =>
• Visual/spatial =>
• body/kinesthetic =>
• Musical/rhythmic =>
• Group/ Interpersonal =>
• Individual/Intrapersonal =>
• Verbal/linguistic => .
4. Differences Between Left and Right Hemisphere
One way of looking at learning styles is to determine your hemispheric dominance.
In short
 both sides of the brain are involved in nearly every human activity.
 the left side of the brain is the seat of language and processes in a logical &
sequential order.
 The right side is more visual & processes intuitively, holistically, &
randomly.
V. LEARNING STRATEGIES
 The way chosen & used by lrs to learn language.
 Using the right strategy at the right time helps us learn the lg better & become
more independent / autonomous.
Examples of learning strategies
• Use flashcards to remember new E words
• Review E lessons often
• Use new words in a sent so I can remember them
Conclusion:
• Different learners use different strategies.
• The strategies that lrs use successfully depend on
 their personality
 learning styles
=> there are no best strategies.
- Using strategies definitely making learning more successful
- Lrs can be trained to use strategies.

AFFECTIVE FACTORS – REMEMBER:

➢ Principle:
- Learners as emotional beings.
➢ Implication:
- Language teachers must consider all the factors that can affect their Ss in
language learning and use appropriate techniques to motivate learners in
classroom.
➢ Techniques:
- to find out their pursoses, needs, characteristics, learning styles, cognitivw styles,
learning preferences
- to teach them learning strategies ………….
LEARNING & ACQUISITION
* SOME CONCEPTS:
1st language.: the mother tongue/native language
2nd language.: the language widely used in the environment
Foreign language: the target language/the language used by native speaker
I. ACQUISITION & LEARNING – A DISTINCTION:
I.1. Acquisition:
1st lg. acquisition:
How children acquire L1:
- The main way that children acquire L1: by exposure to it, i.e. by hearing and / or
reading it all around us and without saying it. Then they pick it up automatically,
i.e. learn it without realizing.
2nd lg. acquisition: A subconscious process: We acquire lg. when we are exposed
to samples of the
2nd lg. that we understand. This happens in much the same way that children pick
up 1st lg.= The 'acquired system' or 'acquisition' is the product of a subconscious
process very similar to the process
children undergo when they acquire their first language.
Language acquirers are not consciously aware of the grammatical rules of the
language, but rather develop a "feel"
for correctness. It requires meaningful interaction in the target language - natural
communication - in which
speakers concentrate not in the form of their utterances, but in the communicative
act. In non-technical language,
acquisition is 'picking-up' a language.
Acquisition = more important for natural, fluent communication Lrs. are quite
fluent without ever having learned rules. Lrs should be exposed to
comprehensive input
I.2. Learning
• A conscious process of study and attention to form and rule learning
• Lrs. are given formal instruction, they may know rules but fail to apply them.
Learning - on the other hand, refers to the 'learned system' or 'learning' is the
product of formal instruction of a
second language and it comprises a conscious process which results in conscious
knowledge 'about'
the language: knowing the rules, being aware of them, and being able to talk
about
them." Thus language
learning can be compared to learning about a language.
According to Krashen, 'learning' is less important than 'acquisition'.
II. THE INPUT HYPOTHESIS
- Input: What students hear or read.
- Comprehensible/roughly-tuned input: forms and structures which are just
beyond
the learner’s current level of competence in the lg.
- Output: what Ss speak or write.
The Input hypothesis is Krashen's attempt to explain how the learner acquires a
second language. In other words,
 this hypothesis is Krashen's explanation of how second language acquisition takes
place. So,
the Input hypothesis is only concerned with 'acquisition', not 'learning'.
According to this hypothesis, the learner improves and progresses along the 'natural
order' when he/she receives second language 'input' that is one step beyond his/her
current stage of linguistic competence. For example, if a learner is at a stage 'i', then
acquisition takes place when he/she is exposed to 'Comprehensible Input' that belongs to
level 'i + 1'. Since not all of the learners can be at the same level of linguistic competence
at the same time, Krashen suggests that natural communicative input is the key to
designing a syllabus, ensuring in this way that each learner will receive some 'i + 1' input
that is appropriate for his/her current stage of linguistic competence. Evidences for the
input hypothesis can be found in the effectiveness of caretaker speech, of teacher talk,
and of foreigner talk.
One result of this hypothesis is that language students should be given an initial
"silent period" where they are building up acquired competence in a language
before they begin to produce it. Whenever language acquirers try to produce
language beyond what they have acquired, they tend to use the rules they have
already acquired from their first language, thus allowing them to communicate but
not really progress in the second language.
II.1. Baseline talk
• the kind of talk a……………. speaker addresses other
speakers.
e.g.: People who are deprived of sleep lose energy and become quick-tempered.
II.2. Modified input/ Adjusted speech
• 1st lg.: child-directed speech/caretalker talk/mother talk/motherese/baby talk
• 2nd lg.: foreigner talk/teacher talk
A. Caretaker talk/motherese/mother talk/baby talk
• the way parents talk to little children L1
• Features of caretaker talk:
- slower rate of speech, higher pitch, more intonation; shorter, simpler
sentence patterns, frequent repetition, paraphrase, topic of
conversation are limited
B. Foreigner talk/teacher talk
• NS modify their speech when communicating with NNS
• Two types of FT: ungrammaical and grammatical
Base line talk
You won’t forget to buy the ice cream on your way home, will you?
UGFT
No forget buying ice cream, eh?
GFT
The ice cream – you will not forget to buy it on your way home – get it when you
are coming home. All right?
1. Ungrammatical FT
• socially marked
• NS’s lack of respect
• Features:
* deletion of “be”/ modal verbs/articles
* using base form for past tense form
* using special construction like “no + V”
2. Grammatical FT
• The norm
• Features:
* delivered at a slower pace
* the input is simplified (shorter sent., no subordinate clauses, no tag Qs.)
* regularised (regular/basic forms= full not contracted forms)
* elaborated lg. use (lengthening phrases & sent.)
IV. Role of input & interaction in L2 acquisition
• comprehensible input ( i+1) [ right level of input is attained automatically when
interlocutors succeed in
making themselves understood in com. , using context + kinds of input
modifications found in FT]
• interactional modifications
• negotiation of meaning
- Formal instruction & Learning process:
= enough?
- Acquisition: exposure, motivation, opportunities for use (real tasks to do outside
class, games, drawing pictures,
arranging objects => verbal com.)
Implication
• make learning like acquisition by:
– giving learners both finely turned input and roughly turnedinput (= using
authentic materials)
– modifying this input like the way parents talk to little children (teacher talk,
foreigner talk)
– increasing interaction & negotiation of meaning
Teaching
Young lrs.: Avoid grammar teaching, children subconsciously acquire lg.
Adult lrs.: Focused lg. study= useful, desirable + activities that match motivational
drive, level, situational contexts
=> Lg. study: helpful for adults > teenagers; using authentic materials + interaction
L2 learners need to be exposed to a rich variety of language, use it to communicate
and interact, and have opportunities to focus on form. This helps to make the
circumstances of L2 learning more similar to those in L1 learning and allows L2
learners (who are usually older than L1 learners) to use their different abilities to
process language.
Acquisition and Learning – Remember
• Principle:
◦ acquisition is more important than learning
◦ only acquired language is readily available for natural, fluent communication
• Implication: make learning like acquisition by:
◦ giving learners a great deal of input and
◦ modifying this input (like the way parents talk to young children - teacher talk,
foreigner talk)
◦ Ensuring negotiation of meaning and interactional modification of input

