CIE5260 Slides 2019

Structural Response to Earthquakes
CIE 5260
Dr. Apostolos Tsouvalas
Dynamics of Structures & Offshore Engineering

Departments of Engineering Structures & Hydraulic Structures
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences
a.tsouvalas@tudelft.nl
Tel.: 015 27 89225, Room 3.44
Lecture 1
CIE 5260
Delft, 2019
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Contents of lecture 1
Course description
• Overview of lectures
• Pre-knowledge required
• Successful completion
Introduction to Earthquake Engineering

• Why do we study earthquakes?
• Examples of earthquakes
• Seismic Risk
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• Earthquake-resistant design of structures
Structural Response to
Earthquakes • Effects of earthquakes
Lecture 1
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Course description
• Overview of lectures

• Seismic Risk
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Lecture 1
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Learning objectives
Learn how to analyse and design structures in

earthquake-prone regions
List of contents:
Course description Upon successful completion of the course you will be able to:
Why do we study
• LO1: explain basic seismological concepts
earthquakes?
Examples of earthquakes • LO2: analyse recorded ground motions & discuss local site effects
Seismic Risk • LO3: derive EoM of SDOF systems subjected to ground excitation and critically
Earthquake-resistant design assess their correctness
of structures
• LO4: derive EoM of MDOF systems subjected to ground excitation and critically
Earthquake effects assess their correctness
• LO5: apply different methods of seismic analysis in structures and analyse the
results (linear and non-linear response)
CIE 5260
• LO6: deal with SSI and FSI in seismic analysis of structures
Earthquakes
Lecture 1 • LO7: demonstrate the ability to analyse and design structures in earthquake-
prone regions using code provisions
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Course layout
WEEK 1 WEEK 2 WEEK 3 WEEK 4 WEEK 5 WEEK 6 WEEK 7 WEEK 8
Week 36: 2-8 Week 37: 9-15 Sept. Week 38: 16- 22 Sept. Week 39: 23- 29 Week 40: 30 Sept. - Week 41: 7-13 Oct. Week 42: 14-20 Oct. Week 43: 21-27 Oct.
Sept. 2019 2019 2019 Sept. 2019 6 Oct. 2019 2019 2019 2019
No lecture Lecture 2*: Lecture 5: Lecture 8: Seismic Lecture 11: Lecture 14: Lecture 17: Lecture 20:
Engineering Seismic Input (Part II) response of non- Pushover method Response Seismic response of Fluid-Structure
Seismology (Part I) linear SDoF systems of analysis Spectrum method continuous systems Interaction in
List of contents: of analysis Earthquake
Engineering (Part I)
No lecture Lecture 3*: Lecture 6: Lecture 9: Lecture 12: Lecture 15: Lecture 18: Lecture 21:
Engineering Seismic Input (Part Linear versus Non- Seismic response of Seismic response Soil-structure Fluid-Structure
Course description
Seismology (Part II) III) linear systems linear MDoF of MDoF systems Interaction in Interaction in
& Constant ductility systems (Part I) subjected to multi- Earthquake Earthquake
Why do we study inelastic spectra support excitation Engineering (Part I) Engineering (Part II)
& q-factor method
earthquakes?
Lecture 1: Lecture 4: Lecture 7: Lecture 10: Lecture 13: Lecture 16: Lecture 19: Wrap-up Lecture
Introduction to Seismic Input (Part I) Seismic response of Generalised SDoF Seismic response of Seismic analysis of Soil-structure
Examples of earthquakes Earthquake linear SDOF systems systems linear MDoF non-linear MDoF Interaction in
Engineering systems (Part II) systems Earthquake
Seismic Risk Engineering (Part II)
Earthquake-resistant design
of structures
Part I Seismology & Seismic Input
Earthquake effects
Part II Seismic Response of simple structures
Part III Seismic Response of complex structures
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Earthquakes
Lecture 1
* Lectures will be given by Dr. Pavel Ditmar (Department of Applied Earth Sciences)
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Part I: Engineering Seismology
Lectures 2-3
• Plate tectonics & distribution of seismicity
• Genesis of earthquakes & types of fault slips
List of contents: • Waves in an elastic medium
• Magnitude and intensity scales
Course description
• Basics of probabilistic seismic hazard analysis
Why do we study
earthquakes?
Examples of earthquakes
Seismic Risk
of structures
Earthquake effects
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Earthquakes
Lecture 1
Recent earthquake events (USGS website):

http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/
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Part I: Seismic Input
Lectures 4-6
• Source-to-site effects
• Overview of seismic input
List of contents: • Seismic recordings
• Filtering of ground motion recordings
Course description
Why do we study
earthquakes?
Seismic Risk
of structures
Earthquake effects
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Earthquakes
Lecture 1
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Part II: Analysis of simple structures
Seismic response of linear SDoF systems (Lecture 7)
• Response of SDoF systems to base excitations

List of contents: • Elastic response of systems of varying properties
• Response spectrum analysis of SDoF systems
Course description
• Examples of site response spectra from various earthquakes
Why do we study • Elastic design response spectra (EC8)
earthquakes?
Seismic Risk
of structures
Earthquake effects
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Earthquakes
Lecture 1
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Seismic response of non-linear SDoF systems

(Lectures 8-9)
List of contents:
• Types of non-linearity
Course description • Force-displacement graphs in cyclic loading
Why do we study
• Linear versus non-linear response
earthquakes?
• Displacement ductility factor
• Non-linear response spectra
Seismic Risk
of structures
Earthquake effects
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Earthquakes
Lecture 1
11/8492
9/
Pushover method of analysis in generalized

SDoF systems (Lectures 10-11)
List of contents:
• Generalised SDoF systems
Course description • Non-linear pushover method of analysis (Eurocode 8)
• Examples of application of the pushover method of analysis
Why do we study
earthquakes?
Seismic Risk
of structures
Earthquake effects
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Earthquakes
Lecture 1
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Part III: Analysis of complex structures
Seismic response of linear MDoF systems

(Lectures 12-16)
List of contents:
• Equations of motion of MDoF discrete systems
Course description
• Uniform versus non-uniform ground excitation
• Time-history method of analysis
Why do we study
• Frequency domain method of analysis
earthquakes?
• Response spectrum method of analysis
• Examples and illustration of solution methods
Seismic Risk
of structures
Earthquake effects
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Earthquakes
Lecture 1
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Seismic analysis of continuous systems (Lecture 17)
• Dynamic analysis of one-dimensional continua

List of contents:
• Time-history analysis
• Frequency domain analysis
Course description
• Response spectrum analysis
Why do we study
• Case studies
earthquakes?
Seismic Risk
of structures
Earthquake effects
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Earthquakes
Lecture 1
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SSI in earthquake engineering (Lectures 18-19)
• The influence of soil in the response of a structure

List of contents:
• Methods of solving coupled soil-structure interaction problems
Course description • Derivation of equations of motion of a structural systems incl. SSI
Why do we study
earthquakes?
Seismic Risk
of structures
Earthquake effects
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Earthquakes
Lecture 1
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FSI in earthquake engineering (Lectures 20-21)
• Earthquake response of water gates and dams

List of contents:
• Earthquake response of liquid-storage tanks
Course description
Why do we study
earthquakes?
Seismic Risk
of structures
Earthquake effects
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Earthquakes
Lecture 1
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Seismic control of structures (optional)
• The concept of seismic isolation

List of contents:
• The concept of energy absorption
Course description
• Modelling of structures with base seismic isolation
Why do we study
earthquakes?
Seismic Risk
of structures
Earthquake effects
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Earthquakes
Lecture 1
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Eurocode 8
• EN 1998-1: General rules, seismic actions and rules for buildings

• EN 1998-4: Silos, tanks and pipelines
List of contents:
Course description
Why do we study
earthquakes?
Seismic Risk
of structures
Earthquake effects
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 1
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Pre-knowledge
 Dynamics of Structures (CIE 4140)

List of contents: o Dynamics of SDOF and MDOF systems
o Dynamics of 1D continua (beams, rods, etc.)
Course description
Why do we study
earthquakes?
• Measurement and Analysis of Vibrations (CIE 4260)
Seismic Risk
• Soil dynamics (CIE 5340-18)
of structures
Earthquake effects
All courses above are part of the annotation Dynamics of Structures.
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 1
Important note:
If you have not followed CIE4140, you can still follow this course but the
study load will be significantly increased!
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Reading material & Software
 Essential reading material:

• Lecture Notes & Slides (available on Brightspace)
List of contents:
Course description
 Highly recommended reading material:
Why do we study
earthquakes? • Fundamentals of Earthquake Engineering (2nd edition) by Amr S.
Examples of earthquakes Elnashai and Luigi Di Sarno
Seismic Risk • Dynamics of Structures: Theory and Application to Earthquake
Earthquake-resistant design Engineering (4th world edition) by Anil K. Chopra
of structures
Earthquake effects
 Software packages:
• Maple/Matlab (TU delft): Matlab and Maple packages will be
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made available on Brightspace
Earthquakes
Lecture 1 • ZeusNL: https://code.google.com/archive/p/zeus-nl/downloads
• Seismosignal: http://www.seismosoft.com/downloads
• Seismomatch: http://www.seismosoft.com/downloads
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Requirements for successful completion
List of contents:
Course description
Why do we study
earthquakes?
Seismic Risk
of structures
Earthquake effects
• Participation in assignments is mandatory to complete the course
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• Work out the assignments in groups of two students
Structural Response to (assignments submitted by groups of 3 students or more will not be considered!)
Earthquakes
Lecture 1
Tentative schedule for assignments here.
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List of contents: For more information about the course and the
assessment please check Brightspace!
Course description
Why do we study
earthquakes?
https://brightspace.tudelft.nl/
Seismic Risk
of structures
Consultancy hours every Thursday (list of rooms here).
Earthquake effects
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Earthquakes
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Course description
• Lectures

• Seismic Risk
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Lecture 1
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Definitions
Earthquake engineering is an interdisciplinary branch of

engineering that focuses on the design and analysis of
List of contents:
structures, such as buildings, bridges, etc. with earthquakes
Course description in mind. Its overall goal is to make such structures more
Why do we study resistant to earthquakes.
earthquakes?
Seismic Risk An earthquake engineer aims to construct structures that

Earthquake-resistant design will not be damaged in minor shaking and will avoid serious
1
of structures damage or collapse in a major earthquake .
Earthquake effects
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 1
1 Bozorgnia, Yousef; Bertero, Vitelmo V. (2004). Earthquake Engineering: From Engineering

Seismology to Performance-Based Engineering. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8493-1439-1.
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Why do we study earthquakes ?
Earthquakes are the one of the most devastating natural

hazards that cause great loss of life and livelihood
List of contents:
Course description • On average, 10.000 people died each year from earthquakes during
1
Why do we study
1990-1999 ; major seismic events have caused life loss of hundreds
earthquakes?
of thousands of people.
Examples of earthquakes 2
• During the 20th century over 1200 destructive earthquakes occurred
Seismic Risk
 damage estimated to 1 trillion US dollars.
of structures • Often the damage to the country hit by a major seismic event
Earthquake effects constitutes a large percentage of the GNP.3
CIE 5260
Earthquakes 1 Bolt, B.A. (1999). Earthquakes. 4th edition, W.H. Freeman Company, New York.
Lecture 1 2 Coburn, A. and Spence, R. (2002). Earthquake Protection. 2nd edition, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd,
Chichester.
3 Elnashai, A.S. (2002). A very brief history of earthquake engineering with emphasis on
developments in and from the British Isles. Chaos Solitons & Fractals, 13(5), 967-972.
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Human death toll from natural disasters
100
Human death toll (x100.000)

List of contents: 80
Course description
60
Why do we study
earthquakes?
40
Seismic Risk
20
of structures
Earthquake effects 0
Volcanic Floods Extreme Earthquakes Tsunamis
eruptions winds
Natural Hazards
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 1
1 Elnashai, A.S. and Di Sarno, L. (2015). Fundamentals of Earthquake Engineering: from source
to fragility, p. 47-50.
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Economic losses and societal impact
List of contents:
Course description
Why do we study
earthquakes?
Seismic Risk Source: Coburn, A. and Spence, R. (2002). Earthquake Protection. 2nd edition, John Wiley & Sons
of structures
• Nicaragua lost approximately 40% of its GNP within 6-8 seconds
due to the 1972 Managua earthquake!
Earthquake effects
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Earthquakes
Lecture 1
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Socio-economical consequences
List of contents:
Course description
Why do we study
earthquakes?
Seismic Risk
of structures
Earthquake effects
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 1
Elnashai, A.S. and Di Sarno, L. (2015). Fundamentals of Earthquake Engineering: from source to
fragility, p. 37.
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Course description
• Lectures

• Seismic Risk
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Lecture 1
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Global seismicity
List of contents:
Course description
Why do we study
earthquakes?
Seismic Risk
of structures
Earthquake effects
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Earthquakes
Lecture 1
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Global seismicity
List of contents:
Course description
Why do we study
earthquakes? General observations1:
Seismic Risk • Earthquakes are global but their present geographic distribution is
structured with extensive aseimsic zones and belts of high seismicity
of structures • Earthquakes have a very great range in the amount of energy released
Earthquake effects • Earthquakes can occur under both continents and oceans
• Earthquakes often cluster strongly in both space and time
• Earthquake foci can vary in depth from near-surface to depths of about
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Earthquakes
Lecture 1
1 Robert A. Wiegel, Earthquake Engineering (1970), Prentice-Hall Inc., Chapter 2, p. 21-45.
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Historical events & their significance

• San Francisco, California (1906)
List of contents:
• Mexico city, Mexico (1985)
Course description
Why do we study
Recent destructive earthquakes
earthquakes?
• Chile & Haiti (2010)
Seismic Risk • Sumatra (2004) & Japan (2011)

of structures Seismicity in Europe
Earthquake effects
Seismicity in the Netherlands
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Earthquakes
Lecture 1
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Historical earthquakes

List of contents: • Mexico city, Mexico (1985)
Course description
Why do we study
earthquakes?
Seismic Risk
of structures
Earthquake effects
“The born of the elastic rebound theory

of tectonic plates by H.F. Reid (1906)”
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Earthquakes
Lecture 1
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California (1906)
The Great 1906 San Francisco Earthquake
5:12 AM - April 18, 1906
List of contents:
Course description
Why do we study
earthquakes?
Seismic Risk
of structures
Earthquake effects
San Francisco City Hall after the 1906 Earthquake.
(Source: Steinbrugge Collection of the UC Berkeley Earthquake
Engineering Research Center)
CIE 5260 The California earthquake of April 18, 1906 ranks as one of the most
Earthquakes significant earthquakes of all time. Today, its importance comes more
Lecture 1
from the wealth of scientific knowledge derived from it than from its
size.
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California (1906)
How long was the rupture of the fault?
The following figure shows the extent of the 1906 rupture seen at the
surface. The total rupture length is about 480 kilometers.
List of contents:
Course description
Why do we study
earthquakes?
Seismic Risk
of structures
Earthquake effects
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 1
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California (1906)
How long did the strong shaking last?
"At almost precisely 5:12 a.m. local time, a foreshock occurred with sufficient
force to be felt widely throughout the San Francisco Bay area. The great
List of contents:
earthquake broke loose some 20 to 25 seconds later, with an epicenter near San
Francisco... Violent shocks punctuated the strong shaking, which lasted some 45
Course description
to 60 seconds. The earthquake was felt from southern Oregon to south of Los
Why do we study Angeles and inland as far as central Nevada.“
earthquakes? - Bill Ellsworth-
Seismic Risk
of structures
Earthquake effects
Hotel St. Francis northwest corner
of Powell and Geary streets.
Looking southwest from Post and
CIE 5260 Stockton streets.
Earthquakes
Lecture 1
Source: Steinbrugge Collection of the
UC Berkeley Earthquake Engineering
Research Center.
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California (1906)
Duration of strong shaking and fault rupture
The following figure shows the extent of the 1906 California (and the
1989 Loma Prieta earthquake) fault ruptures as seen at the surface.
List of contents: The total rupture length of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake was
estimated by measurements to approximately 480 km.
Course description
Why do we study With an average speed of rupture of

earthquakes? about 3 km/s how long should
(approximately) the strong ground
motion last in each of these seismic
Seismic Risk
events?
of structures  480/3 ~ 2.5 minutes
Earthquake effects
Note:
CIE 5260 The total rupture length of the Loma Prieta
Earthquakes earthquake (blue line in the figure) was
Lecture 1
about 40 km  40/3=13 sec. The strong
ground motion recorded in the Loma Prieta
earthquake lasted, however, for only 8 sec.
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California (1906)
How large was the offset on the ground surface?
This picture, taken near Bolinas in Marin County by G.K. Gilbert, shows a
List of contents:
fence that was offset about 3 meters along the trace of the fault.
Course description
Why do we study
earthquakes?
Seismic Risk
of structures
Earthquake effects
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Earthquakes
Lecture 1 ~3m Source: Steinbrugge Collection of
the UC Berkeley Earthquake
Engineering Research Center
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California (1906)
What was the magnitude?
The magnitude of 1906 has been re-determined in two recent

List of contents:
studies that used rather different approaches:
ML = 7.7 and MW = 7.9
Course description
Why do we study
earthquakes?
Seismic Risk
of structures
Earthquake effects
Santa Rosa City Hall.
(from the Steinbrugge
Collection of the UC
CIE 5260 Berkeley Earthquake
Earthquakes
Engineering Research
Lecture 1 Center)
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California (1906)
A Seismogram of the 1906 Earthquake
Below is a seismogram recorded in Gottingen, Germany, 9100

List of contents:
kilometers away! It shows how the ground moved in Germany
as a result of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake.
Course description
Why do we study
earthquakes?
Seismic Risk
of structures
Earthquake effects
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 1
Note: The actual maximum amplitude of the shaking at the Gottingen
observatory during the time of the record shown was less than 1 mm ,
until the surface waves arrived when the instrument went off scale.
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California (1906)
Death toll
Gladys Hansen and Emmet Condon, after extensive research,
estimated that over 3000 deaths were caused directly or indirectly by
the catastrophe. The population of San Francisco at the time was
List of contents: about 400,000.
Course description Homeless

Why do we study 225,000 from a population of about 400,000. (photos)
earthquakes?
Seismic Risk
of structures
Earthquake effects
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Earthquakes
Lecture 1 Refuges in one of the Army camps waiting for water. (from Museum of the City of San
Francisco, Picture 46).
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California (1906)
The new knowledge led to an important theory...
Among the most significant observations made after the 1906

earthquake were triangulation surveys. By repeating previous
List of contents:
triangulation measurements, it was found that displacements in the
Course description earthquake were largest at the fault and decreased with distance from
Why do we study
it, so that a previously straight line crossing the fault had become
earthquakes?
curved.
3 Strain release
Seismic Risk
of structures 2 Strain accumulation
Earthquake effects
1 Unstrained situation
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Earthquakes
Lecture 1
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California (1906)
These observations provided the basis for the landmark "theory of
elastic rebound", introduced by Professor H.F. Reid of Johns
Hopkins University (1908).
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In Reid’s own words:
Course description
Why do we study
“It is impossible for the rock to rupture without
first being subjected to elastic strains greater
earthquakes?
that it can endure. We conclude that the crust in
Examples of earthquakes many parts of the Earth is being slowly
Seismic Risk displaced and the difference between
displacements in neighboring regions sets up
elastic strains, which may become larger than
of structures
the rock can endure. A rupture then takes place
Earthquake effects and the strained rock rebounds under its own
elastic stresses, until the strain is largely or
wholly revealed. In the majority of the cases,
the elastic rebounds on opposite sides of the
CIE 5260 fault are in opposite directions.”
Earthquakes
Lecture 1
On the elastic rebound theory , faulting is the cause of
earthquakes and not a consequence of them.
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California (1906)
Soil Type Greatly Influences Severity of Damage…
Reports showed that damage was greatest on artificially filled

List of contents: ground and areas of incoherent sands. Areas that suffered the least
damage were on rock.
Course description
Why do we study
earthquakes?
Seismic Risk
of structures
Earthquake effects
CIE 5260
Shown here is a crack near 18th Street
Earthquakes looking east to Folsom Street in San
Lecture 1
Francisco. (from Steinbrugge Collection of the
UC Berkeley Earthquake Engineering Research
Center)
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Historical earthquakes

List of contents: • Mexico city, Mexico (1985)
Course description
Why do we study
earthquakes?
Seismic Risk
of structures
Earthquake effects
“Learning the significance of local site

CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 1 effects through a disaster”
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Mexico city (1985)
The 1985 Mexico City earthquake1 struck in the early morning of

Thursday 19 September at 07:17:50 (CST) with a Mw=8.0 and a
Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent).
The event caused serious damage to the Greater Mexico City area and
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the deaths of at least 5,000 people.
Course description
Why do we study
earthquakes?
Seismic Risk
of structures
Earthquake effects
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Earthquakes Apartment Complex Pino Suárez collapsed
Lecture 1
after the 1985 Mexico City earthquake.
1 Bruce A. Bolt, Earthquakes 4th Edition (1999), p. 265-269.
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Mexico city (1985)
List of contents:
Course description
Why do we study SCT

earthquakes? (alluvium deposits)
Seismic Risk CDA

(alluvium deposits)
of structures
Earthquake effects VIV

(transition zone)
CIE 5260 UNAM

Earthquakes (rocky hill zone)
Lecture 1
1 William C. Stone, Felix Y. Yokel, Mehmet Celebi, Thomas Hanks, Edgar V. Leyendecker,
Engineering Aspects of the September 19, 1985 Mexico Earthquake (NBS BSS 165)
(https://www.nist.gov/node/600341?pub_id=908821)
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Mexico city (1985)
rocky hills
List of contents:
transition zone
Course description
Why do we study
earthquakes? alluvium zone
Seismic Risk
of structures
Earthquake effects
The ground motion is amplified at periods around 2 sec (SCT) and 3-4
sec (CDA) as the seismic waves entered the region on the deep alluvium
deposits and amplified1. The buildings most damaged were from 6
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to 15 stories in height. These buildings tended to resonate most with
Structural Response to the energetic frequency band of the lakebed motions.
Earthquakes
Lecture 1
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Lessons learned
List of contents:
Course description
Strong earthquakes that lead to disasters form the
Why do we study “experimental basis” of earthquake engineering
earthquakes?
Seismic Risk The current knowledge in earthquake-resistant design of

Earthquake-resistant design structures is accumulated through “catastrophes” in recent history
of structures
Earthquake effects
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Earthquakes
Lecture 1
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Recent earthquakes
List of contents:
Course description
Why do we study
• Sumatra (2004) & Japan (2011)
earthquakes?
Seismic Risk
of structures
Earthquake effects
Does the size of an earthquake really matter?

CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 1 “The seismological versus the engineering point of view”
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Chile and Haiti earthquakes (2010)
List of contents:
Course description
Why do we study
earthquakes?
Seismic Risk
of structures
Earthquake effects
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 1
Source: http://earthquake.usgs.gov
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List of contents:
Course description
Why do we study
earthquakes?
Seismic Risk
of structures
Earthquake effects
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 1
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List of contents:
Course description
Why do we study
earthquakes?
Seismic Risk
of structures
Earthquake effects
Haiti (2010)
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 1
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List of contents:
Course description
Why do we study
earthquakes?
Seismic Risk
of structures
Earthquake effects
Chile (2010)
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Earthquakes
Lecture 1
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List of contents:
Course description
Why do we study
earthquakes?
Seismic Risk
of structures
Earthquake effects
Nr. of deaths <1,000 ~316,000
CIE 5260
Structural Response to Energy release
Earthquakes
Lecture 1
*An increase by one in the magnitude scale results in an increase of

about 32 in the energy release.
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Does the size of a seismic event matter?
A large earthquake from a seismological point of view may not

be disastrous from an engineering point of view.
List of contents:
Course description The destructive potential of an earthquake depends on many

Why do we study factors:
earthquakes? o size of event
Examples of earthquakes o focal depth
Seismic Risk o topographical conditions
Earthquake-resistant design o epicentre distance
of structures o etc.
Earthquake effects
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The extent of damage, however, is governed by the types of
Earthquakes
structures at the region and the density of the population.
Lecture 1
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Does the size of a seismic event matter?
List of contents:
Course description
Why do we study
earthquakes?
Seismic Risk
of structures
Earthquake effects
Figure: Death toll from major seismic events during the period 2004-2014.
Source: http://earthquake.usgs.gov
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 1 The moment magnitude scale is NOT related to the destructiveness of the
earthquake; it is related to the energy released during a seismic event.
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Recent earthquakes
List of contents:
Course description
Why do we study
• Sumatra (2004) & Japan (2011)
earthquakes?
Seismic Risk
of structures
Earthquake effects
“When the indirect earthquake effects dominate…”

CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 1
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Sumatra (2004)
The 2004 Sumatra earthquake ruptured the greatest fault length of any
recorded earthquake, spanning a distance of 1500 km, or longer than the
state of California. The rupture started beneath the epicenter and
progressed northward along the fault at about 2 km/sec.
List of contents:
The whole rupture lasted about 10 minutes.
Course description
Why do we study
earthquakes?
Seismic Risk
of structures
Earthquake effects
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 1
1 http://www.tectonics.caltech.edu/outreach/highlights/sumatra/what.html
2 http://walrus.wr.usgs.gov/tsunami/sumatraEQ/SumatraNW2.html
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Japan (2011)
The 9.0 magnitude (Mw) undersea megathrust earthquake occurred on
11 March 2011 at 14:46 JST (05:46 UTC) in the north-western Pacific
Ocean at a relatively shallow depth of 32 km (19.9 mi) with its epicenter
approximately 72 km east of the Oshika Peninsula of Tōhoku, Japan,
List of contents:
lasting approximately six minutes.
Course description
Why do we study
earthquakes?
Seismic Risk
of structures
Earthquake effects
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 1
1 "Magnitude 9.03 – Near The East Coast Of Honshu, Japan". United States Geological Survey
(USGS). Archived from the original on 5 April 2011. Retrieved 13 March 2011.
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Seismicity in Europe
List of contents:
Course description
Why do we study
earthquakes?
Seismic Risk
of structures
Earthquake effects
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 1
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Seismicity in The Netherlands
Induced
earthquakes
List of contents:
Course description
Why do we study
earthquakes?
Seismic Risk
of structures
Earthquake effects Tectonic

earthquakes
• Tectonic earthquakes in the southeast  strongest earthquake was

CIE 5260
Structural Response to the 1992 Roermond earthquake with a magnitude of 5.8.
Earthquakes
Lecture 1
• Induced earthquakes in the northeast  strongest event was the
Huizinge Earthquake, August 2012 (LINK)
• Recent seismic events: LINK
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Earthquakes online
List of contents:
Course description http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/
Why do we study
earthquakes?
Seismic Risk
of structures
Earthquake effects
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 1
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Course description
• Lectures

• Seismic Risk
CIE 5260
Lecture 1
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Seismic Risk
HAZARD
The probability of occurrence of a specified
List of contents: natural hazard of a specified level in a specified
period of time
Course description
Why do we study
ELEMENT AT RISK
earthquakes?
RISK People or structures or any other valuable assets
which would be affected by the hazard
Seismic Risk
of structures
VULNERABILITY
Sensitivity of assets to damage of a certain level
Earthquake effects
when exposed to a certain level of hazard
CIE 5260
Seismic risk is the product of hazard and vulnerability for a unit

Earthquakes
Lecture 1
value of assets.
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Mitigation of the seismic risk
SEISMIC RISK MITIGATION
List of contents:
Course description ASSESS REDUCE

Why do we study HAZARD VULNERABILITY
earthquakes?
Seismic Risk
Seismic Hazard Analysis Design of new structures
Seismic input
of structures Retrofitting of existing
Earthquake effects
structures
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 1
EARTHQUAKE ENGINEER
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Seismic hazard analysis
The standard method for the estimation of the seismic hazard is the
Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis (PSHA). The method is based
on the following key steps:
List of contents:
• Identification of the seismic source of faults
Course description
• Characterisation of the annual rate of seismic events
Why do we study • Development of ground motion prediction equations (GMPEs)
earthquakes? • Combining factors to result at a probability of a certain level of
Examples of earthquakes ground motion occurring over a certain period of time
Seismic Risk
of structures
Earthquake effects
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 1
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Seismic hazard analysis
The PSHA provides the seismic input required for the structural analysis.
Traditionally the seismic input were (and still are) based only on Peak
List of contents: Ground Acceleration (PGA) maps and acceleration response spectral
quantities (Lecture 7 – CIE5260).
Course description
Why do we study Modern PSHA methods can provide many more parameters and it is up to
earthquakes? engineer to define which of those are needed for a structural analysis!
Seismic Risk
of structures
Earthquake effects
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 1
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Mitigation of the seismic risk
If the causes of earthquakes were fully understood in a quantitative way,

List of contents: prediction of the time and place of damaging earthquakes might become
feasible1.
Course description
Why do we study
earthquakes?
Seismic Risk However, earthquake engineers must be alert to oppose the view that
Earthquake-resistant design successful prediction would eliminate public hazard. Forewarning of
of structures an earthquake will not prevent damage to weak structures.
Earthquake effects
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 1
1 In Bruce A. Bolt, Earthquakes 4th Edition (1999) there is an interesting chapter (chapter 10)
devoted to events that precede an earthquake and the various attempts to earthquake predictions
in modern times.
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Assess vulnerability
LEVEL 1: MINOR EARTHQUAKES

Engineering limit state: Insignificant damage
SEISMIC DESIGN
List of contents: Socio-economical limit state: Continued operation
Course description
Why do we study LEVEL 2: MODERATE EARTHQUAKE

earthquakes? Engineering limit state: Repairable damage
Examples of earthquakes Socio-economical limit state: Limited economic loss
Seismic Risk
of structures
LEVEL 3: MAJOR EARTHQUAKE
Engineering limit state: Collapse prevention
Earthquake effects
Socio-economical limit state: Life loss prevention
CIE 5260
Structural Response to In modern earthquake engineering the structural design
Earthquakes
Lecture 1 reflects the socio-economical consequences of seismic
events of varying intensity.
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Course description
• Lectures

• Seismic Risk
CIE 5260
Lecture 1
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Earthquake resistant design
List of contents:
Course description
Why do we study
earthquakes?
Seismic Risk
Earthquake-resistant
design of structures
Earthquake effects
Classical approaches Modern approach
CIE 5260
• In direct design the structural verification can be either
Earthquakes
Lecture 1
strength-based or ductility-based.
• Capacity design is based on both strength and ductility!
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“Direct” versus “Capacity” design
List of contents:
Course description
Why do we study
earthquakes?
Seismic Risk
Earthquake effects
ag(t)
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 1 Assume that the seismic excitation results at the following
simple loading pattern in the multi-storey frame structure
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List of contents:
Course description
Why do we study
earthquakes?
Seismic Risk
Mb
Earthquake effects
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 1 By performing the structural analysis we calculate the resulting
moment Mb at the location of interest.
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List of contents:
Course description Mc12

Why do we study
earthquakes?
Mb
Seismic Risk Mc11

Earthquake effects
In the direct design we will choose the beam and column

CIE 5260
Structural Response to dimensions and cross sectional characteristics (width, height,
Earthquakes
Lecture 1 reinforcement etc.) based on the equilibrium of forces and
moments at the joint:
Mc11+Mc12-Mb=0
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List of contents:
Mc12
Course description
Why do we study
earthquakes?
M’bmax
Seismic Risk
Mc11
Earthquake effects
CIE 5260 In reality however we design the beam for:

Earthquakes
Lecture 1
M’bmax>Mb M’bmax/Mb=k>1.0
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“Weak beam-strong column” design
List of contents:
M’c12
Course description
Why do we study
earthquakes?
M’bmax
Seismic Risk
M’c11
Earthquake effects
In capacity design we introduce a new “capacity equilibrium” such that:

CIE 5260
Structural Response to M’c11+M’c12-M’bmax=0
Earthquakes
Lecture 1
By doing so we control the sequence of failures and we make sure that
the columns are stronger than the beams. We control the hierarchy
of failure modes in the structural system.
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Soft-storey failure mode
Soft-storey failure mode
List of contents:
Course description
Why do we study
earthquakes?
Seismic Risk
Earthquake effects
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 1
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Course description
• Lectures

• Seismic Risk
CIE 5260
Lecture 1
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Earthquake effects
List of contents:
Course description
Why do we study
earthquakes?
Seismic Risk
of structures
Earthquake effects
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 1
fragility, p. 39.
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Typical damage to buildings
List of contents:
Course description
Why do we study
earthquakes?
Seismic Risk
of structures
Earthquake effects
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 1
Some damage reports can be found in:
https://www.ideals.illinois.edu/handle/2142/8798
fragility, p. 39.
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Typical damage to lifelines
List of contents:
Course description
Why do we study
earthquakes?
Seismic Risk
of structures
Earthquake effects
1995 Kobe earthquake
(Japan), Mw=6.9:
https://web.archive.org/web/19
970501040412/http://www.agu.
CIE 5260 org/sci_soc/kobe.html
Earthquakes
Lecture 1
fragility, p. 39.
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Soil liquefaction
List of contents:
Course description
Why do we study
earthquakes?
Seismic Risk
of structures
Earthquake effects
Soil liquefaction after the 1964 Nagata (Japan) Sand boils after the 2001
CIE 5260 earthquake (Mw=7.5): Bhuj earthquake (India)
Earthquakes
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1964_Niigata_earthquake
Lecture 1
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Surface rupture
List of contents:
Course description
Why do we study
earthquakes?
Seismic Risk
of structures
Earthquake effects
A section of the Nojima Fault (left) and preserved damage at the

CIE 5260
Earthquake Memorial Park near the port of Kobe caused by the
Structural Response to 1995 Kobe earthquake with a moment magnitude of 6.9.
Earthquakes
Lecture 1
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Hanshin_earthquake
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Examples of failures
For more information about the failure modes you can consult the
List of contents: following resources:
Course description Farzed Naeim and Marshall Lew published in Structural Design of Tall Buildings, Vol.9, p. 161-
182 (2000), THE 1999 EARTHQUAKE DISASTERS WORLDWIDE: HOW MANY TIMES DO WE
Why do we study HAVE TO RE-LEARN THE FUNDAMENTALS OF SEISMIC ENGINEERING?
earthquakes?
Seismic Risk
of structures
Earthquake effects
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 1
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Summary
 Course description and expectations
 Historical and recent earthquakes
 Seismic risk (hazard and vulnerability)
 Selected topics on earthquake-resistant design of structures
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 1
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Course CIE5260 (Structural Response
to Earthquakes). Lecture 2
Engineering seismology
Part I
Pavel Ditmar
Department of Geoscience and Remote Sensing (GRS)

Faculty of Civil Engineering & Geosciences
E-mail p.g.ditmar@tudelft.nl
Tel. 015-2782501
Room CiTG 2.14
1
Outlook
• Plate tectonics: why and where

do the major earthquakes occur?
• Faulting
• Seismic waves: how do the
earthquakes shake the Earth?
– Body seismic waves
– Propagation of body waves and
Snell’s law
2
Literature
• Elnashai, A.S. and Sarno, L.D., 2008.

Fundamentals of Earthquake
Engineering, John Wiley & Sons Ltd,
Chichester, England.
• Shearer, P.M., 2009. Introduction to

seismology, Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, UK.
3
Plate Tectonics:
Why and where do the
major earthquakes occur?
4
Earthquakes and their causes
• An earthquake: ground shaking caused by a

sudden release of energy inside the Earth
5
Earthquakes and their causes
• An earthquake: ground shaking caused by a

sudden release of energy inside the Earth
• Potential causes:
– Collapse of underground cavities (mines, karsts)
– Stresses induced by human activities (e.g., gas
production)
– Volcanic eruptions
– Tectonic activity
6
Continental drift: do the
continents migrate? Alfred Wegener, German
geophysicist and
meteorologist (1880-1930)
• In 1912, the continental drift hypothesis was

presented by Alfred Wegener. However, the
mechanism causing the drift remained a problem.
7
https://www.slideshare.net/jjconnolly/continental-drift-theory-2351763
How old is the Earth?
Lord Kelvin, Scots-Irish
physicist and engineer
(1824-1907)
• In 1897, Lord Kelvin estimated the Earth’s age to be 20–40 million

years old, assuming that it experience a continuous cooling since the
moment of formation. However, that contradicted to geologist’s
estimates of the age of rocks and the age of the Earth. 8
Radioactive decay
• 1896: French scientist Henri Becquerel

discovered radioactive decay – the process by
which an unstable atomic nucleus breaks apart,
while emitting radiation
• 1903: French physicists Pierre Curie and Albert
Laborde discovered that radioactive decay
releases heat
• 1928: British geologist Arthur Holmes linked, for
the first time, the heat of radioactive decay with
the continental movement
9
Radioactive decay and mantle
convection
• Most of the Earth’s

volume (84%) is
occupied by the
mantle (a 2,900-km
thick layer)
• The mantle is mostly solid, but in geological time behaves as a
very viscous fluid
• Decay of radioactive isotopes in the mantle (mostly, uranium-
238, thorium-232, and potassium-40, as well as their decay
chains) results in an emission of heat
• The heat triggers convection processes in the mantle, by
which the created heat is carried from the interior of the Earth
to the surface 10
Outermost Earth’s structure
• Crust – the outermost solid shell, which is chemically distinct from

the underlying mantle (3–70 km thick)
• Moho boundary – the boundary between the crust and the mantle
• Lithosphere – the outermost shell defined by its rigid mechanical
properties (includes the crust and the upper mantle, 50–300 km
thick)
• Asthenosphere – highly viscous, mechanically weak region of the
upper mantle, extending downwards from the base of the
lithosphere 11
http://xenon.colorado.edu/spotlight/index.php?action=kb&page=3
Tectonic plates
• The lithosphere is broken into tectonic plates (or slabs)
• There are about 7 major plates and many minor ones
Elnashai & Sarno12

Mantle convection and plate tectonics
In the course of
mantle convection,
tectonic plates are
continuously being
created and
consumed at their
opposite boundaries
At the divergent
At the convergent or
zones, mantle The hot material
subduction zones,
material is added to gradually migrates
the dense material
the growing edges along the surface,
sinks in the process
of a plate (typically, cooling down; the
of subduction
at mid-ocean density of material
(usually, at an ocean
ridges), causing the increases
trench)
seafloor spreading
13
Major tectonic
plates and the
spatial distribution
of earthquakes
Circum-Pacific
seismic belt
(“Ring of fire”).
16
Elnashai & Sarno
Earthquakes: general information
• When two tectonic plates move with respect to one another, elastic
strain energy is accumulated
• The earthquake occurs when the stress has risen sufficiently to
produce brittle ruptures, suddenly releasing the stored energy
• During the earthquake, the distorted blocks snap back towards the
equilibrium (“elastic rebound”)
• An earthquake is defined by its position (i.e., focus or hypocentre) and time
• Focus or hypocentre of an earthquake is termed as the point where the
rupture is originated. It is characterized by 3 spatial coordinates:
(latitude, longitude, depth)
Focal
Epicentre depth
(projection of the
hypocentre onto Focal
the Earth’s depth
surface) 18
Types of plate boundaries
• Divergent (or rift) zones

• Convergent (or subduction)
zones
• Transform zones
21
Mid-Atlantic
Ridge:
example of a
divergent zone
(an area where
the plates
separate
themselves from
one another)
22
Elnashai & Sarno
Circum-Pacific
seismic belt
(western part):
example of a
subduction zone
(an area where the
adjacent plates
converge and
collide)
24
Elnashai & Sarno
San Andreas
Fault (California):
example of a
transform zone
(an area where two
plates glide past
one another but
without creating
new lithosphere or
subducting)
26
Elnashai & Sarno
Reconstructed plate motion velocities
28
http://xenon.colorado.edu/spotlight/index.php?action=kb&page=3
Tectonic plates and earthquakes:
some more facts
• 95% of worldwide seismic energy

release takes place at plate boundaries
(“inter-plate earthquakes”)
• 90% earthquakes occur within the Ring
of Fire
• Most of earthquakes take place at a
depth of a few tens of km or less
• The deepest earthquakes occur at the
subduction zones (down to 700 km)
30
Faulting
31
Faulting: general information
• Tectonic motions result in an accumulation of

elastic strain energy, which is ultimately
released through a rupture of the interface
zone (‘elastic rebound’)
• A planar fracture in the Earth’s crust
associated with significant rock mass
displacements is termed “a fault”.
• Characteristics of an earthquake ground
motion are affected by the slip mechanism of
the fault that caused the earthquake
• Faults may be classified on the basis of their
geometry and the direction of relative slip
32
Fault parameters
Azimuth (0o ≤ ϕ < 360o)

(the fault plane dips to the right)
Slip or rake
(-180o < λ ≤ 180o,
positive upwards)
Mean relative
displacement vector
Area (S): area of

Mean relative highly stressed region
Dip (0o ≤ δ ≤ 90o) displacement (∆u>0) within the fault plane
33
Foot wall and hanging wall
Foot wall: the

block underlying
the fault plane Hanging wall: the
block overhanging
the fault plane
Relative displacement: displacement of the

hanging wall relative to the foot wall
Slip angle:
• if the hanging wall moves down, λ < 0o
• if the hanging wall moves up, λ > 0o 35
... occur when one
Dip-slip faults block moves vertically
with respect to
the other
(slip angle: λ = ± 90o)
Normal dip-slip fault: Reverse dip-slip fault: Thrust fault: reverse dip-
hanging wall moves hanging wall moves slip fault characterized
downwards (λ = –90o, upwards (λ = 90o,
caused by tensile forces, by a small dip angle
caused by compression
typical for mid-oceanic (typical for the Circum-
ridges) forces)
Pacific seismic belt) 36
Strike-slip faults
... occur when the adjacent blocks move
horizontally past one another other
(typical for transform zones)
Left-lateral fault: the Right-lateral fault: the

adjacent block moves to adjacent block moves to
the left with respect to the right with respect to
the current one the current one 37
Oblique-slip faults
... combine dip-slip and strike-slip

movements (the displacement vector has
both vertical and horizontal components)
Oblique-slip faults can be:

– either normal or reverse
– either right- or left-lateral
38
Fault types (summary)
Fault types Dip angle Slip (or rake) angle
Normal faults λ < 0o
Normal dip-slip faults λ = -90o
Reverse faults λ > 0o
Reverse dip-slip faults λ = 90o
Thrust faults Small λ = 90o
Strike-slip faults δ ≈ 90o λ = 0o
Oblique-slip faults λ ≠ 0o or ±90o or 180o
39
Seismic waves
Body seismic waves:
what are they?
40
Seismic waves
• Up to 10% of the total plate-tectonic energy is
dissipated in the form of seismic waves
• Seismic waves are classified into body waves
and surface waves:
Body waves: Surface waves:
Travel outward Propagate

from a source across the outer
in all directions layers of the
through the Earth
Earth’s interiors
41
http://eqseis.geosc.psu.edu/~cammon/HTML/Classes/IntroQuakes/Notes/waves_and_interior.html
Body waves
• There are two types of

body waves:
– Compressional or Primary
(P-) waves
– Shear or Secondary (S-)
waves
• They are distinguished by

the directions of particle
motion, as waves pass by
42
P-wave (Compressional wave)
animation
Particle motion is parallel to the direction of wave propagation;

it results in alternating compression and rarefaction
http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~braile/edumod/waves/WaveDemo.htm#Downloads 44
S-wave (Shear wave) animation
Particle motion is perpendicular to the direction of wave

propagation; it results in shear deformations
http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~braile/edumod/waves/WaveDemo.htm#Downloads 45
Two components of an S-wave
Particle motion triggered by an S-wave can be separated into:
– Horizontal (SH) component
– Vertical (SV) component
P
SV
SH
46
http://petrowiki.org/images/a/ac/Vol5_Page_0033_Image_0001.png
Some properties of body waves
• Energy decreases proportionally to ~1/L2

=> Amplitude decreases proportionally to ~1/L
(where L is the distance from the source)
• Wave attenuation (which is caused by viscosity
of the Earth’s materials) increases with
frequency
• S-waves damp more rapidly than P-waves
48
Link between seismic velocities and
elastic properties of medium
A - area
http://seismo.berkeley.edu/~rallen/teaching/
F04_GEO594_IntroAppGeophys/ 49
Velocities of body waves (cont’d)
• In isotropic media, the velocity of wave
propagation is independent of the direction
• Body waves (unlike surface waves) are non-
dispersive, i.e. their velocity is independent of
frequency =>
o The waveform shows minor change in the
course of wave propagation
• For liquids and gases μ = 0 =>
o P-waves propagate through liquids and gases
with reduced velocity
o S-waves do not propagate through liquids and
gases
• k > 0 => Vp > Vs (P-waves arrive first)
• For ordinary soil types, 0 ≤ Vs ≤ 0.53Vp
(this is used in earthquake advance warning
systems)
50
Typical velocity of body waves in
some materials
51
Earth’s structure
https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Historical_Geology/Seismic_waves
53
Seismic waves:
Propagation of body
waves and Snell’s law
56
Seismic wavefronts and seismic rays
• Set of points of the same phase (e.g., the first arrivals)
forms the wavefront (a sphere in a homogeneous medium)
• The wavefront expands as the wave travels away from the
source (t0 < t1 < t2)
• In isotropic media, the direction of wave propagation is
orthogonal to the wavefront
• Trajectories of wave propagation form seismic rays (straight
lines in a homogeneous medium)
Wavefronts
Seismic rays
57
Refraction of seismic rays
v1 v1
v2 v2
v2 < v1 v2 > v1
59
http://eqseis.geosc.psu.edu/~cammon/HTML/Classes/IntroQuakes/Notes/waves_and_interior.html
Snell’s law
v1
v2
Ray
parameter
sin θi sin θR sin θr

v1
= v1
= v2
=p
60
http://www.met.reading.ac.uk/pplato2/h-flap/phys6_2.html
Snell’s law and conversion of waves
Reflection and transmission waves in the presence

conversion (P  SV)
ip
61
Propagation of a seismic ray in a
laterally-homogeneous medium
sin θ1 sin θ2 sin θn

= = ... = = p
v1 v2 vn
The ray parameter is constant along each ray
62
Propagation of seismic rays in a continuous
sin θ(h)
=p
v(h)
At the turning point: h = hmax; θ = 90o
1
=> p=
v(hmax)
Shearer.
Introduction to
seismology
The smaller the ray parameter, the more the wave

“dives” inside the Earth and the further it travels 65
Seismic wave traveltime
tP – time of the
P-wave arrival
t = tP – t0
traveltime
time of the seismic event
66
Traveltime of a seismic wave in a
∆ln vn
∆l2 v2
∆l1 v1
68
Propagation of seismic S- and P-
waves through the Earth interiors
https://opentextbc.ca/geology/chapter/9-1-understanding-earth-through-seismology
69
Stack of short-period seismic data from global
networks (1988–1994) with an annotation
70
Shearer. Introduction to seismology
Ray nomenclature: global phases
P – P-wave in the mantle

S – S-wave in the mantle
K – P-wave in the outer core
I – P-wave in the inner core
J – S-wave in the inner core
c – reflection off the core-mantle boundary

i – reflection off the inner-core boundary 71
Ray nomenclature: crustal phases
Pg – P-wave turning within the crust

Pn – P-wave travelling in the uppermost mantle below the Moho boundary
m – reflection off the Moho boundary
For a complete list, see http://www.isc.ac.uk/standards/phases/

72
Course CIE5260 (Structural Response
to Earthquakes). Lecture 3
Engineering seismology
Part II
Pavel Ditmar
Department of Geoscience and Remote Sensing (GRS)

Faculty of Civil Engineering & Geosciences
E-mail p.g.ditmar@tudelft.nl
Tel. 015-2782501
Room CiTG 2.14
1
Outlook
• Surface seismic waves

• Measuring the earthquake
strength
• Earthquake occurrence and
return period
2
Literature
• Elnashai, A.S. and Sarno, L.D., 2008.

Fundamentals of Earthquake Engineering,
John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Chichester, England.
• Shearer, P.M., 2009. Introduction to

seismology, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, UK.
3
Surface seismic
waves
4
Surface waves
• There are two types of

surface waves:
– Rayleigh (R-, LR-) waves
– Love (L-, LQ-) waves
• They are distinguished by

the directions and
trajectories of particle
motion, as waves pass by.
5
Rayleigh (LR-) wave animation
Particle motion forms a retrograde ellipse in the vertical plane

parallel to the direction of wave propagation.
The long axis of the ellipse is perpendicular to the Earth’s surface
6
http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~braile/edumod/waves/WaveDemo.htm#Downloads
Love (LQ-) wave animation
Particle motion is horizontal and perpendicular to the

direction of wave propagation.
7
http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~braile/edumod/waves/WaveDemo.htm#Downloads
Generation of surface waves
Surface waves are formed by constructive interference of
body waves travelling between the ground surface and
various underlying boundaries
(SH  LQ; P & SV  LR)
For instance, the existence of Love wave can be explained

by a constructive interference of waves S, SS, SSS, etc.
Example: formation of a Love wave in a laterally-

homogeneous medium with a positive vertical gradient of Vs
(see next 5 slides)
8
Propagation of seismic rays in a continuous
sin θ(h)
=p
v(h)
At the turning point: h = hmax; θ = 90o
1
=> p=
v(hmax)
Shearer.
Introduction to
seismology
The smaller the ray parameter, the more the wave

“dives” inside the Earth and the further it travels 10
Plane monochromatic wave
approaching the surface of a
(laterally-) homogeneous medium
Ray parameter
Seismic
rays
Velocity
Velocity of wavefront propagation along the Earth’s surface 11

Wave propagation in a continuous
laterally-homogeneous medium where
velocity increases with depths
Reflection points
Turning point (at the depth where v=1/p)
Traveltime of the wavefront between two reflection points:
Traveltime of the wave along the raypath: T (T > t)

12
Constructive interference
Phase delay along the surface: ∆ϕ Angular frequency

of the plane wave
Phase delay along the raypath: ∆Φ
Condition of constructive interference:
Phase advance at
the turning point of a
plane wave
13
Constructive interference (cont’d)
Condition of the
surface wave
occurrence
n = 0,1,2,...
n=0: fundamental mode
n>0: higher modes
c=p-1: phase velocity of the surface wave
(velocity with which peaks and troughs travel)
c(ω): dispersion curve
14
Group velocity
• Group velocity (U) – velocity of seismic energy

propagation:
• Alternative formula:
where k – wavenumber:
with λ – wavelength (when observed at the surface)

16
Propagation of a dispersive wave
17
http://resource.isvr.soton.ac.uk/spcg/tutorial/tutorial/Tutorial_files/littlewavepackets.gif
Dispersion curves of surface waves
computed for an isotropic Earth model
18
Velocity of surface waves
• Surface waves are slower than body waves
• Love waves are usually faster than Rayleigh waves
• Quantitatively:
– Group velocity of Rayleigh waves: VLR ≈ 0,92 VS
– Group velocity of Love waves: VS1 < VLQ < VS2,
where VS1 – velocity of S-waves at the surface
VS2 – velocity of S-waves in deeper layers
(at the depth of the turning points)
19
Some general properties of
surface waves
• Most prominent after shallow earthquakes
• Energy decreases proportionally to ~1/L,
where L is the distance from the source
=> Amplitude decreases proportionally to ~1/L1/2
=> Surface waves become more distinct,
compared to body waves, as the distance from
the source increases
• May be observable for many hours after large
earthquakes, circling the Earth multiple times
• Amplitude decreases with depth
20
Example of a seismogram
21
Seismic waves from the point of
view of seismic hazard (summary)
P-waves S-waves Surface waves