GTM
I. REVIEWING THE PRICIPLES
1. Goals
2. Roles of T. & Ss
3. Teaching/learning process
4. Interaction
5. Ss’ feelings
6 & 7 Language & culture
8. Role of L1
9. Evaluation
10. Ss’ errors:
II. TYPICAL TECHNIQUES
• Translation of a lit. passage
• Reading comprehension Qs
• Antonyms/synonyms
• Cognates
• Deductive application of rule
• Fill-in-the-blanks
• Memorization
• Use words in sentences
Be able to read literature in L1
• Develop ss’ mind
Techniques: Learn gram. rules + vocab. & good mental exercises
• Traditional: T = aske ss to write the answer
Ss= write the answer
A. Read the passage aloud
B. Translate the passage into the native language C. Explain the new vo
D. Ask and answer questions
Ask and answer questions:
1. Comprehension Qs: information contained within the reading pass
2. Inference Qs: based on their understanding of the passage.
3. Referential Qs: Qs related to their own experience. E. Pr
vocabulary
1. Translate a list of new vocabulary into the native language.
2. Antonyms/synonyms
3. Cognates the similarities of two languages
F. Practice on grammar: Deductive application of grammar rules
a. Statements of grammar rules
b. Application of the rules in language expression: fill-in-the-banks
1. Memorize the vocabulary with the native language translation
2. Write out the translation of the reading passage into the native
3. State the grammar rules
4. Write a composition
Most of the time: T > Ss
Ss >Ss = NO
No principles
• Literary language
• Vocab. = gram.3
• Reading & writing, no spoken & listening skill, no pronun.
• Culture: Literature + fine arts
L1 for translating text; for instructions
• Written tests: translation
• Questions for comprehension, Qs for applying gram. Rules
 have ss get correct As
 T supplies correct As
 • Composition
III. SUMMARY
Content & Characteristics:
1. Classes are taught in the mother language (L1), with little active use of the
target language.
2. Much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words.
3. Long, elaborate explanations of the intricacies of grammar are given.
4. Grammar provides the rules for putting words together, and often focuses on the
form and inflection of words.
5. Reading of difficult classical text is begun early.
6. Little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as exercises
in grammatical analysis.
7. Often the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the
target language into the mother tongue.
8. Little or no attention is given to pronunciation.
DM
I. REVIEWING THE PRINCIPLES
1. Goals Be able to communicate in L2.
To do this, Ss should learn to think in L2.
2. Roles of T. & Ss Ss = less passive
T – ss: like partners (T. directs)