Small Larger Large amplitudes,
amplitudes amplitudes which slowly
decrease with
distance
Short periods, Longer periods, Long periods,
short duration short duration long duration
Relatively little May cause May cause severe
damage significant damages
potential damages
22
Measuring the
earthquake
strength
23
How to assess an earthquake size?
Qualitative Quantitative
(non-instrumental) (instrumental)
measures measures
Intensity: Magnitude
non-instrumental
measure of damage to
structures, ground
surface effects, human
reaction to earthquake
shaking etc.
24
Example of an intensity scale:
Modified Mercalli (MM) scale
25
Example of an intensity map
Isoseismal map for 1989 Loma Prieta
earthquake in California
Isoseismals:
contour lines of
equal intensity
Epicentre
Elnashai & Sarno
Intensity scales do not account for local conditions (e.g., soil properties,
presence/absence of populated areas, etc.)
=> correlations between intensity and earthquake energy may be poor 26
Earthquake magnitude
... quantitative measure, typically based on the

maximum amplitude of body or surface waves.
Examples:
• Local (or Richter) magnitude
• Body-wave magnitude
• Surface-wave magnitude
• Moment magnitude
27
Local magnitude ML (Richter, 1930s)
... based on the maximum seismic wave amplitude A (in
mkm) recorded on standard Wood-Anderson seismographs
ML = log10 (A(x)) – log10 (A0(x)),
where x – distance from the epicentre
A0 – distance-dependent calibration factor
(A0 = 1 mkm at a distance of 100 km)
• ML = 3 corresponds to A = 1 mm at a
distance of 100 km
• ML = 2 – smallest event felt by people
• ML > 5.5 - significant damages are
possible
x
28
Local magnitude ML (cont’d)
Usage is currently limited because...
• Amplitude vs. epicentral distance was defined for the
Southern California
• Standard Wood-Anderson seismographs are
obsolete instruments (used rarely)
• Dependence of the amplitude on wave period and
focal depth is not considered
x
29
Surface wave magnitude (MS)
and body wave magnitude (mb)
MS = log10 (A/T) + 1.66 log10 ∆ + 3.3
mb = log10 (A/T) + Q(∆,h)
where A – amplitude of LR- / P- waves (in mkm)
T – dominant period
∆ – epicentral distance
Q(h,∆) – empirical function of ∆ and focal depth h
Over a wide range, there is a semi-empirical link (Richter, 1958):
mb = 0.63 MS + 2.5
• MS is applicable only to shallow events (since surface wave
amplitudes for deep events are greatly reduced), at ∆ > 2,000 km
• mb designed for deep distant earthquakes (∆ > 600-1,000 km)
• mb and MS may not be proportional to the actual earthquake
strength due to a “magnitude saturation” effect
(typically, MS < 8 and mb < 7 even for largest earthquakes;
see Shearer, p.283)
31
Moment magnitude MW (Kanamori,1977)
MW = 2/3 [log10 M0 - 9.1] (for M0 in N∙m)

MW = 2/3 [log10 M0 - 16.1] (for M0 in dyn∙cm)
where M0 – seismic moment of an earthquake
(measures the extent of deformation at the
earthquake source; has dimensions of torque):
M0 = μ S ∆u
with μ – shear modulus of the material surrounding the fault
S – fault rupture area

∆u – average fault displacement
33
Seismic moment vs earthquake
magnitudes Moment
magnitude
Surface wave
magnitude
Body wave
magnitude
35
Properties of different magnitude scales
(summary)
ML
mb
MS
MW
Elnashai & Sarno
36
Largest earthquakes since 1950
Date Region MW
1 1960 May 22 Chile 9.5
2 1964 March 28 Alaska 9.2
3 2004 December 26 Sumatra- 9.1
Andaman
4 2011 March 11 Tōhoku region, 9.1
Japan
5 1957 March 9 Aleutian Islands 9.1
6 1952 November 4 Kamchatka, 9.0
Russia
7 2010 February 27 Offshore Maule, 8.8
Chile
8 1950 August 15 Assam, Tibet 8.7
9 1965 February 4 Aleutian Islands 8.7
10 2005 March 28 Sumatra 8.6
37
Surface-wave magnitude vs. the
energy released by an earthquake
[MS]
Elnashai & Sarno

38
Earthquake magnitude vs. the
energy released
Semi-empirical relationships (Richter, 1958):
log10 E = 1.5 MS + 4.8 (in joules)

log10 E = 1.5 MS + 11.8 (in ergs)
As the magnitude increases by one unit, the energy

released by an earthquake increases by a factor of 103/2 ≈ 31.6
The difference between two units if magnitude is a factor of
103 = 1000 on energy release
log10 E = 2.4 mb – 1.3 (in joules)

log10 E = 2.4 mb + 5.7 (in ergs)
39
Seismic moment vs. the energy
released
∆τ
E = M0
2μ
where M0 - seismic moment

∆τ – stress drop (≈ 6MPa for moderate to large
earthquakes)
μ – shear modulus of the material surrounding
the fault (≈ 32,000 MPa in the crust;
75,000 MPa in the mantle)
40
Earthquake magnitude vs. intensity:
some empirical relationships
ML = 0.67 I0 + 1, where I0 – epicentral intensity
(applicable for Southern California;
Gutenberg & Richter, 1956)
 Epicentral intensity of VI corresponds to ML =5
(an earthquake that may cause a significant damage)
MS = 0.66 I0 + 1.7 log h – 1.4, where h – focal depth (in km)

(Sponheuer, 1960)
MS = -0.9 + 0.58 Ii + 1.1∙10-3 ri + 2.11 log10 ri ,

(applicable for the Alpine zone; Ambraseys, 1985, 1989)
where Ii – intensity of the ith isoseismal;
ri – radius of the area enclosed by the ith isoseismal (in km)
42
Earthquake
occurrence and
return period
43
Probabilistic analysis
• Forecasting an earthquake remains problematic
 Probabilistic analysis is used in seismic hazard
assessment
• Time-series of earthquakes in a given region is
frequently modelled as a Poisson process:
– Integer-value counting (number of events in a reference
time interval is an integer number)
– Stationary (expected number of events depends only on
the interval length and does not change in time),
=> probability of occurring each particular event is
independent of history
=> Not applicable to a fore- and after-shocks
44
Expected number of occurrences per
unit time
Let:
t – time interval under consideration
n(t) – number of events in time interval t
N - expected (i.e., mean) number of

occurrences per unit time:
45
Earthquake occurrence as a Poisson’s
process
Let N be the expected number earthquakes with
magnitudes m > M per unit time:
Probability of having exactly n earthquakes with

magnitudes m > M over a reference time period tr :
or
where – mean number of

events in time tr 46
Poisson’s process: examples
Probability that at
least one event will nr =1
occur: 100-37=63% nr =4
nr =10
Pn
n 47
Wikipedia
Poisson’s process: probability of no
earthquake occurrence
Let n=0 =>
The probability that no earthquakes will occur in

the reference time interval tr reduces exponentially
as the mean number of earthquakes in this interval
increases.
48
Return period
Return period TR: mean time interval between the
earthquakes with a magnitude m > M:
Probability P that at least one earthquake with a

magnitude m > M will occur in time tr
(“probability of exceedance”):
=> Longer return periods translate into a lower

probability of earthquake occurrence
50
Return period as a function of tr
=>
475
[tr]
Elnashai & Sarno
51
Return period as a function of tr:
approximate formula
=>
or
• For instance, the probability that an earthquake

with a magnitude greater than M will occur in the
next 100 years is 10% if the return period of such
earthquakes is 1000 years.
52
Number of earthquakes vs their
magnitudes (Gutenberg–Richter law)
Frequency of earthquake occurrence drops
exponentially with the increasing earthquake magnitude:
where a describes the total number of earthquakes in a region;

b measures the relative number of large earthquakes
compared to small ones (typically, 0.8 < b < 1.2)
At b=1, the number of earthquakes increases by a factor of 10

every unit drop in magnitude. For instance, if there is one M>6
event per year in a given region, one should expect there 10
events M>5, 100 events M>4, etc.
53
Number of earthquakes vs their
magnitudes from a global catalogue
Evidence of
catalogue
incompleteness
Deviation from the

power law (or a
temporary deficit
of large
earthquakes)
Number of earthquakes in 1976–2005 from
the global CMT catalogue
54
Probability of earthquakes vs their
magnitudes
=>
“Low-probability – high-consequence" scenario:

the probability of a large earthquake is low, but
potential economical losses are high
55
CIE 5260

Tel.: 015 27 89225, Room 3.44
Lecture 4
CIE 5260
Delft, 2019
1/ 52
Weekly consultancy hours
• Every Thursday from 9:00-17:00
• Arvind Poonia (A.Poonia@tudelft.nl)

• Kaj Kuipers (K.Kuipers-1@tudelft.nl )
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 4
2/ 52
Earthquakes online

http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 4
3/ 52
Source-to-site effects
• Directivity
• Site effects
• Resonances of 1D soil column
• Forced vibrations of 1D soil column
• Resonances of a 2D soil basin in anti-plane shear
• Wave passage effects
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 4
4/ 52
The characteristics of seismic waves are altered as they travel
from the source to the site of engineering structures due to:
List of contents:
o Rupture characteristics
o Wave dispersion effects
Directivity
Site effects
o Reflection (and refraction) of waves at various interfaces
Wave passage effects o Local site effects
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 4
• How does each of these components influence the final motion
recorded on the surface of the ground?
• What are the implications in the design of engineering structures?
5/ 52
The characteristics of seismic waves are altered as they travel
from the source to the site of engineering structures due to:
List of contents:
o Rupture characteristics
o Wave dispersion effects (CIE4140)
Directivity
Site effects
o Reflection (and refraction) of waves at various interfaces (CIE4140)
Wave passage effects o Local site effects
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 4
• How does each of these components influence the final motion
recorded on the surface of the ground?
• What are the implications in the design of engineering structures?
6/ 52
• Directivity
• Site effects
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 4
7/ 52
Directivity
o Small earthquakes can be treated as sources that may be represented
by a point in the earth’s interior.
List of contents: o Moderate-to-large seismic events though can be caused by fault

ruptures of considerable length, often hundreds of kilometres long1.
Directivity
Site effects
Wave passage effects
Animation of simulated ground motion after a possible magnitude 8 earthquake on the San Andreas fault
(Source: Southern California Earthquake Center, High Performance GeoComputing Lab)
CIE 5260 Waves propagate away from the fault rupture with different intensity along
Earthquakes different directions  “directivity”
Lecture 4
1 See examples of Lecture 1:

- San Andreas (1906)  fault rupture∼500km;
- Sumatra (2004)  fault rupture ∼1500km.
8/ 52
Directivity
Directivity occurs because fault ruptures are moving wave sources
which travel at a finite velocity along the fault. This is essentially a
Doppler effect.
List of contents:
Directivity
Site effects Direction of (sub-critical)

fault rupture
Speed of fault rupture lower

than the speed of waves in
the surrounding rock
CIE 5260
Structural Response to Long duration-low Short duration- high
Earthquakes
Lecture 4
amplitude pulse amplitude pulse
1 The Doppler effect (or the Doppler shift) is the change in frequency or wavelength of a wave
(or other periodic event) for an observer moving relative to its source (Source: Wikipedia).
9/ 52
Directivity
As the fault rupture progresses it generates ground motion from

each segment of the breaking fault and waves radiate outward
List of contents:
in all directions in the form of expanding wave fronts.
Directivity
Rupture velocity v1 Rupture velocity v2>v1 Rupture velocity v3>v2
Site effects (sub-critical) (critical) (super-critical)
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Rupture directivity causes polarisation of the ground
Lecture 4
motion which results at more intense ground shaking in the
fault-normal direction
10/ 52
Mach cones (physics)
V~400 m/s V~0.7 m/s
List of contents:
Water
Directivity
Site effects
Soil
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 4
Mach 0.7 Mach 1.0 Mach 1.4
11/ 52
Directivity
Kobe earthquake, Japan (1995)1
List of contents:
Directivity
Fault-normal
PGA=0.80g
Site effects

Fault-parallel
PGA=0.20g
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 4
1 Bruce A. Bolt, Earthquakes 4th Edition (1999), p. 90-92.
12/ 52
Directivity
Kobe earthquake, Japan (1995)2
List of contents:
Directivity
Site effects
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 4
2 T. Furumura, K. Koketsu. Specific distribution of the ground motion during the 1995 Kobe
earthquake and its generation mechanism, Geophysical Research Letters, Volume 25, Issue 6,
Version of Record online: 15 MAR 1998.
13/ 52
Directivity
What are the implications in the design of engineering structures?
List of contents:
When designing a structure close to an active fault, directivity

Directivity
should be considered through appropriate representation of the
Site effects seismic action. The intensity of the ground motion may vary
Wave passage effects significantly along different directions depending on the fracture
mechanism.
This is usually not the case when data are provided in generic PGA-
maps*.
* Generic PGA-maps provide seismic input in terms of expected peak ground

acceleration (PGA). This means that other characteristics of the ground motion, such
as duration of strong-motion shaking, energy content in different frequencies, etc.,
CIE 5260
Structural Response to are lost. When PGA-maps are to be used to generate response spectral ordinates
Earthquakes (see Lecture 7) of an SDOF system, directivity effects can be captured provided that
Lecture 4
the spectra generated in different directions are distinctly different. This, however, is
not reflected in current seismic design codes and, therefore, the engineer needs to
seek from the seismologist the correct seismic input in this case.
14/ 52
Directivity
What are the implications in the design of engineering structures?
List of contents:
Structures positioned in the normal-to-the-fault direction should

Directivity
often be able to withstand ground motions (and energy input into
Site effects the structural system) in the form of a single large-amplitude
Wave passage effects velocity pulse of very high intensity*.
* This phenomenon will be further investigated in Lecture 7.
Home exercise: To verify the importance of the duration-amplitude characteristics

of the ground motion in the response of a simple structure try the following. Find the
response of a SDoF system subjected to a force of very short duration and high
amplitude and compare this with the one of a duration that is 5 times longer. The
amplitude in the latter case should be adjusted such that the total input energy
CIE 5260
(area below the force-time diagram) in the two cases is the same:
Structural Response to - What do you observe?
Earthquakes
Lecture 4 - In which of the two cases is the instantaneous elastic energy stored in the spring
larger and how is this related to the structural damage?
- What is the influence of the natural period of the SDoF on the observed
response?
15/ 52
Directivity – Case Study
Alumn Rock Earthquake 2007 (Mw=5.7)

List of contents:
Directivity
Site effects
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 4
16/ 52
• Directivity
• Site effects
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 4
17/ 52
Motivation
Why do we need to study the shallow sub-surface wave

List of contents: propagation as engineers?
Directivity
Site effects
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 4
18/ 52
Free vibrations of a soil layer subjected
to SH-waves
List of contents:
Directivity
Site effects
We will investigate the simplest possible case in which SH-waves travel

from the bedrock to the ground surface:
o All basic properties of wave propagation, soil dynamic response
amplification, and wave reflection/transmission at the interfaces are
the same as in more complex cases.
CIE 5260
Structural Response to o In many engineering applications (not in all!), SH-waves dominate
Earthquakes
Lecture 4 the response at the surface of the ground.
o Surface waves can be generated  Love waves (Lecture 3)
19/ 52
to SH-waves
Equation of motion (CIE4140):
List of contents:
∂2u ∂2u
ρ 2 =G 2
Directivity ∂t ∂z
Site effects
Wave passage effects General solution:

2
uˆ ( z , t )
= ∑ A
n =1
n exp ( i ω t − i kn z )
Substitution of general solution into the EoM:

ω2 ω G
− ρω uˆ =
2
−Gk uˆ ⇒ ρω =
Gk ⇒ k =2 ⇒ k1,2 =
2 2
± ; 2 2
c=
c c ρ
The general solution reads:
CIE 5260
uˆ (=
z , t ) A1 exp ( i ω t − i k1 z ) + A 2 exp ( i ω t + i k1 z )
Earthquakes
Lecture 4
20/ 52
to SH-waves
Boundary condition at z=0:

List of contents:
=z 0=τ ( 0, t ) 0
Directivity
∂uˆ ( z , t )
Site effects
⇒ Gγ ( 0, t ) =
0⇒ =
0
Wave passage effects ∂z z =0
−i k1 A1 exp ( i ω t − i k1 z ) z 0=
⇒= + i k1 A 2 exp ( i ω t + i k1 z ) z 0 =0
⇒ −i k1 A1 exp ( i ωt ) + i k1 A 2 exp ( i ωt ) = 0 ⇒ − A1 + A 2 = 0 ⇒ A1 = A 2
Substitution back into the general solution yields:
uˆ (=
z , t ) A1 exp ( i ωt − i k1 z ) + A1 exp ( i ωt + i k1 z )
CIE 5260
eix + e − ix
Earthquakes
Using Euler’s trigonometric identity : cos( x) =
Lecture 4 2
uˆ ( z , t ) = 2 A1 cos(k1 z ) exp ( i ωt )

standing wave of amplitude: 2 A1
21/ 52
to SH-waves
Boundary condition at z=H:

List of contents:
=z H=uˆ ( H , t ) 0
Directivity
Site effects 2 A1 cos(k1 H ) exp ( i ωt ) = 0

(=
2m − 1) π
A1 ≠ 0 ⇒ 2 cos(=
k1 H ) = 0 ⇒ km ; m 1, 2,3,...
2H
ω ( 2m − 1) π ( 2m − 1) π c
⇒ =m
H ⇒
= ωm
c 2 2 H
( 2m − 1) c
ωm= 2π f m ⇒ f m= ; m= 1, 2,3,...
4 H
CIE 5260
Structural Response to The fundamental natural frequency of a soil column (m=1) is equal to:
Earthquakes
Lecture 4
c 4H
=f1 [ Hz ] ⇔=T1 [sec]
4H c
22/ 52
Critical thinking
• What will change in the natural frequencies if we include

List of contents:
soil damping?
Directivity
Site effects Without damping:

=fm
(=
2m − 1) c
; m 1, 2,3,...
4 H
With damping ?
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 4
23/ 52
• Directivity
• Site effects
o 1-soil layer
o n-soil layers
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 4
24/ 52
Forced vibrations of a soil layer
subjected to SH-waves
List of contents:
Directivity
Site effects

∂ 2u ∂τ Balance of momentum
ρ 2 =
∂t ∂z
∂u
γ = Linear kinematic relation
∂z
∂γ
τ Gγ + η
= Linear constitutive law with material
∂t
damping (Kelvin-Voigt model)
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 4 ∂2u ∂2u ∂ 3u ∂2u ∂2u ∂ 3u
ρ 2 = G 2 +η 2 ⇒ ρ 2 − G 2 −η 2 = 0
∂t ∂z ∂z ∂t ∂t ∂z ∂z ∂t
25/ 52
List of contents:
Directivity
Site effects
= : τ ( 0, t ) 0
z 0= Zero stress at the ground surface
∂ 2u
=z H=
: ab (t ) Acceleration compatibility at z=H
∂t z = H
2
CIE 5260
We will solve the problem by considering the frequency
Earthquakes
response function for a unit acceleration amplitude in the
Lecture 4 frequency domain.
26/ 52
List of contents:
Directivity
Site effects

We assume a harmonic solution in the following form:
u ( z , t ) = U ( z , ω ) exp(i ωt )
Which upon substitution into the equation of motion yields:

2  d 2U ( z , ω ) d 2U ( z , ω )
− ρω U ( z , ω ) exp(i ω t ) − G exp(i ω t ) − i ωη exp(i ω t ) =
0
dz 2 dz 2
CIE 5260 d 2U ( z , ω )
Earthquakes
⇒ ( G + i ωη ) 2
+ ρω 2U ( z , ω ) =
0
Lecture 4
dz
⇒
d 2U ( z , ω ) ω 2 
+ *2 U ( z , ω ) = 0 c =
*2 ( G + i ωη )
dz 2 cs
s
ρ
27/ 52
List of contents:
Directivity
Site effects
d 2U ( z , ω ) ω 2 
+ U ( z , ω ) =
0 c *2 ( G + i ωη )
=
dz 2 cs*2
s
ρ
The general solution to the ordinary differential equation reads:
2
 ω   ω 
U ( z , ω ) = ∑ Bn exp(i k ∗
n z ) ⇒ U ( z , ω ) = B1 exp −i * z  + B2 exp  i * z
CIE 5260 n =1  cs   cs 
Earthquakes
Lecture 4
28/ 52
• At the ground surface the stress is
zero:
List of contents:
= : τ ( 0, t ) 0
z 0=
Directivity
Site effects
• At the bedrock surface the acceleration is given:
∂ 2u
=z H : = ab (t ) A0 (ω ) exp(i ωt ); A=
ab (t ); = 0 (ω ) a0 (ω ) + i b0 (ω )
∂t z = H
2
Substitution of the harmonic solution assumed yields:
∂u ∂ 2u dU ( z , ω )
⇒G +η =0 ⇒ ( G + i ωη ) =0
∂z z =0 ∂z∂t z =0
dz z =0
CIE 5260
exp(i ωt ) A0 exp(i ωt ) ⇒ −ω=

⇒ −ω 2U (Η, ω )= U (Η, ω ) A0
2 
Earthquakes
Lecture 4
 A0
⇒ U (Η , ω ) =
− 2
ω
29/ 52
dU ( z , ω )
 =0
List of contents: dz z =0
2
Directivity U ( z ,ω ) = ∑ Bn exp(i kn∗ z )
ω ω
Site effects 
→−i n=1
*
B1 + i *
B2= 0 ⇒ B1= B2
c
s c
s
 A0
 U (Η , ω ) =
− 2
ω
2
U ( z ,ω ) = ∑
 ω  Bn exp(i kn∗ z )
 ω  A0

→ B1 exp  − i * H  + B2 exp  i * H  = − 2
n=1
 cs   cs  ω
eix + e− ix
cos( x ) =  ωH  A0
 →B  * = − 2
2 2 cos
CIE 5260
1
 cs  ω
Earthquakes
A0 1
Lecture 4

→ B1= − 2
2ω  ωH 
cos  * 
 cs 
30/ 52
For a unit amplitude bedrock acceleration ( A0 = 1) we obtain:

List of contents:
1  ω  1  ω 
Directivity
U ( z , ω ) =
− exp  − i * z− exp  i * z
Site effects  ωH   cs  2ω 2 cos  ω H   cs 
2ω 2 cos  *   * 
Wave passage effects  cs   cs 
1
 ω   z = 0 : U (0, ω ) = −
cos  * z    ωH 
 s  ⇒
c ω 2
cos  * 
U ( z , ω ) =
−   cs 
 ω 
ω 2 cos  *  
H
  1
 s 
c z = H : U ( H , ω ) = −
ω2
CIE 5260
Structural Response to Having found the response to a unit amplitude bedrock acceleration,
Earthquakes
Lecture 4 the response to an arbitrary time history at z=H can be obtained by
means of the inverse Fourier Transform.
31/ 52
We introduce the Frequency Response Function (FRF) as the

List of contents: response of the system to a unit amplitude bedrock acceleration
Directivity
( A0 = 1) :
Site effects
ω 
Wave passage effects cos  * z 
FRF ( z , ω ) = −  cs 
 ωH 
ω 2 cos  * 
 cs 
We introduce the complex-valued Transfer Function (TF) as the

ratio of the displacement response at the ground surface and the
CIE 5260
bedrock level:
Earthquakes
Lecture 4
U (0, ω ) 1
TF (ω ) =
=
U ( H , ω )  ωH 
cos  * 
 cs 
32/ 52
Maple example
Plot of the amplitude and the phase of the complex Frequency

Response Function
List of contents:
A0
m=1 U ( z = 0, ω ) = −
Directivity What do these peaks  ωH 
correspond to? ω 2 cos  * 
Site effects m=2  cs 
Wave passage effects m=3
…
G + i ωη
cs* =
ρ
Depth of soil we examine : z = 0m
Bedrock depth: H = 30m
Bedrock acceleration: A0 = 1m / s 2
Shear modulus : G = 107 N / m 2

CIE 5260
Earthquakes Material dissipation: η = 103 N s / m 2
Lecture 4
Density : ρ = 1800kg / m3
33/ 52
Maple example
Plot of the amplitude of the complex Frequency Response Function

for varying dissipation (η) of the soil.
List of contents:
Directivity
Site effects η=0 η=100 N s/m2 η=105 N s/m2

CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 4
34/ 52
Resonances of 1-D soil layer
What are the implications in the design of engineering

List of contents: structures?
Directivity
Site effects
Wave passage effects • It is recommended that the structural and the soil column
fundamental periods are as distinct as possible.
• Higher vibration periods of the soil column should be checked
with respect to the predominant response periods of the
structure under consideration.
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 4
35/ 52
Critical thinking
Which of the structures shown in the figure below are more

List of contents:
prone to resonate with the underlying soil column in the case
of a seismic event?
Directivity
Site effects
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 4
36/ 52
• Directivity
• Site effects
o 1-soil layer
o n-soil layers
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 4
37/ 52
Forced vibrations of n-soil layers
List of contents:
Directivity
Site effects
In each layer “m” the governing equation of motion reads:

∂ 2 um ∂ 2 um ∂ 3um
ρ m 2 − Gm 2 − ηm 2 = 0→
∂t ∂z ∂z ∂t
CIE 5260 Which in the frequency domain becomes:  
Gm*

Structural Response to  G + i ωη 
Earthquakes
 m m
Lecture 4
d 2U m ( z , ω ) ω 2   
+ U ( z , ω ) =0 with c *2
= 
dz 2 cs*2,m
m s ,m
ρm

*2
km
38/ 52
Following a similar procedure as before, the solution to the wave
List of contents: equation at each layer reads:
Directivity ( z, t ) A1,m exp ( i ωt − i km∗ z ) + A2,m exp ( i ωt + i km∗ z )

uˆm =
Site effects

Compatibility requires that the deformation at each interface is:
( zm h=
uˆm= m,t) uˆm +1 (=
zm +1 0, t )
 uˆm +1 ( z=
m +1 t)
0,= ( A 1, m +1 )
+ A 2,m +1 exp ( i ωt )
( zm h=
 uˆm= m,t) ( A
1, m exp ( -i k ∗
h
m m ) + A2, m m m )
 exp ( i k ∗ h ) exp ( i ωt )
CIE 5260
Structural Response to Which yields the displacement compatibility condition:
Earthquakes
Lecture 4
A1,m += 
1 + A2, m +1 A1,m exp ( -i km∗ hm ) + A 2,m exp ( i km∗ hm )
39/ 52
List of contents: Similarly, compatibility requires that the shear stress at each
interface is:
Directivity
Site effects
( zm h=
τ m= m,t) τ m +1 (=
zm +1 0, t )
 τ m +1 ( z=
m +1 =
0, t ) i k G ∗
( )
m +1 m +1 A2, m +1 − A1, m +1 exp ( i ω t )
∗  
( zm h=
 τ m= m,t) ( )
ikm∗ Gm∗ A 2,m exp ( i km∗ hm ) − A1,m exp ( -i km∗ hm ) exp ( i ωt )
Which yields the shear stress compatibility condition to:
km∗ Gm∗
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
A 2,m +1 − A1,m +1
= ∗ ∗
km +1Gm +1
(
A 2,m exp ( i km∗ hm ) − A1,m exp ( -i km∗ hm ) )
Lecture 4
40/ 52
List of contents: Solving the two compatibility conditions with respect to the
unknowns of the deeper layer yields:
Directivity
A1,m +1 = A 2,m (1 − am ) exp ( i km∗ hm ) + A1,m (1 + am ) exp ( -i km∗ hm )