3. Teaching/learning process - Means of instructions: L2

- Presenting meanings using visual aids.
- Ss use L2 a great deal.
- Situational syllabus: based on situations.
- Grammar taught inductively.
4. Interaction T >> Ss St >> T
Ss >> Ss

5. Ss’ feelings No principles

6 & 7 Language & culture • Spoken language, not written
• Vocab. & gram. of everyday speech, Vocab > gram.
• Culture & people of the target lg. community
• 4 skills occurs from the start.
• Pronun. paid much attention to from start.
8. Role of L1 No L1 at all
9. Evaluation • Not focussing on knoledge about language.
• Communicating in both oral & written skills.
10. T’s response to ss’ errors • Employing various techniques:
- say the correct word
- stop right away & use Or Q. for ss to self-correct.

II. TYPICAL TECHNIQUES:

• Reading aloud
Students take turns reading. At the end of each student’s turn, the teacher uses
 gestures, pictures, realia, examples, or other means to make the meaning clear.3
• Q – A exercise
- only in target language
- Students ask questions and answer in full sentences
• Getting ss to self-correct
- by asking them to make a choice
- using a questioning voice
- stopping before the error
• Conversation practice
- Teacher asks students some questions in the target language
- questions contained a particular grammar structure (T→S; S→S)
• Fill-in-the-blank exercise
- all the items are in the target language
- no explicit grammar rules would be applied
• Dictation
- Teacher reads the passage 3 times
- normal speed
- phrase by phrase with pausing long
- normal speed again
• Map drawing: map labeling
• Paragraph writing
III. SUMMARY
This approach was developed initially as a reaction to the grammar-translation approach
in an attempt to integrate more use of the target language in instruction.
1. Lessons were conducted exclusively in L2.
2. Only simple vocabulary and sentences about everyday activities were
taught.Oral communication skills were developed on the basis of the question-
and-answer exchanges between teachers and students in small, intensive
classes.
3. Grammar was taught inductively, that means rules are generalized from the
practice and experience with the target language.
4. New teaching points were introduced orally.
5. Concrete vocabulary was taught through demonstration, objects and pictures
e.g : - teacher says to students : “Look at my face. I am smiling,” to show the
meaning of the word “smile” (demonstration)
- teacher points to his eyes and says: “here are my eyes” (real object)
- teacher shows a picture of a river and says: “ this is a river” (picture)
Abstract vocabulary was taught by association of ideas:
e.g to teach the word: lazy, the teacher says: “Nam is a lazy boy. He does nothing all
day. He only eats and sleeps.”
6. Both speaking and listening comprehension were taught.
7. Great attention was given to correct pronunciation.
=> These principles are seen in the following guidelines for teaching oral
language :
- Never translate: demonstrate.
- Never explain: act
- Never make a speech: ask questions
 - Never imitate mistakes: correct
- Never speak with single word: use sentences
- Never speak too much: make students speak much.
- Never use the book: use your lesson plan.
- Never jump around: follow your plan.
- Never go too fast: keep the pace of the students4
- Never speak too slowly: speak normally.
- Never speak too quickly: speak naturally.
- Never speak too loudly: speak naturally.
- Never be impatient: take it easy