Site effects
1 1
2 2
A 2,m +1 = A 2,m (1 + am ) exp ( i km∗ hm ) + A1,m (1 − am ) exp ( -i km∗ hm )
1 1
2 2
 am is the complex impedance ratio given by:
km* Gm*
am = * *
km +1Gm +1
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 4
And since at the surface the shear stress is zero:
τ 1 ( z1 =0, t ) =0 → i k1*G1* ( A1,1 − A 2,1 ) exp(i ωt ) =0 → A1,1 =A 2,1
41/ 52
List of contents: By applying the above equations for A1,m and A2,m recursively,
starting from the second layer downwards, the frequency
Directivity
functions relating amplitudes in any layer “m” to that of the first
Site effects layer can be obtained as:
A = f (ω ) A
2, m m 2,1
A1,m = g m (ω ) A1,1
The function relating the displacement amplitudes at any two

layers can be given in form of:
ui fi (ω ) + gi (ω )
=
TF =
f j (ω ) + g j (ω )
ij
uj
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 4
Hence, if the motion at a certain point is known, the
motion at any other point can be computed.
42/ 52
List of contents: Once the transfer functions are known the complete analysis
Directivity
involves the following steps:
Site effects
1) The known bedrock time history is transformed in the frequency
domain using the forward Fourier Transform.
2) At each frequency the complex-valued amplitude is multiplied by
the appropriate transfer function for the response required at a
given position.
3) The time history of the ground response at the given position is
obtained by means of the inverse Fourier Transform.
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 4
43/ 52
In-class exercise
List of contents:
Directivity
Site effects
Input:
• Soil layer properties and thicknesses at both sites (“A” and “C”)
CIE 5260
• Input motion at the ground surface at site “A”
Earthquakes
Lecture 4
Requested:
• Motion at site location “C” assuming that the seismic motion is
governed by SH-waves and the “rock” motion is the same everywhere
44/ 52
Summary
List of contents:
Directivity
In this lecture we have studied:
Site effects • Rupture directivity effects
• Resonances of a soil column
• Forced response of a soil column
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 4
45/ 52
Reading material
List of contents:
1. Lecture slides and lecture notes
Directivity
2. Section 1.3 (p.25-32) with special focus on subsection 1.3.2
(p.27-30) - Site Effects - from book of Elnashai
Site effects
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 4
46/ 52
Extra slides
List of contents: • Relative versus absolute ground motion

Directivity
Site effects
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 4
47/ 52
R elative versus total ground motion
We have shown the derivation in terms of “total” motions of

List of contents:
the soil layer. What changes if we consider the equation of
motion in terms of relative motions?
Directivity
∂ 2ur ∂ 2ut
Site effects
= 2
Wave passage effects ∂z 2
∂z
1 ρ ut = Gur′′ 
 ⇒ ρ ( ur + ub ) − Gur′′ =
0 3
2 u=
t

u r + 
u b
known unknown
In this case the BCs are written as

CIE 5260
Earthquakes
z=
0: τ ( 0, t ) =
0 ⇒ Gur′ ( 0, t ) =
0
Lecture 4
=z H=
: u 0 (Base acceleration ub is equal to ut )
48/ 52
Now let us assume a harmonic excitation, i.e.:

List of contents:
ub = A0 exp ( iωt )
Directivity
The response can be searched in the form of:
Site effects
Wave passage effects ur ( z , ω ) = U r ( z , ω ) exp ( iωt )

U r ( z , ω ) exp ( iωt )
2 
( )
d
ρ −ω U r ( z , ω ) + A0 exp ( iωt ) − G
2
=
0
dz 2
⇒ − ρω 2U ( z , ω ) + ρ A − GU ′′ ( z , ω ) =0
r 0 r
ω2  ρ A0
⇒ρ U r ( z , ω ) + U r′′ ( z , ω ) =
G G
CIE 5260 k 2U r ( z , ω ) + U r′′ ( z , ω ) =
λ
Earthquakes
Lecture 4 ⇒ U r′ ( z , ω ) =
0
z =0
U r ( z , ω ) =0
z=H
49/ 52
A particular solution to the equation can be searched as follows:

List of contents:
 λ ρ A0 A0 ω2 G
=U p ,r = ; = λ = ; k 2
= ; c
Directivity
k2 G c2 c2 ρ
Site effects
Substitution of this into the equation yields:
ω2 λ A0 c 2 A0
0+ 2 2 λ
= =U p ,r =
c2 ω ω2
2
c k
The complete solution to the homogeneous equation reads:
U h ,r A cos ( kz ) + B sin ( kz )
=
CIE 5260
Structural Response to Thus, the total solution reads:
Earthquakes
Lecture 4
A
U r = U h ,r + U p ,r = A cos ( kz ) + B sin ( kz ) + 02
ω
50/ 52
Substitution of the total solution into the BCs yields:

List of contents:
z =0 : − Ak sin ( 0 ) + Bk cos ( 0 ) =0 ⇒ B =0
Directivity
A0 A0
Site effects z=H: A cos ( kH ) + =⇒
0 A=−
ω2 ω 2 cos ( kH )
A0
⇒ A=−
 ωH 
ω 2 cos  
 c 
The total solution reads:
 
A0  1 
 cos ( kz ) + 1
CIE 5260
Structural Response to Ur =  −
Earthquakes ω2   ωH  
Lecture 4
 cos   
  c  
51/ 52
List of contents:
The total displacement is equal to:
Directivity

1  U + U
U= 

t r b
Site effects
Wave passage effects    

 A0  1 
  A0  1  A
2 Ur = − + 1  ⇒ U t = − + 1 − 02
ω 
2
 ω H   ω 
2
 ωH   ω
 cos     cos   
  c     c  

3
A
U b = − 02 
ω 
A0
⇒ U t =
−
 ωH 
CIE 5260 ω 2 cos  
Earthquakes
 c 
Lecture 4
Same as in the previous derivation!
52/ 52
CIE 5260

Tel.: 015 27 89225, Room 3.44
Lecture 5
CIE 5260
Delft, 2019
1/ 33
• Directivity (Lecture 4)
List of contents:
• Site effects
Site effects
o Resonances of 1D soil column (Lecture 4)
Seismograph recordings o Forced vibrations of 1D soil column (Lecture 4)

o Resonances of a 2D soil basin
• Seismograph recordings
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 5
2/ 33
• Directivity
List of contents:
• Site effects
Site effects
o Resonances of 1D soil column
Seismograph recordings o Forced vibrations of 1D soil column

CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 5
3/ 33
Geometry of a 2-D soil basin
List of contents:
Site effects
Seismograph recordings
Figure: Geotechnical profile of Kirovakan valley, with the zones 2 and 3 where severe and
light damages observed during the Armenian earthquake 1988 respectively.
Source: Yegian M.K., Gazetas G., Ghahraman, V. G. (1993).
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 5
Figure: Geological map of the Sulmona Basin (Italy). Source: Giuseppe Di Giulio et. Al, (2015).
4/ 33
SH-waves in a 2-D soil basin:
governing equations
Horizontally polarized shear waves

List of contents:
out of plane of the cross section
Site effects
(motion in y-axis):
u ( x, z , t ) = u y ( x, z , t )
• Equation of motion of SH-waves in 2-D space:
∂ 2 u ( x, z , t ) ∂ 2 (.) ∂ 2u (.)
ρ = G∇ u ( x, z , t ) ; ∇ =
2 2
+
∂t 2 ∂x 2 ∂z 2
• Boundary conditions:
= : u ( 0, z , t ) 0=
x 0= ; : u ( B, z , t ) 0
x B=
CIE 5260
Structural Response to = : τ ( x, 0, t ) 0=
z 0= ; : u ( x, H , t ) 0
z H=
Earthquakes
Lecture 5
• Initial conditions:
∂u ( x, z , t )
= u ( x, z , t )
t 0: = = 0
∂t
5/ 33
SH-waves in a 2-D soil basin
List of contents:
Site effects
First we substitute a harmonic time solution

u ( x, z , t ) = Im {U ( x, z ) exp ( iωt )} to the EoM:
∂ 2 u ( x, z , t ) u ( x , z ,t ) = Im{U ( x , z ) exp ( iωt )}

ρ = G∇ 2
u ( x , z , t ) →
∂t 2
 ∂ 2U ∂ 2U   ∂ 2U ∂ 2U 
⇒ −ω ρU=2
( x, z ) G  2 + 2  ⇒ G  2 + 2 ( x, z ) 0
 + ω ρU=
2
CIE 5260
 ∂x ∂z   ∂x ∂z 
Earthquakes
Lecture 5 ∂ 2U ∂ 2U ω2 G
⇒ 2 + 2 + k 2U ( x=
, z) 0 =
k 2
; =
cs2
∂x ∂z cs2 ρ
6/ 33
List of contents:
Site effects
Substitution of time solution to the BCs:

{ }
u ( x , z ,t ) = Im U ( x , z ) exp ( iωt )
x= 0 : u ( 0, z , t )= 0 → U ( 0, z )= 0
{ }
x= B : u ( B, z , t )= 0 → U ( B, z )= 0
{ }
u ( x , z ,t ) = Im U ( x , z ) exp ( iωt ) ∂U
z= 0 : τ ( x, 0, t )= 0 → T ( x, 0 )= 0 ⇒ G = 0
CIE 5260 ∂z z =0
Earthquakes
{ }
Lecture 5
z= H : u ( x, H , t )= 0 → U ( x, H )= 0
Now we have obtained all equations in the frequency domain!
7/ 33
To solve the eigenvalue problem we will apply the method of separation

of variables.
List of contents: We assume a solution in the form of:
Site effects
U ( x, z ) = U x ( x ) U z ( z )
Substitution of this into the equation of motion yields:
d 2U x ( x ) d 2U z ( z )
Uz ( z) 2
+ U x ( x ) 2
+ k 2
U x ( x )U z ( z ) =
0
dx dz
Dividing all terms by U x ( x ) U z ( z ) ≠ 0 we obtain:
1 d 2U x ( x ) 1 d Uz ( z)
2
+ + k2 =
0
U x ( x ) dx 2
U z ( z ) dz 2
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 5 1 d 2U x ( x ) 1 d Uz ( z)
2
⇒ + =
−k 2
U x ( x ) dx 2
U z ( z ) dz 2
8/ 33
The only way to satisfy this equation is that each part in the left-hand
side of the equation is equal to a constant which is called hereafter
List of contents: the separation variable:
Site effects
1 d 2U x ( x )
= − k 2
U x ( x ) dx 2
x
d 2U z ( z ) d 2U z ( z )
+ ( k 2 − k x2 ) U z ( z ) =
1
− kx =
2
−k ⇒
2
0
U z ( z ) dz 2
dz 2
Substitution of U ( x, z ) = U x ( x ) U z ( z ) into the BCs yields:
 x=
0: U x ( 0 )U z ( z ) =
0 ⇒ U x ( 0) =
0
 x=
B: U x ( B )U z ( z ) =
0 ⇒ Ux ( B) =
0
CIE 5260
Structural Response to dU z ( z ) dU z ( z )
Earthquakes
Lecture 5
 z=
0: T ( x, 0 ) =
0 ⇒ GU x ( x ) =
0⇒ =
0
dz
=z 0=z 0
dz
 z=
H: U x ( x )U z ( H ) =
0 ⇒ Uz (H ) =
0
9/ 33
List of contents: The original problem is now reduced to the following two problems
which can be solved independently:
Site effects

d 2U x ( x ) 
+ x ( ) =

2
k U x 0 Sub-problem (1) for

x
dx 2
 the x-direction
=
U x ( 0) U=x ( B) 0 
d 2U z ( z ) 
+ ( k 2
− k x ) z ( )
2
U z =
0 
dz 2  Sub-problem (2) for

dU z ( z ) 
the z-direction
= U= z (H )
CIE 5260
0
dz z =0 
Earthquakes
Lecture 5

10/ 33
Sub-problem (1): x-direction
List of contents:
The general solution to the homogeneous equation reads:

Site effects

U x ( x ) A cos ( k x x ) + C sin ( k x x )
=
U x ( 0 ) =0 ⇒ A cos ( 0 ) + C sin ( 0 ) =0 ⇒ A =0
x =0 :
=A 0 C ≠0
B : Ux ( B) =
x= 0 ⇒ C sin ( k x B ) =
0 ⇒ sin ( k x B ) =
0
mπ
⇒ k x ,m B = mπ ⇒ k x ,m = ; m =1, 2,3,...
B
The response can be expressed in terms of modes:

CIE 5260
Structural Response to ∞
 mπ 
U x ( x ) = ∑ Cm sin 
Earthquakes
Lecture 5 x
m =1  B 
11/ 33
d 2U z ,m ( z )
Sub-problem (2): z-direction 
→ + ( k 2 − k x2,m ) U z ,m ( z )= 0
dz 2 
k z2
List of contents:
Site effects
U z ,m ( z ) D cos ( k z z ) + E sin ( k z z )
=
=z 0:
d
dz
( D cos ( k z z ) + E sin ( k z z ) )= 0
z =0
kz ≠0
⇒ ( −k z D sin ( k z z ) + k z E cos ( k z z ) ) =⇒
0 k z E =⇒
0 k z E =⇒
0 E=
0
z =0
D≠0
H : D cos ( k z H ) =
z= 0 ⇒ cos ( k z H ) =
0
(2n − 1)π (2n − 1)π

⇒ k z=
,n H ⇒=
k z ,n ;=n 1, 2,3,...
2 2H
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
The response can be expressed in terms of modes:
Lecture 5
∞
 (2n − 1)π 
U z ( z ) = ∑ Dn cos  z
n =1  2H 
12/ 33
Now the final solution requires that: k=

2
nm k x2,m + k z2,n
List of contents:
How is the equation above derived?

Site effects
Wave passage effects 1 d 2U x ( x )

= − k 2
U x ( x ) dx 2
Seismograph recordings x
d 2U z ( z ) 1 d Uz ( z)
2
+ k 2
U ( z ) =
0 ⇒ =
− k 2
U z ( z ) dz 2
z z z
dz 2
From slide 8:
1 d 2U x ( x ) 1 d Uz ( z)
2
+ =− k 2
⇒ k 2
=k 2
+ k 2
U x ( x ) dx 2 U z ( z ) dz 2
CIE 5260 x z
Earthquakes
Lecture 5
… and since the wavenumbers can take only discrete values:
k=
2
nm k 2
x ,m + k 2
z ,n
13/ 33
ωmn  mπ   (2n − 1)π 

2 2 2
List of contents: k 2
nm =k 2
x ,m +k 2
z ,n ⇒ =  + 
cs2  B   2H 
Site effects
 m 2π 2 (2n − 1) 2 π 2 
ω
⇒= c  2 +
2
mn
2
s 
Seismograph recordings  B 4H 2 
ωmn = 4π 2 f mn
cs2  m 2π 2 (2n − 1) 2 π 2  cs2  m 2 (2n − 1) 2 
2 2
⇒ f= 2
2 
+  ⇒ f mn
=2
 2+ 
4π  B
mn 2 2 2
4H  4  B 4 H 
cs  m   (2n − 1) 
2 2
⇒=
f mn   + 
2  B   2H 
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 5
14/ 33
By working out further the expression for the resonances:
List of contents:
cs2  4 H 2 m 2 + B 2 (2n − 1) 2 
f 2
mn =  
Site effects 4 B2 4H 2 
c 2   2 H 
2

=
Seismograph recordings ⇒ f s
 
m 2 2
 + (2 n − 1) 2

16 H 2   B 
mn

2
f mn  2H 
⇒
= 2
m   + (2n − 1)
2
cs  B 
4H
For m = 0 we obtain the previous

Resonance of infinite expression from the 1D-soil column
CIE 5260
layer in x, i.e. B → ∞ in which we assume B → ∞ .
Earthquakes
Lecture 5
For m ≠ 0 many more responses exist in the 2D case, which should be

considered in the seismic design.
15/ 33
The response can be expressed as a summation of vibration modes:
List of contents: ∞ ∞
u ( x, z , t ) = ∑∑ Amn sin ( k x ,m x ) cos ( k z ,n z ) exp ( iωmnt )
Site effects =
m 1=
n 1
mπ (2n − 1)π  m 2π 2 (2n − 1) 2 π 2 
=k x ,m = ; k z ,n = ; ωmn cs  2 + 2 
B 2H  B 4 H 
• The m 0 can only exist for infinitely long layer ( B → ∞ ) .

• The response of the soil basin in anti-plane shear (SH-waves) can be
expressed as a summation of vibration modes umn ( x, z , t ) having
eigenfrequency f mn .
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 5
16/ 33
2
f mn  2H 
List of contents: =
The expression 2
m   + (2 n − 1) 2
shows that:
f1  B 
Site effects

f mn
Seismograph recordings  For m = 0 : = (2n − 1) which is the expression for an
f1
infinitely long valley ( B → ∞ ) . This is the
 cs 
1D-case examined previously  1 f = .
 4H 
 For m ≠ 0 : Many more resonances exist in the 2D case

governed by the indices m,n.
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 5
17/ 33
Critical thinking – home exercises
• What will change if we include material damping in the equation of

List of contents:
motion?
Site effects

• Can you write the equation of motion in terms of stresses instead
Seismograph recordings and express separately the constitutive law separately?
• Are you able to solve the forced vibrations of the “soil basin” given
some uniform excitation at the boundaries?
• Does the expression of umn ( x, z , t ) refer to the “total” or “relative”

motions with respect to the ground?
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 5
18/ 33
• Directivity
List of contents:
• Site effects
Site effects

CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 5
19/ 33
Wave passage effect
Wave passage effect represents the time delay in the

arrival of the seismic waves at different sites
List of contents:
Site effects
This effect is due to the finite velocity with which waves travel
through elastic media
The critical parameter of interest here is the dimensionless ratio

of the largest dimension of the structure (B) under investigation
and the shortest wavelength (λ) of the waves composing the
ground motion.
Two cases can be distinguished:
• When λ>>B  motion of the base of the structure can be
CIE 5260
Structural Response to treated as synchronous.
Earthquakes
Lecture 5
• When λ∼B (or λ<B)  wave passage effects need to be
considered.
20/ 33
Critical thinking
Assume that a soil beneath a structure is characterized by a shear

velocity of 250m/s and that the bulk energy of the input motion is
concentrated at periods around T=0.5 seconds. A bridge with a total
List of contents:
length of 400m is imposed into earthquake excitation and supported by
two piers that are positioned 300m apart (see figure below).
Site effects
Wave passage effects I. Could you estimate the wavelength of waves excited in the soil
medium at T=0.5 seconds?
II. Could you advice whether one would need to account for the time
delay caused by the wave passage effects when imposing the
seismic motion in the piers of the bridge for a seismic design?
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 5
300m
21/ 33
Eurocode 8 provisions
List of contents:
Site effects
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 5
22/ 33
• Directivity
List of contents:
• Site effects
Site effects

CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 5
23/ 33
• A seismograph is a device that records the surface

ground motions.
List of contents:
Site effects • Usually seismographs are very sensitive to ground

motions  they are designed to “listen to the earth’s
inaudible noise” and retrieve useful information about
the earth’s interior.
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 5 Analog Modern digital
seismograph seismograph
24/ 33
• A seismograph goes off-scale when a strong seismic

List of contents: event occurs due to its very high sensitivity. Specially
designed seismographs to record strong ground motions
Site effects
are called strong-motion seismographs; when
accelerations are recorded  accelerographs.
• An accelerograph can never reveal the exact motion of

the ground since it operates within a certain frequency
bandwidth. The true ground motion remains unknown.
• Each acceleration recording contains noise. The noise

filtering is very often overlooked by the engineers
although it is one of the most crucial steps for a proper
CIE 5260
seismic analysis when (scaled) recorded motions from
Earthquakes
past earthquake events are used as seismic input.
Lecture 5
25/ 33
Accelerograph recordings
 Design of a strong-motion accelerogragh:

• The natural period of the instrument should be smaller than the
shortest period to be measured, i.e. Tn/T<0.4
List of contents:
• Critical damping ratio should be chosen between 0.6 and 0.7
Site effects
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 5  Modern digital accelerographs are characterised by Tn=0.02 sec and
ξ~70%.
 β=1 Tn/T<0.4 minimum observable period Tmin=0.05 sec (or
fmax=20Hz).
26/ 33
Examples of recordings
List of contents:
Site effects
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 5
Figure: Ground acceleration time histories of selected earthquakes (one

horizontal component per seismic event is given here). All records have been
plotted to the same acceleration and time scale. Source: Chopra (2012)
27/ 33
Why accelerations?
List of contents:
• Accelerations are used traditionally in the design and are
included in most design codes. They can be related
Site effects approximately to the forces that a structure experiences.
Seismograph recordings • Accelerographs are easy to get, portable, and record

motion in three orthogonal directions.
• By knowing the accelerations of the ground we can get

a fair idea of the velocities and displacements.
Velocities and displacements are sometimes related to the

CIE 5260
structural damage better and are especially important for
Earthquakes
modern displacement-based design methods; yet we still
Lecture 5 measure ground accelerations.
Why?
28/ 33
Obtaining velocities and displacements
List of contents:
Site effects
measured
?
derived
derived
Figure: Acceleration, velocity and displacement time history of El Centro

earthquake, California (May , 1940). Source: Chopra (2012)
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 5 The estimation of the “slope” (displacementacceleration)
is much more difficult that the estimation of the “area”
below the curve (accelerationdisplacement)
29/ 33
Example 1: Reading accelerographs
S - Waves
P - Waves Surface waves
List of contents:
Site effects
Figure: Ground motion of tectonic earthquake in Chūetsu (offshore), Japan (2007)

(Mw=6.8) Hypocenter depth 9km, Epicentral distance of accelerograph 291km.
S - Waves
P - Waves
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 5
Figure: Ground motion of induced earthquake in Huizinge (Groningen), the Netherlands

(2012) (Mw=3.6) Hypocenter depth 3km, Epicentral distance of accelerograph 3.8km.
30/ 33
TUD tool for reading accelerograph
recordings
List of contents:
• Reading accelerographs
Site effects
• Learning to identify various waveforms
• Check the differences between shallow and
deep focus seismic events
• Use the TUD tool to open and plot recordings
TUD tool to read accelerographs
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 5
31/ 33
Summary
List of contents:
Site effects
Wave passage effects o Resonances of SH-waves in a 2-D soil basin
o Wave passage effects
o Seismograph recordings
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 5
32/ 33
Reading material
List of contents:
• Lecture slides and lecture notes
Site effects
• Matlab files
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 5
33/ 33
CIE 5260

Tel.: 015 27 89225, Room 3.44
Lecture 6
CIE 5260
Delft, 2019
1/ 39
Reading accelerograph recordings
List of contents:
• Reading accelerographs
Ground accelerations and
• Learning to identify various waveforms
filtering
Ground velocities and • Check the differences between shallow and

displacements deep focus seismic events
Significant duration
• Use the TUD tool to open and plot recordings
Principal directions
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 6
2/ 39
List of contents:

Seismic input in time and frequency domains
filtering
Ground velocities and • Seismograph recordings (Lecture 5)

displacements
• Ground accelerations and filtering
Principal directions • Derivation of ground velocities and displacements

• Definition of significant duration of a seismic event
• Principal directions of the seismic action
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 6
3/ 39
List of contents:

filtering
Ground velocities and • Seismograph recordings

displacements

CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 6
4/ 39
List of contents:

filtering
Ground velocities and

displacements
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 6  Modern digital accelerographs are characterised by Tn=0.02 sec and
ξ~70%.
 β=1 Tn/T<0.4 minimum observable period Tmin=0.05 sec (or
fmax=20Hz).
5/ 39
• An accelerograph can never reveal the exact motion of

List of contents: the ground since it operates within a certain frequency
bandwidth. The true ground motion remains unknown.
filtering

displacements
• Each acceleration recording contains noise. The noise
filtering is very often overlooked by the engineers
although it is one of the most crucial steps for a proper
seismic analysis when recorded motions from past
earthquake events are used as seismic input.
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 6
6/ 39
Noise in the signals
Noise influences the parameters retrieved from the records:

o Peak ground velocity (PGV) and displacement (PGD) and in
List of contents: general the velocity and displacement time traces.
Ground accelerations and o Ordinates of the acceleration, velocity and displacement
filtering response spectra (discussed further in Lecture 7)
displacements
Velocity and displacement
Principal directions time traces obtained by
direct integration of the
as-recorded ground
acceleration (unfiltered).
Are these time traces

CIE 5260
correct ?
Earthquakes
Lecture 6 Figure: Ground acceleration, ground
velocity and ground displacement time
histories of unfiltered ground motion.
Source: Boore, Bommer (2005)
7/ 39
Types of instruments and noise
 Two types of accelerographs exist:

o Analog instruments
List of contents: o Digital instruments
filtering
 Common sources of noise in analog instruments:
o Digitization of the time traces
displacements
o Lateral movements of the film during recording
 Digital instruments do not suffer from the above sources
of noise but still operate within a limited frequency
bandwidth  outside this limited frequency bandwidth
the ground response is unknown
The filtering is necessary to remove this noise but it

CIE 5260
is not possible to identify the “best” processing

Earthquakes
Lecture 6
procedure for a record
8/ 39
Filtering of ground accelerations
The principal idea of noise filtering is very simple. It consists

List of contents: of the following steps1:
Ground accelerations and 1. The acceleration time series may be viewed in the frequency
filtering domain following a Fourier transform*.
Ground velocities and 2. By comparing the Fourier amplitude spectrum of the time series
displacements with the background noise relevant to the instrument, one finds
Significant duration the frequency bandwidth within which the signal-to-noise ratio is
sufficiently high. In this region, one can be confident that the
recorded motions are genuinely associated with earthquake-
induced ground shaking.
3. Beyond the lower and upper limits of this frequency range, and
at the peripheries of those limits, the record may become
contaminated with noise that needs to be properly filtered.
CIE 5260
Structural Response to * Filtering can also take place in the time domain by a convolution of the transform of the filter in
Earthquakes
Lecture 6
the time domain and the actual signal. The filtered signal is the same regardless of whether the
filtering has taken place in the time or in the frequency domain.
1 David M. Boore, Julian J. Bommer. Processing strong motion accelerograms: needs, option and
consequences, Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 25 (2005), p. 93-115.
9/ 39
List of contents:

filtering

displacements
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 6
10/ 39
Types of filters:
List of contents:
1. Low-pass filter Allows frequencies lower than the specified

filtering
cut-off frequency to pass through
o when there is significant high-frequency instrumental noise
displacements o when the upper frequency limit needs to be considered (Nyquist
frequency and aliasing phenomena)
2. High-pass filter Allows frequencies higher than the specified
cut-off frequency to pass through (also called low-cut filter)
3. Band-pass filter Allows frequencies within a certain

frequency bandwidth to pass through
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 6
11/ 39
Filter: a function that in the frequency domain has a value:

~1 in frequencies that we would like to retain
List of contents: ~0 in frequencies that we would like to eliminate

filtering

displacements
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 6
Figure: Low-cut Butterworth filter as a function of frequency and period. Cut-off
frequency is 0.05 Hz (periods above 20 s are at least partially removed). The different
curves represent different orders of filter. Source: Boore, Bommer (2005)
12/ 39
Filtering is more like an “art” as there is no best method

available; it all depends on the problem at hand.
List of contents:
Ground accelerations and Some efficiency criteria of ground motion processing are given below:
filtering
• At the end of the ground shaking the ground velocity must return to zero
• The displacement trace can obtain a constant level at the end of the motion
displacements
(does not need to be zero, residual displacements).
Tc=20s Tc=12s Tc=8s
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 6
Figure: Ground displacement time histories of the record of before and after the application of filtering, in
an iterative procedure for long period cut-off: Tc=20s, Tc=12s and Tc=8s (TUD Matlab tool)
13/ 39
High-pass filter (also called low-cut filter)

o most widely used
List of contents:
o most effective
filtering
o least subjective
displacements Be aware! Results obtained are sensitive to the choice of the
parameters of the filter and mainly on the choice of the (long)
cut-off period.
There is a wide range of generic filters that can be used:

Butterworth, Chebyshev, Blesse.
CIE 5260
The choice of the generic filter is of secondary importance.
Earthquakes
The correct application of the filter is crucial !
Lecture 6
14/ 39
Choice of the filter parameters
Parameters of filter (user-defined):
List of contents:
1) Cut-off period (most important)

2) Order of filter:
filtering o Higher order filters more abrupt cut-off.
o Lower order filters information will be removed from
displacements
lower periods (see previous slide)
3) Causal or Acausal filter:
 Acausal filter (recommended)
o Does not produce phase distortion in the signal.
o Acts prior the beginning of the record.
Zero pads, at the start and at the end of the record
CIE 5260
Earthquakes 𝑛𝑛
Lecture 6 𝑡𝑡𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = 1.5
𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐
15/ 39
Usable range of periods
List of contents: Usable range of response periods:

Ground accelerations and • For most analog recordings, reliable spectral ordinates should
filtering be obtained for periods beyond 3 or 4 s for the seismic design
Ground velocities and of structures.
displacements
Principal directions Be aware! If records are processed prior to distribution, the

range of the usable range of period should be conveyed together
with the accelerogram.
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 6
16/ 39
Example 1: Filtering of ground
acceleration recordings
List of contents: • Discuss an example of application of the filtering

process from a real accelerograph recording
filtering • Make a choice on the filter parameters and check
Ground velocities and the influence on the results
displacements
• Use the TUD tool to filter ground motions
TUD tool for signal processing
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 6
17/ 39
List of contents:

filtering

displacements

CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 6
18/ 39
Obtaining velocities and displacements
List of contents:

filtering
measured
?
displacements
Significant duration derived

derived
Figure: Acceleration, velocity and displacement time history of El Centro

earthquake, California (May , 1940). Source: Chopra (2012)
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 6 The estimation of the “slope” (displacementacceleration)
is much more difficult that the estimation of the “area”
below the curve (accelerationdisplacement)
19/ 39
Velocities and displacements
Two ways to obtain the velocities and displacements from a

List of contents: filtered acceleration record:
Ground accelerations and o Method 1: Direct time integration of the acceleration record
filtering

displacements
o Method 2: Transformation in the frequency domain and
inverse transformation back in time
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 6
20/ 39
Method 1: Direct time integration
List of contents:
Obtain ground velocity and ground displacement time
history from acceleration time history by direct
Ground accelerations and integration:
filtering
Ground velocities and 𝑡𝑡

displacements
𝑢𝑢𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡 = � 𝑎𝑎𝑔𝑔 𝜏𝜏 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑢𝑢𝑔𝑔 0
Significant duration 0
𝑡𝑡
𝑥𝑥𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡 = � 𝑢𝑢𝑔𝑔 𝜏𝜏 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑑𝑑𝑔𝑔 0

0
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 6
21/ 39
Method 2: Frequency domain method
Mathematical interpretation of the Fourier transform:
List of contents:
• A linear operation that decomposes a function of time into
the frequencies that it is consisted of.
filtering • It is the frequency domain representation of the original
signal.
displacements
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 6
Figure: Representation of Fourier transform of a function. Source: Wikipedia.org

22/ 39
Method 2: Frequency domain method
Step 1: Fourier transformed acceleration signal:

+∞
List of contents:
𝛼𝛼𝑔𝑔 𝜔𝜔 = � 𝛼𝛼𝑔𝑔 (𝑡𝑡� 𝑒𝑒 −𝑖𝑖𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

filtering
−∞

displacements Step 2: Fourier transformed velocity and displacement signals
1 1
Principal directions 𝑢𝑢𝑔𝑔 (𝜔𝜔) = 𝛼𝛼 (𝜔𝜔) 𝑥𝑥𝑔𝑔 (𝜔𝜔) = − 𝑎𝑎 (𝜔𝜔)
𝑖𝑖𝜔𝜔 𝑔𝑔 𝜔𝜔 2 𝑔𝑔
Step 3: Inverse Fourier transform to obtain velocity and

displacement signals in time domain
CIE 5260 +∞ +∞
Structural Response to 1 1
Earthquakes
𝑢𝑢𝑔𝑔 t = � 𝑢𝑢𝑔𝑔 (𝜔𝜔� 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 𝑑𝑑𝜔𝜔 𝑥𝑥𝑔𝑔 (t) = � 𝑥𝑥𝑔𝑔 (𝜔𝜔� 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 𝑑𝑑𝜔𝜔
Lecture 6
2𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋
−∞ −∞
?
23/ 39
Application of the Fourier Transform
List of contents:

Applications to ground motions:
filtering
I. Characterize frequency content of the recorded ground
Ground velocities and motion (Fourier Spectrum).
displacements
II. Obtain ground velocity and ground displacement time
history in the frequency domain.
III. Apply signal processing in the frequency domain.
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 6
24/ 39
Example 2: Fourier transform
List of contents:
• Discuss the energy spectrum (Fourier spectrum) for two

filtering
different recordings
Ground velocities and • Discuss near- versus far-field seismic events and the
displacements influence on the energy spectrum (Fourier spectrum)
TUD tool for Fourier Transform

CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 6
25/ 39
List of contents:

filtering

displacements

CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 6
26/ 39
Duration and significance 1:

List of contents:
• One of the three important characteristics of ground motions
Ground accelerations and (together with amplitude and frequency content).
filtering
• Long duration strong motions have high damage potential.
displacements • Structural members and systems subjected to repeated cycles
Significant duration of strong motions become increasingly vulnerable
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 6
27/ 39
Two most commonly used definitions:

List of contents:
Ground accelerations and 1. Significant duration (Trifunac and Brady, 1975)

filtering
Time interval between the points at which 5% and 95% of the
Ground velocities and normalized Arias Intensity (90% of the wave energy released).
displacements
t𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝜋𝜋
Arias intensity: 𝐴𝐴𝐼𝐼 = � 𝑎𝑎𝑔𝑔 (𝑡𝑡)2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2𝑔𝑔
0
2. Bracketed duration (Bolt, 1969)

CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Time between the first and the last exceedance of a threshold
Lecture 6 acceleration (usually 0.05g)
28/ 39
• Significant duration
List of contents:
Figure: Ground acceleration time history and

corresponding evolution of the Arias intensity,
filtering for the calculation of the significant duration.
Source: Bozorgnia Y., Campbell K. (2004)
displacements
• Bracketed duration
Duration
Figure: Ground acceleration time
history and threshold
acceleration (0.05g) for the
calculation of the bracketed
CIE 5260 duration (t=9.8sec).
Structural Response to Source: Kramer S. L. (1996)
Earthquakes
Lecture 6
29/ 39
Example 3: Significant duration
List of contents:
• Obtain the significant duration of two signals (near- versus

filtering
far field) with the two methods
Ground velocities and • Observations from different recordings
displacements
TUD tool for significant duration of seismic recording
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 6
30/ 39
List of contents:

filtering

displacements

CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 6
31/ 39
Principal axes of the ground motion
• Ground motion is usually recorded by strong motion

seismographs along three (orthogonal) translational axes, i.e.
List of contents:
X, Y, and Z. These are referred to as:
Ground accelerations and - the North-South (NS) component
filtering
- the West-East (WE) component
displacements - the Vertical (UP) component
• In general, the three components are correlated meaning that
a different orientation of the coordinate system (with respect to
the earthquake epicenter) will result at a different ground
motion recording.
• In earthquake engineering it is important to design structures
for the worst possible scenario regarding the angle of incidence
CIE 5260 of the seismic waves (Lecture 12). To do that it is important to
Earthquakes decompose the ground motion in a set of principal axes in
Lecture 6
which the ground motions are uncorrelated.
32/ 39
To decompose the ground motions into their principal directions

we introduce the time-dependent covariance matrix:
List of contents:
t2
Ground accelerations and 1
=
filtering µ (t ) = ∫ ai (τ ) a j (τ ) dτ , i, j x, y, z
t2 − t1 t1
ij 0

displacements
Significant duration t1 starting time of the examined time window

t2 ending time of the examined time window
ai , a j recorded signals in directions “i” and “j”
t +t
t0 = 1 2 central time moment of the chosen time window
2
CIE 5260
Structural Response to Usually the correlation does not change significantly in time so
Earthquakes
Lecture 6 that one can calculate a time-independent covariance matrix over
the whole duration of the strong motion recording by setting:
= =
t1 0, t2 td
33/ 39
The time-independent covariance matrix is equal to:

List of contents:
 µ xx µ xy µ xz 
Ground accelerations and  
filtering
μ =  µ yx µ yy µ yz 
 µ zx µ zy µ zz 
Ground velocities and 
displacements
t
1 d
=
Principal directions µij = ∫ ai (τ ) a j (τ ) dτ , i, j x, y, z
td 0
The diagonal terms of the matrix give the intensities of the ground
motion in the different directions while the off-diagonal terms
CIE 5260 provide the degree of correlation. Generally µij ≠ 0 for i ≠ j ,
Earthquakes which means that the three components are correlated.
Lecture 6
34/ 39
To derive the principal components so that µij = 0 for i ≠ j the

following eigenvalue problem is considered:
List of contents:
Ground accelerations and det μ = 0

filtering

By solving the eigenvalue problem one obtains three eigenvalues
displacements
which can be sorted as follows:
Principal directions µ11 > µ22 > µ33

The projected motions on the three principal axis denoted here as
a11 ( t ) , a22 ( t ) , a33 ( t ) are called the major principal axis, the
intermediate principal axis and the minor axis, respectively.
CIE 5260
Note: The major principal component of the ground motion is horizontal
Earthquakes and is normally directed towards the epicenter ground motion. The
Lecture 6
intermediate principal component is also horizontal and perpendicular to
the major one. The minor component is usually directed almost vertically.
35/ 39
In practice, the vertical component is characterized by different

frequency content and characteristics due to the different
List of contents: waveforms contributing to this motion, i.e. mainly P-waves. The
task is mainly reduced to the analysis of the principal axes of the
horizontal components alone.
filtering
Ground velocities and Let as assume that ax ( t ) , a y ( t ) represent the two orthogonal
displacements components of the ground motion as recorded by the
Significant duration seismographic station. We introduce two principal components
Principal directions a1 ( t ) , a2 ( t ) such that:
 a1 ( t )   cos θ sin θ   ax ( t ) 
=
   ⋅ 
( )
 2   − sin θ
a t cos θ   a y ( t ) 
CIE 5260 The rotation angle θ for which µ12 = 0 is defined as:
Earthquakes
Lecture 6
1  2 µ xy  π
=θ −1
tan  =  + k , k integer

2  µ xx − µ yy  2
36/ 39
Example 4: Principal axes of the
ground motion
Discuss an example of a tri-axial recording and derive:
List of contents: • The covariance matrix and the intensity of the ground motion
in the various directions;
filtering
• The critical angle of rotation;
displacements • The principal components of the horizontal ground motion and
its time series.
Principal directions TUD tool for principal directions
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 6
37/ 39
Summary
List of contents:

filtering
• Ground acceleration recordings
displacements • Filtering of recorded ground motions
• Ground velocities and ground displacements
• Significant duration of a signal
• Principal directions
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 6
38/ 39
Reading material
o Lecture slides and lecture notes

List of contents:
o Matlab code for processing of seismic recordings

filtering o David M. Boore, Julian J. Bommer. Processing strong motion
Ground velocities and accelerograms: needs, option and consequences, Soil Dynamics and
displacements Earthquake Engineering 25 (2005), p. 93-115.
o Section 6.1 from Book of Anil Chopra, p. 197-203.
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 6
39/ 39
CIE 5260

Tel.: 015 27 89225, Room 3.44
Lecture 7
CIE 5260
Delft, 2019
1/ 50
Seismic response of linear SDoF systems

• EoM of SDoF systems subjected to ground excitation
• Dynamic response of linear SDoF systems
• Elastic Response Spectrum (ERS)
• Energy in linear SDoF systems
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 7
2/ 50

• Energy in linear SDoF systems
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 7
3/ 50
Examples of SDoF systems idealization
List of contents:
EoM of SDoF systems
Dynamic behaviour of SDoF

systems
ERS Figure: Idealization of bending motion of an offshore platform in earthquakes

Energy in linear systems
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 7
Figure: Idealization of horizontal motion of a building subjected to earthquake
4/ 50
SDoF system subjected to ground motion
• EoM in terms of total displacements:

List of contents:
mut (t ) + c ( ut (t ) − u g (t ) ) + k ( ut (t ) − u g (t ) ) =
0 (I )
EoM of SDoF systems

systems • EoM in terms of relative (to the ground) displacements:
ERS
u=
t (t ) ur (t ) + u g (t )
u=
t (t ) ur (t ) + u g (t )
u=
t (t ) ur (t ) + ug (t )
mur (t ) + cur (t ) + kur (t ) =

−mug (t ) ( II )
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 7
5/ 50
• EoM in terms of total displacements
( I)
List of contents:
mut (t ) + cut (t ) + kut (t ) = ku g (t ) + cu g (t )
EoM of SDoF systems

• EoM in terms of relative displacements
( II )
systems
mur (t ) + cur (t ) + kur (t ) =
−mug (t )
ERS
 Both equations are equivalent

 Eq. (II) is preferred because:
 Ground accelerations are usually recorded directly
 Ground displacements and velocities are prone to filtering
CIE 5260 errors (see Lecture 6)
Earthquakes
Lecture 7
6/ 50
• EoM in terms of total displacements
( I)
List of contents:
mut (t ) + cut (t ) + kut (t ) = ku g (t ) + cu g (t )
EoM of SDoF systems

• EoM in terms of relative displacements
( II )
systems
mur (t ) + cur (t ) + kur (t ) =
−mug (t )
ERS
 Energy stored in the spring

Relative displacement u=
r (t ) ut (t ) − u g (t )
 Energy absorbed by the dashpot

Relative velocity u=
r (t ) ut (t ) − u g (t )
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 7  Inertia force experienced by the mass
Total acceleration u=
t (t ) ur (t ) + ug (t )
7/ 50
Equivalency of the seismic problem
List of contents:
EoM of SDoF systems

systems
ERS
mur (t ) + cur (t ) + kur (t ) =

−mxs (t ) mur (t ) + cur (t ) + kur (t ) =
F (t )
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 7
8/ 50

• Energy in linear systems
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 7
9/ 50
SDoF system subjected to harmonic
ground motion
ur (t )
List of contents:
EoM of SDoF systems
Dynamic response of
SDoF systems
ERS c k
ur (t ) + ur (t ) + ur (t ) =
−ug (t )
Energy in linear systems m m
ur (t ) + 2ξωnur (t ) + ωn2ur (t ) =
−ug (t )
k c
=ωn2 = & 2ξωn
m m
−U 0 sin (ωt )
ur (t ) + 2ξωnur (t ) + ωn2ur (t ) =
CIE 5260
Earthquakes The response of this system consists of: =
ur (t ) ur ,h (t ) + ur , p (t )
Lecture 7
• The general solution to the homogeneous equation ur , h (t )

• A particular solution to the complete equation ur , p (t )
10/ 50
Quiz: particular solution?
ur (t )
−U 0 sin (ωt )
ur (t ) + 2ξωnur (t ) + ωn2ur (t ) =
List of contents:
EoM of SDoF systems
Dynamic response of The particular solution shall be sought for in the following form:
SDoF systems
ERS
A. t ) U o + U r , p (ω ) sin(ωt )
ur , p (=
B. { }
ur , p (t ) = Re U r , p (ω ) exp ( iωt )
=
C. ur , p (t ) U rcos
,p
(ω ) cos(ωt ) + U rsin, p (ω ) sin(ωt )
CIE 5260
{
ur , p (t ) = Im U r , p (ω ) exp ( iωt ) }
Earthquakes D.
Lecture 7
Note: In the equations above, the tilde denotes a complex-valued amplitude.

11/ 50
ground motion
List of contents:
The particular solution to the forced EoM can be sought for in the
form:
EoM of SDoF systems
Dynamic response of
SDoF systems
{ }
ur , p (t ) = Im U r , p (ω ) exp ( iωt )
ERS
Energy in linear systems Substitution of particular solution into the EoM yields:
U0
U r , p (ω ) =
ω 2 − i 2ξωnω − ωn2
The response in time reads:

CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 7 = { } { }
ur , p (t ) Im U r , p cos (ωt ) + Re U r , p sin (ωt )
12/ 50
ground motion
List of contents: • General solution to homogeneous equation:
ur (t ) + 2ξωnur (t ) + ωn2ur (t ) =

EoM of SDoF systems
0
Dynamic response of
SDoF systems
For the common case of ξ < 1 (CIE4140 - Structural Dynamics) we recall:
ERS
exp ( −ξωn t )  A cos (ωD t ) + B sin (ωD t )  ; =

ur ,h (t ) = ω D ωn 1 − ξ 2
• Complete solution to the problem for ξ < 1 :
CIE 5260 exp ( −ξωnt )  A cos (ωD t ) + B sin (ωD t ) 

ur (t ) =
Earthquakes
Lecture 7 { } { }
+ Im U r , p cos (ωt ) + Re U r , p sin (ωt )
13/ 50
ground motion
Initial conditions:
List of contents:
 ur (0) = 0
{ } { }
EoM of SDoF systems
⇒ exp ( 0 ) [ A cos(0) + B sin(0) ] + Im U r , p cos(0) + Re U r , p sin(0) =
0
Dynamic response of
⇒ A + Im {U } =⇒ − Im {U }
SDoF systems
0 A=r, p r, p
ERS
 ur (0) = 0
⇒ −ξωn exp ( 0 ) [ A cos(0) + B sin(0) ] + ωD exp ( 0 )  − A sin ( 0 ) + B cos ( 0 ) 
{ } { }
− ω Im U r , p sin ( 0 ) + ω Re U r , p cos ( 0 ) =
0
{ }
⇒ −ξωn A + ωD B + ω Re U r , p =0
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 7
{ } ξωn
A= − Im U r , p Im {U } + ω Re {U }
⇒ B= −
r, p r, p
ωD
14/ 50
ground motion
List of contents:
EoM of SDoF systems
Dynamic response of
SDoF systems
ERS
The complete solution to the problem is:
exp ( −ξωn t )
u r (t ) =
−
ωD
{ } (ω
Im U r , p D { }
cos(ω D t ) + ξωn sin(ω D t ) ) + ω Re U r , p sin(ω D t ) 

CIE 5260 u r , h (t )
{ } { }
Earthquakes
Lecture 7 + Im U r , p cos(ωt ) + Re U r , p sin(ωt )

ur , p (t )
15/ 50
SDoF system subjected to arbitrary
excitation
List of contents:
EoM of SDoF systems
Dynamic response of
SDoF systems
ERS

ur (t ) + 2ξωn ur (t ) + ωn2 ur (t ) =
−ug (t )
(0) u=
u= (0) 0
The problem is solved by applying one of the following methods:

CIE 5260 • The Duhamel’s integral approach (CIE4140)
Earthquakes
Lecture 7
• The frequency domain approach (CIE4140)
• Numerical solvers for ODEs (Matlab files)
16/ 50
Duhamel’s integral method (theory)
 Response to a unit impulse applied at t =0
List of contents:
EoM of SDoF systems
Dynamic response of
SDoF systems
ERS The equation of motion reads:

δ (t )
mu(t ) + cu (t ) + ku (t ) =
Integrating this equation in the vicinity of t=0 by assuming that ε is

a very small quantity:
+ε
t= +ε
t= +ε
t= +ε
t=
∫ ε mu(t )dt + ∫ ε cu (t )dt + ∫ ε ku (t )dt =

t=
− t=
− t=
− t=
−
∫ ε δ (t )dt
CIE 5260
Earthquakes The left-hand side gives the change in the momentum whereas the
Lecture 7
right-hand side gives the magnitude of the impulse:
+ε
t= +ε
t=
mu (t ) t =
−ε
+ cu (t ) t =
−ε
=
1
17/ 50
+ε
t= +ε
t=
mu (t ) t =
−ε
+ cu (t ) t =
−ε
=
1
List of contents:
It is known that:
EoM of SDoF systems
Dynamic response of
 u (t =−ε ) =0  1
SDoF systems

 ⇒ mu (t =+ε ) =
1 ⇒ 
u =
(0) ; ε →0
 u (t ) is continuous  m
ERS

Original problem New problem
CIE 5260
Earthquakes δ (t )
mu(t ) + cu (t ) + ku (t ) = mu(t ) + cu (t ) + ku (t ) =
0
Lecture 7
1
(0) u=
u= (0) 0 =
u (0) 0= ; u (0)
m
18/ 50
u(t ) + 2ξωnu (t ) + ωn2u (t ) =

0
List of contents:
1
EoM of SDoF systems =u (0) 0=
; u (0)
Dynamic response of
m
SDoF systems
ERS For the common case that ξ < 1 we recall:

exp ( −ξωn t )  A cos (ωD t ) + B sin (ωD t ) 

u (t ) =
Substitution to the initial conditions results :
1
CIE 5260
=u (t ) exp ( −ξωn t ) sin (ωD t )
Earthquakes mωD
Lecture 7
19/ 50
It is immaterial whether the impulse is
List of contents:
=
introduced at =
t 0 or at t τ, τ > 0.
EoM of SDoF systems
Dynamic response of
Therefore the response to a unit impulse at t = τ is given by:
SDoF systems
exp ( −ξωn ( t − τ ) ) sin (ωD ( t − τ ) ) ;

1
ERS t −τ )
h(= t ≥τ
mωD
The response to a general forcing function f (t ) will be calculated from

the superposition of the impulses:
t
=
u (t ) ∫ f (τ )h(t − τ )dτ
0
CIE 5260 t
∫ f (τ ) exp ( −ξω ( t − τ ) ) sin (ω ( t − τ ) ) dτ

Structural Response to 1
Earthquakes =
⇒ u (t )
mωD
n D
Lecture 7
0
Q: What should change to this equation for non-zero initial conditions?
20/ 50
Response of SDoF system to arbitrary
excitation (Duhamel’s integral method)
List of contents:
EoM of SDoF systems
Dynamic response of
SDoF systems
ERS
Equation of motion of SDoF system under an arbitrary ground motion.
mur (t ) + cur (t ) + kur (t ) =

−mug (t )
 
F (t )
By direct substitution of f (t ) = − mug (t ) into the previous equation:
∫ ug (τ ) exp ( −ξωn ( t − τ ) ) sin (ωD ( t − τ ) ) dτ

1
ur (t ) =
−
CIE 5260
Structural Response to ωD 0
Earthquakes
Lecture 7
Response of a linear SDoF system (initially at rest) to an arbitrary ground

motion described by ug (t ) .
21/ 50
Fourier transform method (theory)
List of contents:
The Fourier transform of a continuous function f (t ) reads:

EoM of SDoF systems
Dynamic response of
∞
f (ω ) ∫ f (t ) exp ( −iω t ) dt
SDoF systems
=
ERS
−∞
The inverse Fourier transform of f (ω ) reads:
∞
1
f (t ) = ∫ f (ω ) exp ( iωt ) d ω
2π −∞
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 7
22/ 50
excitation (Fourier transform method)
List of contents:
EoM of SDoF systems
Dynamic response of
SDoF systems
The equation of motion of a SDoF system under arbitrary excitation
ERS
Energy in linear systems mu(t ) + cu (t ) + ku (t ) =

F (t )
The inverse Fourier transform for both the displacement and the
excitation gives:
∞ ∞
1 1
u (t ) = ∫ 
u (ω ) exp ( iω t ) d ω F (t ) ∫ F (ω ) exp ( iωt ) d ω
2π −∞ 2π −∞
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 7 u (ω ) and F (ω ) are the complex amplitudes of the displacement and the
force respectively.
23/ 50
The equation of motion in the frequency

List of contents:
domain is given by:
EoM of SDoF systems
Dynamic response of
SDoF systems
( −ω m + iω c + k ) u (ω ) =
2
F (ω )
ERS
Thus, the solution in the frequency domain will be:
F (ω )
=u (ω ) = G ( iω ) F (ω )
−ω m + iω c + k
2
1
The quantity G ( iω ) = represents the FRF of a SDoF
−ω 2 m + iω c + k
system with viscous damping.
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 7
The solution in the time domain is given by the inverse Fourier transform:
∞
1
u (t ) =
2π ∫ G (iω ) F (ω ) exp ( iωt ) dω
−∞
24/ 50
The complete solution is given by:

List of contents:
EoM of SDoF systems ∞

1
exp ( −ξωnt )  A cos (ωD t ) + B sin (ωD t )  +
ur (t ) = ∫ G (iω )F (ω ) exp ( iωt ) d ω
Dynamic response of
  2π −∞
SDoF systems 
ERS
ur ,h (t ) ur , p (t )
Substitution of the initial conditions u=

r (0) u=
r (0) 0 into the equation
above yields the unknown constants A and B.
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 7
25/ 50

CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 7
26/ 50
Quantities of interest for the structural
engineer
Response quantities of interest for the structural engineer:
List of contents: • Relative displacement of the mass with respect to the ground which is related to
internal forces and deformations in the structure.
EoM of SDoF systems
• Total displacement of the mass in case the “bounding” of the structure with
surrounding buildings needs to be investigated.
systems
• Total acceleration of the mass in case the structure is supporting sensitive
ERS
equipment and analysis of the latter is required.
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 7
Parking garage at California State
University in Northridge damaged in the Bounding of two adjusted buildings
1994 earthquake. Credit: M. Celebi, USGS.
27/ 50
Definition of Elastic Response Spectrum
Relative displacement response of the mass with zero initial conditions

List of contents:
g (t ) :
subjected to ground acceleration u
EoM of SDoF systems
t