ALM
I. REVIEWING THE PRINCIPLES
1. Goals • Be able to communicate in L2.
To do this, Ss should over-learn L2 without stopping to think in ord
habits.
2. Roles of T. & Ss • T: an orchestra leader, director, controller, model provider
• Ss: imitators, following T’s directions, responding accurately & rap
3.Teaching/learning process - Means of instructions:
- New vocab. & gram. patterns: presented thru dialogres
- Dialogres: learnt thru imitation & rep
- Drills: conducted upon patterns in dialogs.
- Grammar taught inductively.
- Ss’ correct responses are reinforced.
- Cultural info.: contextualized in dialogs & by T.
- Reading & writing: based uopn oral work.
4. Interaction (T directs) T >> Ss
Ss >> Ss
St >> St

5. Ss’ feelings No principle

6. Language & culture • influenced by descriptive linguistics.

7. Areas of Lg. & Lg. skills
8. Role of L1
9. Evaluation
10. T’s response to ss’ errors
II. TYPICAL TECHNIQUES
• Dialog Memorization (Students memorize an opening dialog using
• Everyday speech is emphasised.
• Complexity of speech: graded
• Culture & lifestyle of people of target lg. community.
• L > S > R > W; L & S > R & W
• Pronun.: taught from start, using minimal pairs & lg. labs.
• V < sound system & gram. patterns
No L1 at all
• Disrete-point tests.
(each Q on test focuses on only one point of lg. at a time.)
• Errors are at all costs.
(T stops St right away & corrects him/her)
 mimicry
• Backward Build-up (Expansion Drill) (Teacher breaks a line into several parts,
students repeat each part starting at the end of the sentence and "expanding"
backwards through the sentence, adding each part in sequence)
• Repetition Drill (Students repeat teacher's model as quickly and accurately
as possible)
• Chain Drill (Students ask and answer each other one-by-one in a circular chain
around the classroom)
• Single Slot Substitution Drill (Teacher states a line from the dialog, then uses a
word or a phrase as a "cue" that students, when repeating the line, must
substitute into the sentence in the correct place)
• Multiple-slot Substitution Drill (Same as the Single Slot drill, except that there
are multiple cues to be substituted into the line)
• Transformation Drill (Teacher provides a sentence that must be turned into
something else, for examplena question to be turned into a statement, an active
sentence to be turned into a negative statement, etc)
• Question-and-answer Drill (Students should answer or ask questions very
quickly)
• Use of Minimal Pairs (Using contrastive analysis, teacher selects a pair of
words that sound identical except for a single sound that typically poses
difficulty for the learners - students are to pronounce and differentiate the two
words)
• Complete the Dialog (Selected words are erased from a line in the dialog -
students must find and insert)
• Grammar Games (Various games designed to practice a grammar point in
context, using lots of repetition)

CLT
I. REVIEWING THE PRINCIPLES
Be able to communicate in L2 appropriately.
1. Goals To do this, Ss need + social knowledge (relationship b/t speakers, context

T:
Presentation/ Pre- stage: instructor, controller, organizer, motivator… P
stage: facilitator, advisor, participant, assessor, … Production/ Post-stage:
2. Roles of T. & Ss corrector.
Ss:
- communicators.
- center in classroom.

- Ss use L2 a lot.
- a lot of communicative activities: games, role-plays, info. gap activitie
tasks.
3. Teaching/learn
- use of authentic materials
process
- a lot of group work
- Truly communicative activities have three features: information g
feedback
 (T establishes situations) T >> Ss
Ss >> Ss (group work) St >> St (pair work)
4. Interaction TTT < STT

• Ss are more motivated

5. Ss’ feelings • Ss have more chance to participate
• Ss feel more secure thanks to group work.
• linguistic forsm + meanings + functions. (different forms – same func
diff. func.)
6. Language & culture
• social contexts be introduced
• Culture: everyday lifestyle of people of target lg. community
communication
• Func. > forms (functional syllabus; simple  complex forms)
7. Areas of Lg. & Lg.
• Ss learn at discourse level. (cohesion & coherence)
skills
• 4 skills are taught right from beginning + integrated.
• Judicious use of L1
8. Role of L1 • L2 is used most of the time
( presenting, giving instructions, during comm. activities)
• accuracy + fluency
9. Evaluation • T can informally evaluate ss’ performance during group work.
• (fml) an intergrative test having a real communicative function.
10. T’s response to ss’
• Errors forms of are tolerated during fluency-based activities.
errors
• T. notes ss’ errors & deals with them later with an accuracy based

II. TYPICAL TECHNIQUES

• Use of authentic materials
• Scrambled sentences
• Language game
• Picture strip story
• Role play