Dynamic behaviour of SDoF 1
ur (t ) =
−
systems
ωD 0
ERS
Energy in linear systems Apart from ug (t ) the response is governed by two parameters:
2π
• The natural period of vibration T =
ωn
• The damping ratio ξ
CIE 5260
The plot of the peak value of a response quantity as a function of the
Earthquakes natural period T and the damping ratio ξ of a linear SDoF system is
Lecture 7
called the Elastic Response Spectrum of that quantity.
28/ 50
Elastic Response Spectra
List of contents: Depending on the chosen response parameter, three are the most
common response spectra:
EoM of SDoF systems
Dynamic behaviour of SDoF • Displacement response spectrum: SD (T , ξ ) = max ur (T , ξ , t )

systems
ERS • Velocity response spectrum: SV (T , ξ ) = max ur (T , ξ , t )
SA(T , ξ ) = max ut (T , ξ , t )

• Acceleration response spectrum:
Important: Always distinguish between “relative” and “total” motions!
With SD, SV, SA we will refer to the response spectra of relative

CIE 5260
Earthquakes
displacement, relative velocity and total acceleration!
Lecture 7
29/ 50
Derivation of Elastic Response Spectrum
 Derivation of SD:
List of contents:
EoM of SDoF systems

1) Choose the damping ratio ξ . (Usually 0.5% - 5% in earthquake engineering)
Dynamic behaviour of SDoF 2) Choose natural period T of the oscillator.
systems
3) Calculate the displacement response through time:
ERS
t

Energy in linear systems 1
ur (t ) =
−
ωD 0
4) Obtain the peak response: SD (T , ξ ) = max ur (T , ξ , t )

5) Repeat steps 2 – 4 for different values of T .
6) Plot a graph with:
CIE 5260
Structural Response to • Vertical axis: SD (T , ξ )
Earthquakes
Lecture 7
• Horizontal axis: The period of the oscillator T .
7) Repeat steps 1 – 6 for different values ξ .
30/ 50
List of contents:
EoM of SDoF systems

Figure: Ground motion of earthquake in Kobe, Japan (1995) (Mw=6.9), recorded by
Dynamic behaviour of SDoF the station Takarazuka.
systems
ERS
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 7
Figure: Relative displacement response of three SDoF systems with ξ = 5% and T = 0.5, 1, and 2 sec.
31/ 50
 Derivation of SV and SA :
List of contents:
EoM of SDoF systems The same steps are followed for the derivation of these spectra.
Dynamic behaviour of SDoF They differ only in the calculation of the responses (Step 3).
systems
ERS
a) “Relative” velocity response spectrum SV
t
−ξωnur (t ) − ∫ ug (τ ) exp ( −ξωn ( t − τ ) ) cos (ωD ( t − τ ) ) dτ
ur (ωn , ξ , t ) =
0
b) “Absolute” acceleration response spectrum SA
ut (ωn , ξ , t ) =
−ωn2ur (ωn , ξ , t ) − 2ξωnur (ωn , ξ , t )
CIE 5260
Structural Response to * Please try to derive the formula given for the relative velocity by differentiating the relative
Earthquakes
Lecture 7 displacement with respect to time. It may be helpful to apply the following formula (known as the
Leibniz derivative of an integrated function):
32/ 50
List of contents:
EoM of SDoF systems

the station Takarazuka.
systems
ERS
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 7
Figure: Relative velocity response of three SDoF systems with ξ = 5% and T = 0.5, 1, and 2 sec.
33/ 50
List of contents:
EoM of SDoF systems

the station Takarazuka.
systems
ERS
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 7
Figure: Absolute acceleration response of three SDoF systems with ξ = 5% and T = 0.5, 1, and 2 sec.
34/ 50
Examples of ERS from real earthquakes
(a) (b) (c)
List of contents:
EoM of SDoF systems

systems
ERS Figures: Acceleration response spectra for near-field (Rrup=13-14km) moderate magnitude
(Mw=3.6-4.4) events. (a) San Jose, California (2009) Mw=4.3, (b) Chino, California (2001)
Energy in linear systems Mw=3.64, (c) San Bernardino, California (2009) Mw=4.42.
(d) (e) (f)
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 7
Figures: Acceleration response spectra for far-field (Rrup=203-222km) high magnitude
(Mw=6.6-7.1) events. (d) Borrego Mtn, California (1968) Mw=6.63, (e) Nenana Mountain,
Alaska (2002) Mw=6.7, (f) Hector Mine, California (1999) Mw=7.13.
35/ 50
Pseudo - Spectra
For historical reasons, Pseudo-acceleration and Pseudo-velocity

List of contents:
response spectra are sometimes used.
EoM of SDoF systems Pseudo-spectra are approximate and not actual response spectra.
systems
ERS
Derivation of Pseudo-velocity response spectrum
• Maximum elastic energy stored in the spring:

1
ESmax = k ( SD (T , ξ ) )
2
2
• Maximum Kinetic energy of the mass:
CIE 5260
1
m ( PSV (T , ξ ) )
Earthquakes
EKmax =
2
Lecture 7
2
36/ 50
Pseudo - Spectra
2π
ESmax ⇒ PSV (T , ξ ) =S D (T , ξ )
EKmax =
T
List of contents:
!
EoM of SDoF systems
Pseudo-velocity spectrum ≠ Velocity spectrum
systems
ERS
ξ =0 ξ = 20%
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 7
Figure: Real and pseudo-velocity response spectra for ξ=0 and ξ=20%, calculated for the ground
motion of earthquake in Kobe, Japan (1995) (Mw=6.9), recorded by the station Takarazuka.
37/ 50
Pseudo - Spectra
Derivation of Pseudo-acceleration response spectrum

List of contents:
EoM of SDoF systems

Assumption: undamped system (ξ = 0 )
systems
ERS The equation of motion reads:

Energy in linear systems k
mur (t ) + kur (t ) =
−mug (t ) ⇒ ut (t ) =
− ur (t )
m
Substituting the peak relative displacement:
max ut (T , ξ = max −ωn2ur (T , ξ =

0, t ) = 0, t ) ⇒
CIE 5260
 2π 
2
Earthquakes
Lecture 7 ⇒ PS A (T , ξ =
0) =
  S D (T , ξ =
0)
 T 
38/ 50
Pseudo - Spectra
Pseudo-acceleration is equal to the true acceleration response

List of contents: spectrum for ξ=0 and deviates when there is damping in the
EoM of SDoF systems
system ξ~0 !
systems
ERS
Energy in linear systems ξ =0 ξ = 20%
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 7
Figures: Real and pseudo-acceleration response spectra for ξ=0 and ξ=20%, calculated for the
ground motion of earthquake in Kobe, Japan (1995) (Mw=6.9), recorded by the station Takarazuka.
39/ 50
Example 1: Derivation of Elastic
response spectra
List of contents:
EoM of SDoF systems

• Matlab examples for the derivation of the elastic response
spectra to specific ground motions
systems
ERS
Energy in linear systems TUD tool for derivation of elastic response spectra
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 7
40/ 50
The Mexico Valley earthquake (1980)1
List of contents:
EoM of SDoF systems

systems SCT
(alluvium deposits)
ERS

CDA
(alluvium deposits)
VIV
(transition zone)
UNAM
CIE 5260
Structural Response to (rocky hill zone)
Earthquakes
Lecture 7
41/ 50
List of contents:
EoM of SDoF systems

systems
ERS
The ground motion is amplified at periods around 2 sec (SCT) and

3-4 sec (CDA) as the seismic waves entered the region on the deep
alluvium deposits and amplified1. The buildings most damaged were
CIE 5260 from 6 to 15 stories in height. These buildings tended to resonate most
Earthquakes with the energetic frequency band of the lakebed motions.
Lecture 7
42/ 50
List of contents:
EoM of SDoF systems

systems
ERS
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 7
43/ 50
List of contents:
EoM of SDoF systems

systems
ERS
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 7
44/ 50

CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 7
45/ 50
Energy quantities
Given the equation of motion:

List of contents:
mur (t ) + cur (t ) + kur (t ) =
−mug (t )
EoM of SDoF systems
Dynamic behaviour of SDoF Integrating both sides with respect to the displacement response of the
systems
SDoF system, each term expresses a different form of energy :
ERS
Energy in linear systems u u
0
r r r r ∫ ( −mu (t ) ) du
∫ ( mu (t ) + cu (t ) + ku (t ) ) du = 0
g r
u u u u
⇒ m ∫ ur (t )dur + c ∫ ur (t )dur + k ∫ ur (t )dur =
−m ∫ ug (t )dur
0 0 0 0
Kinetic Dissipated by Recoverable Imparted

CIE 5260
Structural Response to energy viscous damper strain energy energy
Earthquakes energy
Lecture 7
46/ 50
Energy quantities
du
By considering that: =
du = 
dt udt
dt
List of contents:
The last equation can be rewritten as:

EoM of SDoF systems
t t t t
systems
m ∫ ur (t )ur (t )dt + c ∫ ur2 (t )dt + k ∫ ur (t )ur (t )dt =
−m ∫ ug (t )ur (t )dt
0 0 0 0
ERS
t
Energy in linear systems 1
• Kinetic energy: = ur (t )ur (t )dt
EK m= ∫
0
2
mur2 (t )
• Dissipated by viscous t
ED = c ∫ ur2 (t )dt
damper energy: 0
t
1 2
CIE 5260
• Recoverable strain
= energy: ES k=
ur (t )ur (t )dt ∫ 2
kur (t )
Earthquakes t
Lecture 7
• Imparted energy: EI = −m ∫ ug (t )ur (t )dt
0
47/ 50
Energy quantities
It becomes apparent that: E I = E K + E D + ES

List of contents:
At the end of the excursion of an elastic SDoF system:
0 and EI = ED
EoM of SDoF systems
E=
K E=
S
systems
ERS
Figure: Ground motion of
Energy in linear systems earthquake in Kobe, Japan
(1995) (Mw=6.9), recorded
by the station Takarazuka.
CIE 5260
Structural Response to Figure: Energy time histories
Earthquakes
Lecture 7 for the above grοund motion
of a SDoF system with
T=1.0s and ξ=0,05.
48/ 50
Example 2: Energy quantities
List of contents:
• Energies in the elastic SDoF and effects of ground motion
EoM of SDoF systems
duration
systems
ERS
Energy in linear systems TUD tool to obtain SDoF energy quantities
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 7
49/ 50
Reading material
Essential reading:
o Lecture slides
o Lecture notes: Sections 1.1-1.3 (p. 1-19), Section 1.5 (p. 23-25)
o Matlab scripts
Optional reading:
o Sections 6.2-6.8 (p. 203-230) & 6.12 (p. 242-245) from Book of Anil
Chopra without 6.6.4 (p. 212-215) and 6.6.5 (p. 215-217).
o Sections 3.5-3.8 (p. 155-178) from book of Elnashai focusing only on
elastic response spectra
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 7
50/ 50
CIE 5260

Tel.: 015 27 89225, Room 3.44
Lecture 8
CIE 5260
Delft, 2019
1/ 47
List of contents: Seismic response of linear SDoF systems

EDRS • Elastic Design Response Spectrum (EDRS)
Use of EDRS in design
• Use of the EDRS in seismic design
EoM of NL-systems
Non-linear behaviour
Energy dissipation
• Equation of Motion (EoM) of non-linear SDoF systems
• Types of non-linear behaviour and physical interpretation
• Linear versus non-linear responses of SDoF system
CIE 5260 • Energy dissipation in inelastic systems
Earthquakes
Lecture 8
2/ 47

EoM of NL-systems
Energy dissipation
Earthquakes
Lecture 8
3/ 47
Elastic Design Response Spectrum
Response spectra of different earthquakes at the same site are different.
List of contents:
A single response spectrum of past earthquake is
inappropriate in seismic design !
EDRS
EoM of NL-systems
Energy dissipation
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 8
Figure: Response spectra for ground motions recorded El Centro, California, during earthquakes
of May 18, 1940 (Mw=6.9); February 9, 1956 (ML=6.1); and April 9, 1968 (Mw=6.5). ζ = 2%.
Source: Chopra, 2012.
4/ 47
I. The design spectrum should satisfy given design requirements; it is

therefore related to the design demand of a structural system.
List of contents:
II. The design spectrum is not indented to match the response spectrum
EDRS for any particular ground motion but is constructed to represent the
average characteristics of many ground motions.
EoM of NL-systems
Non-linear behaviour A
Energy dissipation
“A+B”
CIE 5260 B
Earthquakes
Lecture 8
Figure: Design uniform hazard response spectrum defined as the envelope of two design spectra
for earthquakes originating from different faults. Source: Chopra,2012.
5/ 47
List of contents: • The EDRS is indented for: - Design of new structures

- Evaluation of existing structures
EDRS
EoM of NL-systems • Representative of ground motions recorded at the site during

Non-linear behaviour past earthquakes (“envelopes” recorded events in a region-
Energy dissipation worst case scenarios).
What if no ground motions have been recorded for one site?
Based on ground motions from sites with similar

conditions:
CIE 5260
Structural Response to • seismogenic characteristics;
Earthquakes
Lecture 8 • soil conditions;
• etc…
6/ 47
• The design spectra are based on statistical analysis of response

List of contents:
spectra for an ensemble of ground motions recorded at a site.
EDRS
EoM of NL-systems
Energy dissipation
Figure: Acceleration response spectra of 9 Figure: Mean and mean-plus-one standard

ground motion recordings. deviation acceleration response spectra of 9
ground motion recordings.
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 8 • Design spectra are also derived on the basis of Ground Motion
Prediction Equations (GMPEs) from seismic hazard assessments.
7/ 47
Elastic Design Response Spectra
(Eurocode 8)
Horizontal elastic acceleration response spectrum
List of contents:  T 
• 0 ≤ T ≤ TB : Se (T ) = ag ⋅ S ⋅ 1 + ⋅ (η ⋅ 2.5 − 1) 
EDRS  TB 
• TB ≤ T ≤ TC : Se (T ) = ag ⋅ S ⋅η ⋅ 2.5
EoM of NL-systems
T 
• TC ≤ T ≤ TD : Se (T ) = ag ⋅ S ⋅η ⋅ 2.5 ⋅  C 
Energy dissipation T 
T ⋅T 
• TD ≤ T ≤ 4s : Se (T ) = ag ⋅ S ⋅η ⋅ 2.5 ⋅  C 2 D 
 T 
 S : soil factor (ground types A, B, C, D, E, S1, S2)
 TB : lower limit of constant spectral acceleration
CIE 5260
Structural Response to  TC : upper limit of constant spectral acceleration
Earthquakes
Lecture 8
 TD : start of constant spectral displacement response branch
η
 η : Damping correction (η = 1 for ξ=5%)= 10 ( 5 + ξ ) ≥ 0.55
8/ 47
(Eurocode 8)
The parameters S, TB , TC and TD depend on the ground type and the
surface-wave magnitude, Ms (Type 1: Ms>5.5 & Type 2: Ms<5.5).
List of contents:
EDRS
EoM of NL-systems
Table: Values of the parameters S, TB , TC and TD Table: Values of the parameters S, TB , TC and TD
Energy dissipation for Type 1 elastic response spectra (Eurocode 8). for Type 2 elastic response spectra (Eurocode 8).
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 8
Figure: Type 1 elastic response spectra (ξ=5%) Figure: Type 2 elastic response spectra (ξ=5%)
(Eurocode 8). (Eurocode 8).
9/ 47
(Eurocode 8)
30
𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠,30 = ℎ𝑖𝑖
∑𝑁𝑁
𝑖𝑖=1 �𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖
List of contents:
EDRS
EoM of NL-systems
Energy dissipation
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 8
10/ 47
(Eurocode 8)
Vertical elastic acceleration response spectrum

List of contents:
 T 
EDRS • 0 ≤ T ≤ TB : Svd (T ) = avg ⋅ 1 + ⋅ (η ⋅ 3, 0 − 1) 
Use of EDRS in design  TB 
EoM of NL-systems • TB ≤ T ≤ TC : Svd (T ) = avg ⋅η ⋅ 3, 0
T 
Energy dissipation
• TC ≤ T ≤ TD : Svd (T ) = avg ⋅η ⋅ 3, 0 ⋅  C 
T 
T ⋅T 
• TD ≤ T : Svd (T ) = avg ⋅η ⋅ 3, 0 ⋅  C 2 D 
 T 
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 8
11/ 47

EoM of NL-systems
Energy dissipation
Earthquakes
Lecture 8
12/ 47
Case study: Response Spectrum in
seismic design of simple structures
Consider a full water tank with mass m=100 tons, on a
List of contents: cantilever tower with height h=40 m with Young’s modulus
E=200 GPa and second moment of area I=0.07 m4.
EDRS

The structure is located in an area in which the expected
EoM of NL-systems
earthquake magnitude is Ms = 7.2 and the soil is classified
as ground type C. Assume further αg=0.2g (g=9.81 m/s2).
Energy dissipation
The structural damping is estimated equal to ξ=5% .
Question: Find the quasi-static design lateral force using

the response spectrum method of analysis according to
Eurocode 8.
3EI 3 ⋅ 200 ⋅109 ⋅ 0.07

CIE 5260
Structural Response to • Stiffness of cantilever tower:=k = 3 3
= 656.25kN/m
Earthquakes h 40
Lecture 8
m 100 ⋅103
• =
Natural period of the structure: π
T 2= 2π = 2.45s
k 656250
13/ 47
• The Magnitude of the earthquake is expected to be greater than Ms=5.5;
List of contents: therefore the Type 1 design spectrum of the Eurocode 8 is adopted.
• Additionally, we have soil class C.
EDRS
EoM of NL-systems
Energy dissipation
Table: Values of the parameters S, TB , TC and TD

for Type 1 elastic response spectra (Eurocode 8).
CIE 5260 Figure: Type 1 elastic response spectra (ξ=5%)

Earthquakes
(Eurocode 8).
Lecture 8
14/ 47
• The parameters that describe the design spectrum (Eurocode 8) are:
List of contents: S=1.15, TB=0.2s, TC=0.6s and TD=2.0s.
EDRS
• T=2.45s > TD The following formula according to Eurocode 8 is applied,
to calculate the value of the elastic response spectrum:
EoM of NL-systems
T ⋅T 
Energy dissipation
Se (T ) = ag ⋅ S ⋅η ⋅ 2.5 ⋅  C 2 D 
 T 
0.6 ⋅ 2 
⇒ Se ( 2.45=
) ( 0.2 ⋅ 9.81) ⋅1.15 ⋅1⋅ 2.5 ⋅ 
 2.45 
2
⇒ Se ( 2.45 ) =
1.128m/s 2
CIE 5260
Structural Response to The design force is:
Earthquakes
Lecture 8
F =m ⋅ Se ( 2.45 ) =100 ⋅103 ⋅1.128 =112.8kN
15/ 47

EoM of NL-systems
Energy dissipation
Earthquakes
Lecture 8
16/ 47
Introduction
 Non-linear systems considered in this module:
List of contents:
• We consider non-linear systems in which the force-deformation
EDRS relationship is non-linear. Systems in which non-linear
behaviour is included in other ways are not considered in this
module.
EoM of NL-systems
Energy dissipation  Why are we interested in the dynamic response of non-linear systems?
• Tendency to design structures that will undergo some degree

of cracking, yielding and damage during strong earthquakes.
This choice is mainly governed by financial reasons but also by the
stochastic nature (uncertainty) in the seismic input.
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
By allowing a structure to deform non-linearly we accept that part
Lecture 8
of the energy that is imparted into the system will be dissipated
inelastically and will lead (possibly) to permanent deformations.
17/ 47
EoM of non-linear SDoF systems
subjected to ground excitation
List of contents:
EDRS
EoM of NL-systems
Energy dissipation  Equation of motion: mur (t ) + f D + f S =

−mug (t )
Damping force f D = cur ( t ) (linear)
Restoring force f S = f ( ur , sgn ( ur ) ) (non-linear)
Inelastic characteristics hidden in the restoring force

CIE 5260
Earthquakes
f S − ur relationship path dependent
Lecture 8
depends on the sign of the velocity (signum
function in the expression above)
18/ 47
EoM of non-linear SDoF systems
subjected to ground excitation
Input Output
List of contents:
EDRS
EoM of NL-systems
Non-linear behaviour  Solution Numerical integration method (Matlab scripts) if:

Energy dissipation
• Advanced non-linear system
• Excitation varies arbitrary with time
Procedure:
• Solution at time step ti+1  uri +1 is based on the displacement at
1
previous time step ur (e.g. through Newmark beta method )
i
CIE 5260
Structural Response to • Calculate restoring force at time step ti+1  f s
i +1
f si + k T ( uri+1 − uri )
=
Earthquakes
Lecture 8
• Find convergence through iterative procedure (e.g.Newton-
Raphson iterations)
1 Newmark, N. M. (1959) A method of computation for structural dynamics. Journal of
Engineering Mechanics, ASCE, 85 (EM3) 67-94.
19/ 47

EoM of NL-systems
Energy dissipation
Earthquakes
Lecture 8
20/ 47
Restoring force versus displacement
diagrams
• Examples from laboratory tests: Steel members

List of contents:
Which nonlinear effects appear?
EDRS
EoM of NL-systems
F1
Non-linear behaviour F2
F3
Energy dissipation F4
k1 k2 k3 k4 k5
Stiffness
Strength
CIE 5260 degradation
deterioration
Earthquakes
Lecture 8
Figures: Typical hysteresis loops of steel beams with (a) IPE cross-section and (b) box cross-section under
cyclic loading.
Source: ESDEP, Lecture 17.3: The Cyclic Behaviour of Steel Elements and Connections.
21/ 47
diagrams
• Examples from laboratory tests: Concrete shear walls

List of contents:
EDRS
Use of EDRS in design Strength

Stiffness
Pinching
EoM of NL-systems deterioration
degradation k1 k2 k3 k4
F3 F2 W1 W2
Energy dissipation
F1
Characteristics of each specimen
W3
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 8
Figures: Hysteresis loops of concrete shear walls with varying horizontal reinforcement and gravity load.
Source: Mousavi, Zahrai, Bahrami-Rad, “Quasi-static cyclic tests on super-lightweight EPS concrete shear walls”
(2014).
22/ 47
diagrams Initial stage
List of contents:
Capacity & Ductility
EDRS
EoM of NL-systems
Energy dissipation Heavily damaged stage
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 8
Figure: Experimental campaign designed by TU Delft for obtaining the force-displacement diagrams of a typical Dutch
masonry structure.
Source: TU Delft, Structural behaviour of a calcium silicate brick masonry assemblage: quasi-static cyclic pushover
and dynamic identification test (2016)
23/ 47
diagrams
• Examples from laboratory tests : 2-storey masonry assemblage
List of contents:
Initial phase Pre-peak phase Post-peak phase
EDRS F1
F2
Use of EDRS in design F3
2nd Floor
EoM of NL-systems k1 k2 k3
Strength
Stiffness
Energy dissipation Pinching
deterioration
degradation
1st Floor
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 8
Figures: Hysteresis loops of a 2-storey masonry assemblage where.

Source: TUDelft, Structural behaviour of a calcium silicate brick masonry assemblage: quasi-static cyclic pushover and
dynamic identification test (2016)
24/ 47
Definitions
List of contents:
o The loops of the force-deformation diagrams are called
EDRS
hysteretic loops.
EoM of NL-systems
o In structural engineering, hysteresis is a phenomenological
concept based on the fitting of experimental data.
Energy dissipation
o The total area of each loop minus the part of the

recoverable elastic energy stored in the spring is equal to
the inelastic energy dissipated by the system in a single
loading cycle.
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 8
25/ 47
Elastoplastic hysteretic model (EPM)
The most simple hysteretic model which forms the basis of all
List of contents:
seismic designed codes in inelastic design.
EDRS
Use of EDRS in design The yield force and the stiffness of the system are assumed constant.
EoM of NL-systems
It can be modeled represented by a SDoF system with an elastic
Non-linear behaviour spring and a slider in series. This combination is called hysteretic spring.
Energy dissipation
The slider is activated when f s = Fy .
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 8
26/ 47
Elastoplastic hysteretic model (EPM)
mur (t ) + cur (t ) + f S ( ur , sgn ( ur ) ) =

−mug (t )
List of contents:
EDRS At every time step: f si + k T ( uri+1 − uri )

f si+1 =
EoM of NL-systems
 K , elastic region
kT =  0
Energy dissipation  0 , inelastic region
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 8
27/ 47
Elastoplastic hysteretic model with
smooth transition (EPSM)
List of contents:
Experiments have shown that the transition from
EDRS elastic to plastic is generally smooth.
EoM of NL-systems
Elastic spring and slider are replaced by in
Non-linear behaviour parallel mechanical systems each of them consisting
Energy dissipation of a spring and a slider connected in series.
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 8
28/ 47
Elastoplastic hysteretic model with
smooth transition (EPSM)

−mug (t )
List of contents:
EDRS
In every time step: f si + k T ( uri+1 − uri )
f si+1 =
  N 
( ))
i +1
 K 1 − f s
(
0.5 + 0.5sgn f si +1du  , elastic region
EoM of NL-systems

Non-linear behaviour Where: kT =  0  Fy
   
Energy dissipation
 0 , inelastic region
N: controls the smoothness
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 8
29/ 47
Bi-linear with strength hardening
model (BL-SHM)
List of contents:
For systems that possess a reserved strength after yielding.
Stiffness is non-zero after yielding.
EDRS

This is modeled by a spring in parallel to the hysteretic spring.
EoM of NL-systems
Non-linear behaviour Stiffness of hysteretic spring: (1 − rk ) K 0 Pre-yield: (1 − rk ) K 0 + rk K 0 =

K0
Energy dissipation
Stiffness of elastic spring: rk K 0 Post-yield: rk K 0
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 8
30/ 47
Bi-linear with strength hardening
model (BL-SHM)

−mug (t )
List of contents:
In every time step: f si + k T ( uri+1 − uri )

f si+1 =
EDRS

  f si +1
N

( 0.5 + 0.5sign ( f du ) ) , elastic region
EoM of NL-systems
 r K + (1 − rk ) K 0 1 − i +1
Non-linear behaviour Where: k = 

T k 0
 Fy
s

Energy dissipation 
 rk K 0 , inelastic region
rk: controls the degree of strength hardening
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 8
31/ 47
Stiffness degradation
• Should be conceived as deterioration of the hysteretic spring due to

large deformations.
List of contents:
• The larger the deformation the larger the stiffness degradation.
EDRS
EoM of NL-systems
Energy dissipation
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 8
Figures: Evolution of stiffness degradation based on the pivot point introduced by Park et. al (1988)
32/ 47
Strength deterioration
• Should be conceived as deterioration of the slider due to large

deformations and accumulation of hysteretic energy.
List of contents:
EDRS
EoM of NL-systems
Energy dissipation
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 8
Figures: Evolution of strength deterioration in the first, second, third and fourth loading cycle.
33/ 47
Pinching
• Caused by the opening and closing of cracks in cyclic loading.

• In reverse loading the cracks must first close before stiffness is
List of contents: activated.
EDRS
EoM of NL-systems
Energy dissipation
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 8
34/ 47
Advanced model including strength
and stiffness deterioration and pitching
−mug (t )
List of contents:
Every time step: f si + k T ( uri+1 − uri )
f si+1 =
EDRS
EoM of NL-systems
Energy dissipation K hys K slip

=kT + K lin
K hys + K slip
In which:
CIE 5260
K hys : The stiffness of the elastoplastic model with smooth transition
Earthquakes
Lecture 8 K lin : The stiffness of a linear spring. In addition to K hys gives the
stiffness of the bi-linear with strength hardening model
K slip : The stiffness a slip-lock spring, that captures the pinching effect
35/ 47
Advanced model including strength
and stiffness deterioration and pitching
 F F π F  
N 2
List of contents:
(1 − r ) R K 1 − hys
( 0.5 + 0.5 sign ( ) )
F dx 1 +   
s slip
 u 2   F   + r K  1 − η umax 
k k 0 hys
=
 F hys , y s s
0  
T
EDRS k
 F  F π F    uult 
N 1 2 k

(1 − r ) R K 1 − hys
( 0.5 + 0.5sign ( F dx ) )  + 1 +   
s slip
 F  
k k 0 hys
EoM of NL-systems  F hys , y  u 2 s s
Non-linear behaviour Rk controls the degree of stiffness deterioration (of the unloading
Energy dissipation branch) based on a geometric relationship of the pivot point
η1 controls the stiffness deterioration of the linear spring
Fs = s1 Fhys , y and
= us s2 ( umax − u y ) control the crack closing force and
displacement with s1, s2 being the control parameters of pinching
If Fhys ≠ 0 , there is strength deterioration in the system given by:

1/ β1
CIE 5260  u  
Fhys , y ,0 1 − 
=
hys ,max
  1 − β 2 EH 
  1 − β 2 EH ult 
Earthquakes Fhys , y
Lecture 8   uhys ,ult 
   
Where: β1, β 2 control the degree of strength deterioration due to maximum
displacement (uhys ,max ) and accumulation of hysteretic energy (HE)
36/ 47

EoM of NL-systems
Energy dissipation
Earthquakes
Lecture 8
37/ 47
Linear versus non-linear response
Simplest phenomenological model discussed EPM

List of contents:
EDRS
EoM of NL-systems
Energy dissipation
CIE 5260
We will compare the dynamic response of a linear model (LM)
Earthquakes
with elastic stiffness K0, damping c and mass m with the
Lecture 8 response of the elastoplastic model (EPM) with the same
properties but additionally a yield force Fy .
38/ 47
We introduce the following quantities:
List of contents:
 Yield strength reduction factor Ry

EDRS
EoM of NL-systems Maximum force in the LM subjected to a

f ground motion
Non-linear behaviour Ry = 0
Energy dissipation
fy Yield force in the EPM subjected to the
same ground motion (we assume that the
system yields Ry > 1)
 Displacement ductility factor μ
CIE 5260
Maximum displacement in the EPM
u subjected to a ground motion
Earthquakes µ= m
Lecture 8 uy Yield displacement in the EPM subjected
to the same ground motion (we assume
that the system yields so μ >1)
39/ 47
f0 Evaluated on the basis of

Ry = models for a given
List of contents:
fy
displacement ductility µ
EDRS
EoM of NL-systems
Energy dissipation
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 8 um Experimentally derived for a
µ=
uy class of structures from
hysteretic loops
40/ 47
List of contents:
EDRS
Explanation of the non-linear behaviour here

EoM of NL-systems
Energy dissipation
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 8
41/ 47

EoM of NL-systems
Energy dissipation
Earthquakes
Lecture 8
42/ 47
Energy dissipation in inelastic systems
Energy dissipation in elastic systems: viscous damping

List of contents:
Energy dissipation in inelastic systems: viscous damping
EDRS
+ yielding
EoM of NL-systems
Non-linear behaviour Energy quantities of inelastic system: Integrate equation of

Energy dissipation
motion with respect to displacement (similar to linear systems):
u u u u
∫ mu (t )du + ∫ cu (t )du + ∫ f ( u , sign ( u ) ) du

0
r r
0
r r
0
S r r r − ∫ mug (t )dur
=
0
CIE 5260 Kinetic Dissipated by Sum of energy Imparted

Structural Response to energy viscous damper dissipated by yielding energy
Earthquakes
Lecture 8 energy + removable strain
energy
43/ 47
du
By considering that: =
du = 
dt udt
List of contents:
dt
The last equation can be rewritten as:
EDRS
t t t t
∫ mu (t )u (t )dt + ∫ cu (t )u (t )dt + ∫ f ( u , sign ( u ) ) u (t )dt =

r r r r S r r r− ∫ mu (t )u (t )dt
g r
EoM of NL-systems
0 0 0 0
t
1
Energy dissipation • Kinetic energy: = ∫ ur (t )ur (t )dt
EK m=
0
2
mur2 (t )
• Dissipated by viscous u
ED = c ∫ ur2 (t )dt
damper energy: 0
Dissipated by yielding energy t

E(Y + S ) = ∫ f S ( ur , sign ( ur ) ) ur (t )dt
•
CIE 5260
Earthquakes + recoverable strain energy: 0
Lecture 8
t
• Imparted energy: EI = −m ∫ ug (t )ur (t )dt
0
44/ 47
From linear systems we know about recoverable strain energy:

List of contents:
[ f s (t )]
2 2
EDRS1 2 1  f s (t ) 
= ES = kur ,elastic (t ) =k 
Use of EDRS in design 2 2  k  2k
EoM of NL-systems
Non-linear behaviour Thus, the energy dissipated by yielding is:

Energy dissipation
[ f s (t )]
t 2
EY= E(Y + S ) − ES= ∫ f ( u , sign ( u ) ) u (t )dt −

0
S r r r
2k
Adding to this the energy dissipated by the viscous damper, we

CIE 5260
get the total energy dissipation in inelastic systems:
Earthquakes
[ f s (t ) ]  u 2
Lecture 8
t 2
=EY + ED  ∫ f S ( ur , sign ( ur ) ) ur (t )dt −  + c ∫ ur (t )dt

 0 2k  0
45/ 47
List of contents:
EDRS
EoM of NL-systems
Energy dissipation
Figure: Time variation of energy

dissipated by viscous damping and
yielding, and of kinetic plus strain
energy;
(top) linear elastic system,
CIE 5260 Tn = 0.5 sec, ξ = 5%;
Structural Response to (bottom) elastoplastic system,
Earthquakes Tn = 0.5 sec, ξ = 5%, Ry = 4.
Lecture 8
Source (Chopra, 2012)
46/ 47
Reading material
List of contents: Essential reading:

EDRS
o Lecture slides
Use of EDRS in design o Sections 1.4 (p. 19-23), 2.1-2.3 (p. 27-46), 2.5 (p. 51-53)
EoM of NL-systems
o Matlab scripts
Energy dissipation
Optional reading:
o Sections 6.9-6.11 (p.230-241) & 7.1-7.9 (p.258-289) from Book of Anil
Chopra without 6.6.4 and 6.6.5. (p.212-217)
o Sections 3.4 (p.129-155) from book of Elnashai.
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 8
47/ 47
CIE 5260

Tel.: 015 27 89225, Room 3.44
Lecture 9
CIE 5260
Delft, 2019
1/ 40
List of contents: Dynamics of non-linear SDoF systems

Linear versus nonlinear • Constant ductility inelastic spectrum
response
Constant ductility inelastic

• Design inelastic spectrum
spectra
• q-factor approach
Design inelastic spectra
q-factor approach
• Ry – μ – Tn relationships
Ry – μ – Tn relationships
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 9
2/ 40

response

spectra
q-factor approach
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 9
3/ 40
Elastoplastic model (EPM)
Simplest phenomenological model discussed EPM

List of contents:
Linear versus nonlinear

response

spectra
q-factor approach
Ry = f 0 / f y  Yield strength reduction factor
CIE 5260
µ = um / u y  Displacement ductility factor
Earthquakes
Lecture 9
 Recall the response of EPM from Lecture 8.
4/ 40
Derivation of inelastic spectra for given
ductility
List of contents:
In some cases it is desired to determine the yield
strength f y of the system necessary to limit the
ductility μ imposed by the ground motion to a
response
predefined (design) value.
Constant ductility
inelastic spectra

o Given a ground motion, the task is to define the yield
q-factor approach
strength fy of the SDoF dynamic system (for each T
and ξ value) so that a target displacement ductility μ
is reached.
o Having specified the yield strength fy, the yield

CIE 5260 displacement uy is also known and thus the Ry is
Earthquakes uniquely defined. By knowing both μ and Ry all
Lecture 9
response quantities can be found. This forms the
basis of inelastic design of simple structures.
5/ 40
ductility
List of contents:
Step 1: Choose a ground motion signal
Linear versus nonlinear As an example here we will use the recording of the earthquake in
response Kocaeli, Turkey 1999 (Mw =7.6).
Constant ductility
inelastic spectra
q-factor approach
Step 2: Choose the desired damping ratio ξ and natural

CIE 5260
Structural Response to period of the system Tn under investigation.
Earthquakes
Lecture 9
For example ξ = 5% and Tn = 1.00 sec
6/ 40
ductility
Step 3: Determine the maximum displacement response (u0 )

List of contents:
and peak force of the elastic system ( f 0 ) based on the
Linear versus nonlinear response of the elastic system.
response u0 = 0.153m
Constant ductility
inelastic spectra
q-factor approach
f 0 = 6.029
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 9
7/ 40
ductility
Step 4: Choose the desired ductility capacity level (µcapacity )
List of contents: For example μcapacity = 2 (chosen on the basis of experiments

Linear versus nonlinear or provided data in Eurocodes for specific structural type !)
response
Constant ductility
Step 5: Make a first guess for the yield strength reduction
inelastic spectra
factor (Ry ) and determine the maximum displacement (um )
response of an EPM with yield strength
q-factor approach
f0
Ry – μ – Tn relationships = fy , Ry > 1
Ry
6.029
For example: First guess Ry = 1.5, then:= f y = 4.019
1.5
um = 0.122m
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 9
8/ 40
ductility
um
Step 6: Determine the ductility demand µdemand = where
List of contents: uy
 2π 
2
uo fy
Linear versus nonlinear the yield displacement is u y = =
or u y = , k   m
response
Ry k  T 
Constant ductility
inelastic spectra
0.153
Design inelastic spectra =
uy = 0.102
1.50
q-factor approach
u0 0.122
→ µdemand == 1.196 < µcapacity
=
u y 0.102
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 9
9/ 40
ductility
Step 7a: If µdemand = µcapacity we can determine the ordinates of

List of contents:
the displacement, velocity and acceleration response of an
Linear versus nonlinear elastoplastic system with ductility capacity µcapacity .
response The yield strength reduction factor (Ry ) of this system has
Constant ductility also been determined.
inelastic spectra

Step 7b: If µdemand ≠ µcapacity we make another guess for the
yield strength reduction factor ( Ry ) and repeat Steps 6 to 8
q-factor approach
until µdemand = µcapacity .
Ry μ dem and
1st guess 1.5 1.196 
CIE 5260 2nd guess 3 2.490 
Earthquakes
Lecture 9 nth guess 2.136 2.002 
10/ 40
ductility
Step 8: Repeat Steps 3 – 8 for varying natural period Tn to

List of contents:
derive the constant ductility acceleration response spectrum.
response
Constant ductility
inelastic spectra
q-factor approach
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 9
11/ 40
ductility
Step 9: Repeat Steps 2 – 8 for varying µcapacity .

List of contents:

response
Constant ductility
inelastic spectra
q-factor approach
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 9
The yield strength reduction factor (Ry) is closely related to
the behavior factor (q-factor) that is used in Eurocode 8 to
decrease the elastic force in inelastic design of structures.
12/ 40
Practical implication of Ry – μ – T
relationship
List of contents:

response
Constant ductility
inelastic spectra
q-factor approach
Case A: SDoF system

= with Tn 0.5
= s and ξ 5% designed for a
CIE 5260 strength f 0 ≥ 3.57 / (mg ) it will remain within the linear elastic
region for the particular earthquake (Kocaeli, Turkey 1999 )
Earthquakes
Lecture 9
Strength-based design approach
13/ 40
Practical implication of Ry – μ – T
relationship
List of contents:

response
Constant ductility 57%

decrease
inelastic spectra
q-factor approach
Case B: SDoF system = with Tn 0.5 = s and ξ 5% able to develop

ductility factor of µcapacity = 4 , it may be designed for only 43%
CIE 5260 of the strength required for elastic behavior for the particular
Earthquakes earthquake (Kocaeli, Turkey 1999 )
Lecture 9
Ductility-based design the engineer is asked to design for

a m ore econom ical com bination of strength and ductility
14/ 40

response

spectra
q-factor approach
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 9
15/ 40
Derivation of design inelastic spectra
Previous graphs refer to a specific seismic event.

List of contents:
Spectra vary with irregular manner with structural period.
response
For design purposes, smooth inelastic design spectra have been
spectra
developed.
q-factor approach
Procedure:
Elastic design spectrum
design spectrum
Yield strength reduction factor
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 9 Establish a Ry – μ – Tn relationship
16/ 40
The Ry – μ – Tn relationship is based on the median yield

strength reduction factor of elastoplastic systems of a large
List of contents: ensemble of ground motions.
response

spectra
q-factor approach
CIE 5260
Figure 1: Ry – μ – Tn for Kocaeli, Figure 2: Median Ry – μ – Tn of an
Structural Response to Turkey 1999 ground motion ensemble of 30 ground motions
Earthquakes
Lecture 9
• Short period end of spectrum: Ry tends to 1 no reduction
• Long period end of spectrum: Ry tends to μ
• In between: Ry varies with Tn for a given μ
17/ 40
Several researchers proposed different Ry – μ – Tn relationships.
List of contents: One of the simplest proposals by Newmark and Hall (1982) is the
following:
response
1 Tn < 0.05s
Constant ductility inelastic 
spectra Ry  2 µ − 1
= 0.12 s < Tn < 0.5s
µ Tn > 1.0 s

q-factor approach
• In long period structures, the maximum displacement of the inelastic
system (regardless of the value of yield force) is the same as the
one of the elastic one R y = μ .
• In intermediate period structures, the ultimate displacement
CIE 5260
Structural Response to increases with decreasing yield force. Thus, the energy in the elastic
Earthquakes
Lecture 9 and elastoplastic systems can be assumed equal R y = 2μ - 1 .
• In short period structures, the force in the elastic system equals the
yield force of the inelastic one R y = 1 .
18/ 40
• Most Ry – μ – Tn relationships in the literature are derived

List of contents:
based on elastoplastic behavior of structural systems.
response • Other hysteretic models can also be employed as well
Constant ductility inelastic [i.e. Krawinkler and Nassar (1992), Borzi and Elnashai
spectra (2000)]  check slides provided at the end.
q-factor approach • Very often the elastoplastic model overestimates the

reduction factor Ry compared to models that incorporate
degradation the EPM is non-conservative.
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 9
19/ 40
Eurocode 8 inelastic design spectra
The inelastic design spectrum of Eurocode 8 in the horizontal

direction is given from the following formulae (EN1998-1):
List of contents:
 2 T  2.5 2  
S d (=
T ) ag S  +  −  ; 0 ≤ T ≤ TB
 3 TB  q 3 
response
2.5
=
Constant ductility inelastic S d (T ) ag S ; TB ≤ T ≤ TC
spectra q
Design inelastic spectra 2.5  TC 
=
S d (T ) ag S ≥ β ag ; TC ≤ T ≤ TD
q-factor approach q  T 
2.5  TCTD 
S d (T ) = ag S  2 
≥ β ag ; TD ≤ T
q  T 
ag : Design ground acceleration for soil type A

TB , TC : Lower and upper period limits of constant acceleration branch
CIE 5260
Structural Response to TD : Period at the start of the constant displacement regime
Earthquakes
Lecture 9 S: The soil factor
β: The lower boundary factor of the horizontal spectrum
q: The behavior factor (similar to the yield strength reduction factor)
20/ 40
What is the behaviour factor “q”?
List of contents:

response

spectra
q-factor approach
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 9
q  Ry
21/ 40
Elastic versus inelastic design spectra (q=1.5, 2, 4) in EC8:

• Soil type C
List of contents: • Design ground acceleration of soil type A: ag=0.2g
• Type 2 spectrum
response

spectra
q-factor approach
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 9
22/ 40
Design spectrum in the vertical direction (Eurocode 8):

List of contents:

response

spectra
q-factor approach
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 9
23/ 40
Given that in Eurocode 8 q-factor assigned to a structural type

List of contents:
q-factor = constant in the whole spectrum for a certain
structural type.
response

spectra

Eurocode 8 does not fully align with the aforementioned
q-factor approach
research because:
• For Tn=0.0 sec : Sd(T=0)= 2/3∙Sel(T=0)

Researchers propose Sd(T=0)=Sel(T=0)  no reduction
CIE 5260
Structural Response to • For Tn≥ Tb : Sd = Sel/q
Earthquakes
Lecture 9
Researchers propose an intermediate value until Tc
24/ 40

response

spectra
q-factor approach
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 9
25/ 40
The q-factor design approach
Introduction:
List of contents:  The behaviour q-factor (or Ry-factor) approach is based on a

linear elastic analysis of the structural system to a reduced -
Linear versus nonlinear compared to the elastic response spectrum- seismic demand.
response
Constant ductility inelastic  The reduction factor Ry (or the behaviour factor q) is chosen on
spectra the basis of the ductility capacity of the system
Design inelastic spectra different systems show different ductility capacities
q-factor approach
(see Lecture 8)
 The reduced spectrum (called hereafter the inelastic spectrum)
defines completely the seismic demand for the inelastic design
in the q-factor approach
CIE 5260
Once the inelastic spectrum is obtained, the design of the
Earthquakes
system takes place as in the elastic case. The elastic stresses
Lecture 9 are calculated from the inelastic response spectrum (see
Lecture 8) and checked against the yield stress.
26/ 40
Steps for the application of the q-factor approach:
• Define the elastic design spectrum

List of contents: Step 1
response • Choose the q-factor based on the characteristics of the structural system
under investigation (also discussed in Lectures 12-13)
Constant ductility inelastic Step 2
spectra

• Derive the inelastic design spectrum
q-factor approach Step 3
• Calculate the resulting stresses in the structural system using the ordinates
of the inelastic spectrum (Step 3) and a linear elastic analysis of the system
Step 4 (Lecture 7)
CIE 5260
Structural Response to • Do the resulting stresses (forces) in the members exceed the yield stress
Earthquakes (force)?
Lecture 9
Step 5 • Yes  repeat the steps 2-5 with different properties of the dynamic system
• No  the structure can withstand the seismic demand
27/ 40
Analysis with the q-factor

method using the input from
List of contents: the inelastic spectrum

response

spectra
The force experienced by the The force experienced by the
Design inelastic spectra system (dynamic analysis for the system (dynamic analysis for the
design spectrum) does not design spectrum) exceeds the
q-factor approach exceed the yield force yield force
The ductility demand is smaller

than the ductility capacity The ductility demand is larger
than the ductility capacity
CIE 5260 System may yield but its
deformation is within acceptable System yields and its
Earthquakes deformation is unacceptable
Lecture 9 limits!
28/ 40
Example: the q-factor design approach
m
Dout E 2,1E+11 Pa
L 4,5 m
List of contents:
m 2000 kg
A A’ Din
L D_out 0,22 m
D_in 0,21 m
response 2
A 0,003377212 m
Constant ductility inelastic 4
A-A’ I 1,95245E-05 m
spectra

ag
q-factor approach
Seismic hazard analysis input ( seismologist/design code):
• Eurocode 8 Type 2-spectrum
• Soil class D
• ag;ref=0.25g
• γI=1.20
CIE 5260
Earthquakes Task: Check whether the structure satisfies the design requirements
Lecture 9
for behaviour factor of q=1.5. Limit your check in the critical cross
section (exclude buckling verifications). The yield stress of the
material is assumed equal to 235 MPa.
29/ 40
Step 1: Define the elastic design spectrum
From Eurocode 8 we plot the ordinates of the elastic acceleration
response spectrum scaled to a ground acceleration of
List of contents:
ag=ag;ref x γI = 0.25g x 1.2 = 0.30g.
response

spectra
q-factor approach
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 9
30/ 40
Steps 2 & 3: Choose the q-factor and derive the inelastic

design spectrum
List of contents:
In the case q=1.5 is given. We derive the inelastic design spectrum with
the formulae given below.
response
Constant ductility inelastic Elastic design

spectra spectrum
q-factor approach
Inelastic design
spectrum
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 9
31/ 40
Step 4: Perform the structural analysis

List of contents:
We assume an equivalent stiffness of the tower equal to:

response
π ( 0.224 − 0.214 ) π ( 0.222 − 0.212 )
Constant ductility inelastic I= 1.952 ⋅10−5 m 4 ; A =
= =3.37 ⋅10−3 m 2
spectra
64 4
3EI 3 ⋅ 210 ⋅109 ⋅1.952 ⋅10−5
=k = = 134.98 kN / m
q-factor approach L3 4.53
Assuming that the mass at the top is much larger than that of the pipe,
i.e. Mpipe=119kg<<Mtop=2000kg, the natural frequency of the system
equals:
CIE 5260
Structural Response to k 134984
Earthquakes
Lecture 9
ωn = = = 8.21 rad / sec → Tn = 0.77 sec
m 2000
32/ 40
Step 4: Perform the structural analysis (cont’ed)
List of contents: The peak value of the equivalent force exerted on the mass equals
(reading the spectral acceleration from the inelastic design spectrum):
response Tn= 0.77 sec → S d= 5.219 → f s= 2000 ⋅ 5.219= 10.44 kN
spectra The maximum bending stress in the base of the tower equals:
M zmax  10437 ⋅ 4.5 ⋅ 0.22 / 2  −6
q-factor approach σM
= =  −5
= 10 264.6 MPa
I  1.952 ⋅10 
The normal stress in the base of the tower equals:
N 2000 ⋅ 9.81
σ= = = 5.8 MPa
−3
A 3.37 ⋅10
N
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 9 The total maximum stress at the outer fibre in the base of the tower
equals:
σ max = σ M + σ N = 264.6 + 5.8 = 270.4 MPa
33/ 40
Step 5: Check resulting stresses in the critical cross

section against the yield stress
List of contents:

σ max 270.4
response Unity check: = = 1.15 > 1.00 → unity check fails
fy 235.0
spectra

Conclusion: The structure does not satisfy the design requirement.
q-factor approach
This means that the yield force required is larger than the yield force
obtained by setting q=1.5. In other words:
CIE 5260
ductility demand > ductility capacity
Earthquakes
Lecture 9
34/ 40
Assuming that the material is kept the same as well as the

shape of the tower, what can be changed in the design of the
List of contents:
support structure (tower) to satisfy the design requirement?
response
Possible solutions:
spectra A. Increase the diameter of the tower
Design inelastic spectra B. Increase the wall thickness of the tower
q-factor approach
C. Increase both the diameter and the wall thickness
D. Increase the diameter and decrease the wall thickness
E. None of the options given above.
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 9
35/ 40

response

spectra
q-factor approach
Ry – μ – Tn
relationships
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 9
36/ 40
ductility
Other Ry – μ – Tn relationships, (A. Elnashai, 2012).

List of contents:
Linear versus nonlinear Kraw inkler and N assar (1992)

response
c ( µ − 1) + 1
1/ c
Constant ductility inelastic R=
y
spectra
Tna b
Where: c(T= , α ) +
1 + Tna Tn
n
q-factor approach
Ry – μ – Tn
α: The strain‐hardening parameter
relationships
of the hysteretic model.
a and b: regression constants.
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 9
37/ 40
ductility

List of contents:
Vidic et al. (1994)
Tn
response
Ry =c1 ( µ − 1) R +1 Tn < T0
c
Constant ductility inelastic T0

spectra
Ry = c1 ( µ − 1) R + 1 Tn ≥ T0
c
q-factor approach
Where: T0 : The period dividing the period range into two portions.
Ry – μ – Tn
It is related to the predominant period of the ground motion T1 by
relationships
means of: T0 = c2 µ cT T1
c1 , c2 , cR , cT depend on the hysteretic behavior:
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 9
38/ 40
ductility

List of contents:
M iranda and Bertero (1994)
response µ −1
=
Ry +1
Constant ductility inelastic Φ
spectra
q-factor approach
Φ = 1+
1
−
1
10Tn − µTn 2Tn
(
exp −1.5 ( ln Tn − 0.6 )
2
) Rock site
Ry – μ – Tn
relationships
Φ = 1+
1
−
2
12Tn − µTn 5Tn
(
exp −2 ( ln Tn − 0.2 )
2
) Alluvium site
Φ = 1+
T1 3T1
−
3Tn 4Tn
(
exp −3 ( ln (Tn / T1 ) − 0.25 )
2
) Soft site
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 9 Several other researchers have proposed more complex
Ry – μ – Tn relationships which depend on the type of the
structural hysteretic model (i.e. Borzi and Elnashai (2000)).
39/ 40
Reading material
Essential reading:
List of contents:
o Lecture slides
response o Sections 2.4 (p.46-51), 2.6 (p.52-57)
spectra
Design inelastic spectra Optional reading:

q-factor approach
o Chapter 7 (p.257-307) from book by Anil Chopra
o Sections 3.4.4 (p.144-150) and 3.4.5 (p.150-152) by Elnashai & Di
Sarno
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 9
40/ 40
CIE 5260

Tel.: 015 27 89225, Room 3.44
Lecture 10
CIE 5260
Delft, 2019
1/ 32
Generalised SDoF systems

List of contents:
• Continuous systems
Continuous generalized
SDoF systems
• Discrete systems
Discrete generalized SDoF
systems
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 10
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List of contents:
SDoF systems
systems
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 10
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Case study: Bridge Analysis
x=0 x=L
List of contents: ρ A, EI wr ( x, t )
EI → ∞, EA → ∞ ug (t )
SDoF systems ug (t )
systems
The equation of motion (see lecture notes CIE 4140) adjusted to the
problem at hand reads:
∂ 4 w r ( x, t )  ∂ 2 wr ( x, t ) ∂ 2u g (t ) 
EI + ρ A +  =
0
∂x  4  ∂t 2
∂t 
2
  
  
stiffness term
inertia term
Assuming that the columns are infinitely rigid in the axial direction and
CIE 5260 provide a moment free support condition to the deck, the BCs read:
Earthquakes ∂ 2 wr (0, t )
Lecture 10 • x=0: =
w (0, t ) =
r
0
∂x 2
∂ 2 w r ( L, t )
• x=L: =
w ( L, t ) =
r
0
∂x 2
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x=0 x=L
List of contents:
ρ A, EI wr ( x, t )
SDoF systems EI → ∞, EA → ∞ ug (t )
ug (t )
systems
In order to represent the bridge deck as a generalised SDoF system

one needs to search for a solution in terms of a vibration mode in
space multiplied by a function of time, i.e. to apply the method of
separation of variables:
wr (=
x, t ) W ( x) ⋅ u (t )
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 10 The accuracy of the solution will depend upon our choice regarding
the vibration mode W(x) !
5/ 32
STEP 1: Find a suitable displacement pattern of the bridge
List of contents: Main idea: In practice, we assume the fundamental vibration mode to
represent such a vibration pattern since for low frequency excitations the
fundamental mode of vibration dominates the response.
SDoF systems
Discrete generalized SDoF To find the fundamental mode of vibration in an exact manner we need to
systems solve an eigenvalue problem described by the homogeneous equation of
motion and the four BCs.
∂ 4 w r ( x, t ) ∂ 2 w r ( x, t )
EI + ρA =
0
∂x 4
∂t 2
∂ 2 wr (0, t ) ∂ 2 w r ( L, t )
w=r
(0, t ) = w=
r
( L, t ) = 0
∂x 2 ∂x 2
CIE 5260
Earthquakes To solve this problem we substitute:
Lecture 10
wr ( x, t ) Im W ( x) ⋅ exp ( iωt ) 

=
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Upon substitution we obtain:
d 4W ( x) ω2ρ A
List of contents:
4
− β 4W ( x=
) 0, β=4
dx EI
SDoF systems The general solution to the equation above reads:
W ( x) = C1 cos( β x) + C2 sin( β x) + C3 cosh( β x) + C4 sinh( β x)
systems
Application of the BC’s yields the following general solution:

∞
 nπ x  n 2π 2 EI
=
W ( x) ∑ sin  ωn −1
, = =
, n 1, 2,..., ∞
n =1  L  L2 ρA
Thus, a reasonable guess of the displacement pattern of the bridge
subjected to synchronous ground excitation at low frequencies can
CIE 5260
Structural Response to be represented by the fundamental mode of vibration:
Earthquakes
πx  π2
Lecture 10
EI
= =
W ( x) sin   , ω0
 L  L2 ρA
7/ 32
STEP 2: Derive the ODE of the generalised SDoF system
The total solution thus reads:

List of contents:
πx 
wr ( x, t ) = sin   ⋅ u (t ) = W ( x) ⋅ u (t )
SDoF systems
 L 
Substitution into the inhomogeneous equation of motion yields:
systems
d 4W ( x) d 2u (t ) d 2u g (t )
EI 4
u (t ) + ρ AW ( x) 2
−ρ A
=
dx dt dt 2
Since the modal shape chosen satisfies the homogeneous equation of

motion we obtain:
 
CIE 5260
 
Structural Response to W ( x)  u(t ) + ω0 u (t )  =
2
−ug (t )
Earthquakes   
Lecture 10 π x  π
sin    
2 EI
 L  L2 ρ A 
8/ 32
STEP 2: Derive the ODE of the generalised SDoF system
List of contents: Multiplying both sides of the equation above with W(x) and integrating
along the bridge length yields:
SDoF systems
u(t ) + ω02 u (t ) =
−Γ ug (t )
πx
systems L L
∫0 W ( x) dx ∫ sin( L
) dx
= Γ L= 0
= 1.273*
πx
L
∫ W ( x) dx ∫ sin (
2 2
) dx
0 0
L
π2 EI
 ω0 =
L2 ρA
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 10 * The Γ-value calculated in this case holds only for the specific shape function chosen
corresponding to the first mode of vibration of a simply-supported beam. As will be shown in
Module III of the course (dealing with MDoF systems), this value depends strongly on the
modal shape.
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STEP 3: Solve the ODE of the generalised SDoF system
The solution to the ordinary differential equation is known:

List of contents:
Γ
t
SDoF systems − ∫ ug (τ ) sin (ω0 ( t − τ ) ) dτ
u (t ) =
ω0 0
systems
Including damping (through critical damping ratio ξ in this mode):
u(t ) + 2ξω0 u (t ) + ω02 u (t ) =
−Γ ug (t )
Γ
t
u (t ) =
− ∫ ug (τ ) exp ( −ξω0 ( t − τ ) ) sin (ωD ( t − τ ) ) dτ
ωD 0
ω D = ω0 1 − ξ 2
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 10 Everything we learned on dynamics of SDoF systems
(Lectures 7-9) apply also in this case!
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If the spectral acceleration is given, the maximum displacement as a

function of the x-coordinate can be calculated as:
List of contents:
πx  S a (T0 , ξ )
=r
wmax ( x) W ( x) =
u (t ) max sin   ⋅ Γ ⋅
 
 L ω 2
SDoF systems
 0

W ( x) Sd
systems
The bending moment and the shear force can be calculated similarly:
r
d 2 wmax ( x) Sa π 2 πx 
M max ( x) = − EI = EI ⋅ Γ sin  
dx 2 ω02 L2  L 
  
d 2 wmax
r
( x ,t )
dx 2
dM max ( x) Sa π 3 πx 
Vmax ( x=
) = EI ⋅ Γ 2 3 cos  
dx ω0 L  L 
CIE 5260
Structural Response to   
Earthquakes d 3 wmax
r
( x ,t )
Lecture 10
dx3
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Estimation of the modal properties
What if one cannot formulate easily the eigenvalue problem?

List of contents:
Estimation of the vibration properties on the basis of an
Continuous generalized assumed shape function…
SDoF systems

systems
We again separate the spatially and time dependent parts, i.e:
w(=
x, t ) W ( x) ⋅ u (t )
Unknown generalised coordinate
Assumed shape function
to be found…
Static deflection…
CIE 5260
Earthquakes To formulate the generalised equation of motion of a SDoF system we
Lecture 10
need first to balance the internal forces and the fictitious inertia
forces acting on the system (D’Alembert’s principle).
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The fictitious inertia forces that the system experiences are given as:
List of contents:  ∂ 2 w( x, t ) ∂ 2u g (t ) 
f I ( x, t ) =
− m( x )  + 
 ∂t 2 ∂t 2
Continuous generalized    
SDoF systems inertia term
systems The external work of this inertia forces for a virtual displacement δ w
is expressed as:
L L
 ∂ 2 w( x, t ) ∂ 2u g (t ) 
∫0 f I ( x, t ) ⋅ δ w ⋅ dx =
δ Wext = − ∫ m( x ) 
 ∂t 2
+
∂t 
2  ⋅ δ w ⋅ dx
0 
L
∂ 2 w( x, t ) ∂ 2u g (t ) L
− ∫ m( x ) ⋅
→ δ Wext = ⋅ δ w ⋅ dx − ∫ m( x) ⋅ δ w ⋅ dx
CIE 5260 0
∂t 2
∂t 2
0
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Lecture 10
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The internal work is related to the bending moments acting through

virtual curvatures:
List of contents: L
δ=
Wint ∫ M ( x, t ) ⋅ δκ ⋅ dx
0
SDoF systems
∂ 2 w ( x, t )
Discrete generalized SDoF  κ ( x, t ) = −
systems ∂x 2
 M (= x, t ) EI ( x) ⋅ κ ( x, t )
Expanding both internal and external virtual works using the

separation of variables for the assumed displacement pattern yields:
δ w W ( x) ⋅ δ u (t )
=
d 2W ( x )
CIE 5260
Structural Response to  δκ =
− 2
⋅ δ u (t )
Earthquakes dx
Lecture 10
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The external virtual work can be expressed as:
 L L

−δ u (t ) u(t ) ∫ m( x) ⋅ [W ( x) ] ⋅ dx + ug (t ) ∫ m( x) ⋅ W ( x) ⋅ dx 
δ Wext =
2
List of contents:  0 0 
 L
 d 2W ( x) 
2

SDoF systems
δ=Wint δ u (t ) u (t ) ∫ EI ( x) ⋅  2  ⋅ dx 
 0  dx  
systems
Enforcement of the equilibrium between internal and external work at
every instant of time yields:
δ=
Wext δ Wint →
2
L L L
 d W ( x) 
2
−u(t ) ∫ m( x) ⋅ [W ( x) ] ⋅ dx − ug (t ) ∫ m( x) ⋅ W=
( x) ⋅ dx u (t ) ∫ EI ( x) ⋅   ⋅ dx
2
2

0
  
0

0 
dx  
m L k
→ m u(t ) + k u (t ) =
− L ug (t ) → u(t ) + ω 2u (t ) =
−Γ ug (t )
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 10
k  L
=
with: ω and Γ =
2
m m
15/ 32
Solution of generalised SDoF
representing a 1-D continuum
The solution to the ordinary differential equation is known:
List of contents:
Γ
t
Continuous generalized − ∫ ug (τ ) sin (ω ( t − τ ) ) dτ
u (t ) =
SDoF systems ω 0
systems
Including damping (through critical damping ratio ξ ):
−Γ ug (t )
u(t ) + 2ξω u (t ) + ω 2u (t ) =
Γ
t
u (t ) = − ∫ ug (τ ) exp ( −ξω ( t − τ ) ) sin (ω D ( t − τ ) ) dτ
ω D 0
CIE 5260
ω D ω 1 − ξ 2
=
Earthquakes
Lecture 10
The accuracy of the prediction will depend upon the guess of the
shape function W(x)!
16/ 32
Case studies: lateral force method with
behaviour factor q
List of contents:
Example 1:
Continuous generalized Reinforced concrete chimney solved by the response
SDoF systems
spectrum method
systems
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 10
17/ 32

List of contents:
SDoF systems
Discrete generalized
SDoF systems
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 10
18/ 32
Case study: Multi-storey building
List of contents:
SDoF systems
SDoF systems
Assumptions:
• mass is lumped at the floor levels  m j denotes the mass of each floor
• stiffness is provided by the columns at each floor  we assume that the
stiffness of all columns added together at each floor equals k j
• support excitation due to the earthquake motion is uniform
CIE 5260
Structural Response to • the floors are infinitely rigid in plane
Earthquakes
Lecture 10
Task: Describe the dynamics of the system as a generalised SDoF

system
19/ 32
We assume that the floor displacements (relative to the ground) can

be expressed as:
List of contents: =u j (t ) ψ=
j u (t ) , j 1, 2,..., N
SDoF systems
or in the vectorial form:
u(t )  ψ u (t )
SDoF systems
The total displacement at each floor level then equals to:
u j ( t ) + ug ( t ) ,
u tj (t ) = j=
1, 2,..., N
or in the vectorial form:
[
u ( t ) + r ug ( t ) , r =
ut (t ) = 1 1 ... 1]
T
 
CIE 5260 [ Nx1]
Earthquakes
Lecture 10
To formulate the generalised equation of motion of a SDoF system we
need first to balance the internal forces and the fictitious inertia
forces acting on the system (D’Alembert’s principle).
20/ 32
The shear force at each floor level is related to the drift (relative
motion between the upper and lower floors):
List of contents:
12 EI
Continuous generalized k j u j ( t ) − u j −1 ( t )  ,
V j (t ) = 1, 2,..., N ; k j =∑
j=
SDoF systems  columns h
3
inter-storey drift
SDoF systems
V1 (t )= k1 u1 ( t ) − u0 ( t ) = k1 u1 ( t )
...
VN (t ) k N u N ( t ) − u N −1 ( t ) 
=
The internal virtual work is due to the shear forces V j (t ) per floor level
acting through virtual displacements δ u j ( t ) :
CIE 5260
∑V (t ) (δ u ( t ) − δ u ( t ) )
Earthquakes N
Lecture 10
=δ WI j j j −1
j =1
21/ 32
The fictitious inertia force at every floor level equal to:
List of contents:
−m j uj ( t ) + ug ( t )  ,
f I , j (t ) = j=
1, 2,..., N
SDoF systems
Discrete generalized The external virtual work is due to the fictitious forces f I , j (t ) acting
SDoF systems through virtual displacements δ u j ( t ) :
N
=δ WE ∑=
f (t ) δ u ( t )
j =1
I, j j
N
−∑ m j uj ( t ) + ug ( t )  δ u j ( t ) ,
= j=
1, 2,..., N
j =1
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 10
22/ 32
Substituting the assumed solution u j (t ) = ψ j u (t ) into the last two

equations yields:
List of contents:
 N N 
Continuous generalized −δ u  u(t )∑ m j ψ j + ug (t )∑ m j ψ j 
δ WE = 2
SDoF systems =  j 1 =j 1 
δ WI δ u u (t )∑ k j (ψ j −ψ j −1 )
N 2
=
SDoF systems
j =1
The balance of internal and external work in the system yields:
δ W ⇒ −u(t ) ∑ m ψ − u (t ) ∑ m ψ= u (t ) ∑ k j (ψ j −ψ j −1 )
N NN 2
δW
=E I j
2
j g j j
=j 1 =j 1 =j 1

 
 


m L k
CIE 5260
L
Earthquakes
⇒ m u(t ) + k u (t ) =− L ug (t ) ⇒ u(t ) + ω02u (t ) =
− ug (t )
Lecture 10 m
⇒ u(t ) + ω02u (t ) =−Γ ug (t )
23/ 32
The generalised SDoF equation of motion reads:
∑ k (ψ )
N N
∑m
2
List of contents: j j j −1 −ψ j ψj
2 = j 1 =j 1
u(t ) + ω u (t ) =
0 g
2
0 −Γ u (t ) , ω =
N N
, Γ=
SDoF systems
=j 1 =j 1
j
2
j ∑m ψ ∑ m j ψ 2j
SDoF systems
Begin Generalization
For any discrete system (i.e. modelled with FEM), the properties of
the generalised SDoF system can be obtained on the basis of the
exact undamped fundamental mode of vibration ψ 0 of the system:
L ψ T0 M1 k ψ T0 Kψ 0
m= ψ Mψ 0 , k= ψ Kψ 0 , Γ= =
T T
, ω0= =
2
m ψ T0 Mψ 0 m ψ T0 Mψ 0
0 0
CIE 5260
Structural Response to • ψ0 : fundamental mode of vibration
Earthquakes
Lecture 10 • M, K : mass and stiffness of the discrete model (i.e. FEM)
• ω0 : fundamental frequency of vibration
End Generalization
24/ 32
The generalised SDoF equation of motion reads:
∑ k (ψ )
N N
∑m
2
List of contents: j j j −1 −ψ j ψj
2 = j 1 =j 1
u(t ) + ω u (t ) =
0 g
2
0 −Γ u (t ) , ω =
N N
, Γ=
SDoF systems
=j 1 =j 1
j
2
j ∑m ψ ∑ m j ψ 2j
SDoF systems
The general solution to the equation above for zero initial conditions
has already been introduced in Lecture 7:
Γ
t
− ∫ ug (τ ) sin (ω0 ( t − τ ) ) dτ
u (t ) =
ω0 0
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 10
25/ 32
The addition of damping (given here as a percentage of critical

damping for the chosen vibration mode) modifies the equation
List of contents: above as follows:
u(t ) + 2ξω0 u (t ) + ω02u (t ) = −Γ ug (t )
SDoF systems
Discrete generalized The general solution to this equation for zero initial conditions we
SDoF systems already know from Lecture 7:
Γ
t
u (t ) =
− ∫ ug (τ ) exp ( −ξω0 ( t − τ ) ) sin (ωD ( t − τ ) ) dτ
ωD 0
ω D ω0 1 − ξ 2
=
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 10
26/ 32
For example if the elastic spectral acceleration is given, the maximum

displacement of the building can be calculated as:
List of contents: S 
u j ,max= ψ j umax (t=
) ψ j ⋅ Γ ⋅  ae2  , =
j 1, 2,..., N
Continuous generalized ω
 0 
SDoF systems Sde = elastic
spectral
Discrete generalized displacement
SDoF systems
The equivalent static force acting at each floor level reads:
f s ,=
j ψ j ⋅ m j ⋅ Γ ⋅ Sa with:
 S a = S ae for elastic design or
 S a = S d for inelastic design (use of R y or q-factor)
The shear force and bending moment at floor “i” equals:

CIE 5260 N N
Earthquakes
Lecture 10
=
Vi ∑=
f
s, j
=j i =j i
∑ψ j ⋅ m j ⋅ Γ ⋅ Sa
∑ f ⋅(h − h )= ⋅ m j ⋅ Γ ⋅ S a ⋅ ( h j − hi )
N N
M=
s, j
i
=j i =j i
j i ∑ψ j
27/ 32
List of contents:
The total base shear and overturning base moment equals:
N N
∑f ∑ψ
SDoF systems
Vb= s, j = j ⋅ m j ⋅ Γ ⋅ S a= L ⋅ Γ ⋅ S a= M*
 ⋅ Sa
=j 1 =j 1 modal mass
SDoF systems
N N N
M=
b ∑f
s, j
=j 1 =j 1
j ⋅ h= ∑ Γ ⋅ψ j ⋅ m j ⋅ S a ⋅ h=
j
θ
L ⋅ Γ ⋅ S a , L=
=j 1
θ
∑h j ⋅ψ j ⋅ m j
Thus, by introducing the shape function ψ the problem is

transformed to the one of a SDoF system and all theory
CIE 5260
applies as we learned in Lectures 7-9.
Earthquakes
Lecture 10
28/ 32
The force applied at each floor level can be expressed also in terms of
the total base shear (this formula is used in all design codes):
List of contents:
Vb ψ jmj
Continuous generalized fs, j Γ ⋅ S a (T ) ⋅ψ j ⋅ m j = ⋅ψ j ⋅ m j =
= Vb ⋅ N
∑ mj ψ j
SDoF systems
L
Discrete generalized j =1
SDoF systems
This formula forms the basis of the lateral force method of analysis in
which the total base shear is first calculated:
N
Vb S a (T ) ⋅ ∑ m j , with:
=
j =1
 S a = S ae for elastic design

 S a = S d for inelastic design (use of R y or q-factor)
CIE 5260
Structural Response to A static analysis then takes place with a force per floor defined with
Earthquakes
Lecture 10
the formulae given above.
For elastic design q=1. For inelastic design q>1.
29/ 32
Lateral force method for a building
(similar to all structural types!)
List of contents:
Dynamic load of an earthquake
SDoF systems
Static load (base shear Vb) given by the product
SDoF systems
of:
• The total mass of the structure
• The peak acceleration response of an
equivalent SDoF system (q≥1)
CIE 5260
Distribute the static load among the floors of the
Structural Response to structure based on:
Earthquakes
Lecture 10
• The shape function of the fundamental mode
• The mass in each floor
30/ 32
Case studies: lateral force method with
behaviour factor q
List of contents:
Example 2:
Continuous generalized Five-storey frame solved by the response spectrum
SDoF systems
method
SDoF systems
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 10
31/ 32
Reading material

o Lecture slides
SDoF systems
o Lecture notes Chapter 3 (p. 59-67)
systems o Maple files with examples of generalized SDoF systems
Optional reading:
o Chapter 8 (p.307-345) from book by Anil Chopra
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 10
32/ 32
CIE 5260

Tel.: 015 27 89225, Room 3.44
Lecture 11
CIE 5260
Delft, 2019
1/ 41
Pushover method of analysis

• Pushover method of analysis
• Derivation of pushover curve in ZeusNL
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 11
2/ 41

CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 11
3/ 41
Overview of seismic analysis methods
Can the seismic response be approximated by
a single mode of vibration?
List of contents:
yes no
Pushover method of
analysis
Generalised MDoF
SDoF systems systems
Linear Non-linear
response response
Lateral force method

Lateral force method
(inelastic spectrum with q-factor)
(elastic spectrum)
CIE 5260 Pushover

Structural Response to method
Earthquakes
Lecture 11 Time-history analysis
Seismic input  design spectra
4/ 41
The pushover method of analysis
Introduction:
List of contents:
 The pushover method of analysis is based on the comparison of
Pushover method of
the expected displacement of a system at its target limit state
analysis with the imposed displacement demand by the design seismic
action.
 The classical pushover method of analysis is based on a simple

displacement pattern of the structural system (usually a single
mode of vibration) which is a priori defined.
 The method is developed for systems in which a single mode of

vibration dominates the response (equivalent thus to generalised
SDOF systems). The mode can be guessed or chosen on the
basis of the solution of an eigenvalue problem (Lecture 13).
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 11
The design based on the pushover method of analysis plots
the imposed seismic demand in terms of target displacement
against the displacement capacity of the system.
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Step 1: Define the elastic design spectrum

List of contents:
This can be taken from code provisions or provided for a specific
situation  it defines the so-called seismic demand.
Pushover method of
analysis
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Lecture 11
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Step 2: Plot the elastic design spectrum to an Acceleration-

Displacement Response Spectrum (ADRS) format
List of contents:
Pushover method of
analysis
CIE 5260
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Lecture 11
Sa(T) should be converted to SI units, i.e. m/s2 (and
not units of [g])!
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Step 3: Calculate (or obtain from experiments) the so-called

capacity curve  a force-displacement plot (or moment-curvature
List of contents:
plot) based on the characteristics of the examined system.
Pushover method of
analysis
From Lecture 10 we know that:

 N 
CIE 5260
Fj = Γ ⋅ S a ⋅ψ j ⋅ m j = Vb ⋅ ψ j m j / ∑ m j ψ j  … or any other control
Earthquakes
Lecture 11
 j =1  point ucp at which we
N
set ψcp=1.00.
Vb= ∑F
j =1
s, j = L ⋅ Γ ⋅ S a= 
M *
⋅ Sa
modal mass
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Step 4: Express the capacity curve in the form of a capacity

spectrum by transforming the system into an equivalent SDoF
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system (check theory of generalised SDoF systems – Lecture 10).
Pushover method of
analysis
The following formulae apply in the transformation procedure:

N
CIE 5260
Structural Response to Vb Vb ucp ∑m
j =1
j ψj
Earthquakes =
Sa = , =
Sd , and =
Γ
Lecture 11
L ⋅Γ Γ ⋅ (ψ cp =1)
N N
Γ ⋅ ∑ψ j ⋅ m j ∑m j ψ 2j
j 1 =j 1
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Step 5: Plot the demand spectrum (ADRS) together with the

capacity spectrum to check the performance of the system and to
List of contents:
find the target displacement
Pushover method of
analysis
ADRS ADRS
Capacity Capacity
spectrum spectrum
(a) (b)
We can distinguish two cases:

CIE 5260
Structural Response to • Case (a): the bi-linear capacity spectrum crosses the ADRS at
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Lecture 11 periods longer than the Tc-period (long-period systems).
• Case (b): the bi-linear spectrum crosses the ADRS at periods
shorter than the Tc-period (short-period systems).
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Case (a): the target displacement for long-period structures is

equal to the one directly read by the crossing point as defined in
List of contents: the graph above:
Pushover method of
S d = S de , utop = Γ ⋅ S d
analysis
ADRS
Capacity spectrum
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Lecture 11
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Case (b): the target displacement for short-period structures is

calculated by the following simplified formula:
List of contents:
 
⋅ ( Rµ − 1) c* + 1 ; R
S de T S ae Tc =T ∗
Pushover method of =
Sd =µ →
R =µ =
S d S de
µ
analysis
Rµ  T  S ay
From design elastic
utop = Γ ⋅ S d spectrum, i.e. elastic
force.
From non-linear
pushover curve, i.e.
ADRS yield force.
Capacity spectrum
CIE 5260
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Lecture 11
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Case study: masonry building
Capacity & Ductility
List of contents:
Pushover method of
analysis
CIE 5260
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Lecture 11
Figure: Experimental campaign designed by TU Delft for obtaining the force-displacement

diagrams of a typical Dutch masonry structure. Source: TU Delft, Structural behaviour of a
calcium silicate brick masonry assemblage: quasi-static cyclic pushover and dynamic
identification test (2016)
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Steps 1&2: Derive the ADRS spectrum
Seismic hazard analysis: We construct the ADRS of the Type1-

spectrum of Eurocode-8 for soil class C with a agR=0.5[g] and an
importance factor equal to γI=1.0.
List of contents:
T [s] Sd [m] Horizontal axis (Eq. in slide 7 ) Sa [m/s2] Vertical axis (directly read from EC8)
Pushover method of 0,00 0,000000 5,641
analysis 0,01 0,000015 6,064
…
…
0,59 0,1243 14,102
0,60 0,1286 14,102
0,61 0,1307 13,871
…
…
2,00 0,4286 4,231
…
…
Tc=0,6s
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Lecture 11
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Step 3: Obtain the pushover curve of
the structure
The following capacity curve is obtained by experiment for a two-storey
masonry building:
List of contents:
Pushover method of
analysis
The following structural characteristics are known:

• the total mass of the structure equals mtot=25 tons.
CIE 5260
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• the force-displacement plot is based on a linear (with height)
Lecture 11 distribution of the lateral forces.
When experimental data are not available, the pushover curve is
estimated on the basis of non-linear static computations with FE models.
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the structure
The equivalent (secant) stiffness of the structure can be estimated by
List of contents: constructing a bilinear curve on the force displacement diagram:
• Maximum deformation capacity (um) is
Pushover method of
assumed when backbone curve starts to decay. Point B can
analysis
• Yield force (Fy) is the actual maximum force. be found
• The yield displacement (uy) can be found by equating the actual
deformation energy up to the formation of the plastic mechanism
(Em ) with the energy under the bilinear curve (OCB)*.
1  Em 
Em= Fy um − Fy u y ⇒ u y= 2  um − 
2  F
 y 
* If data are not given, uy can be defined

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graphically, such that A1 ~ A2.
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Lecture 11 The equivalent (secant) stiffness is:
Fy
K eq =
uy
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the structure
In the backbone curve the maximum displacement and the yield
force are measured:
List of contents:
um = 22mm and = =
Fy 47 kN ( Vb )
Pushover method of
analysis Following the procedure of the previous slide we define the yield
displacement:
u y = 7.5mm
Therefore the equivalent

(secant) stiffness reads:
47000
=
K eq = 6267 kN / m
0.0075
CIE 5260
Structural Response to 22, 0
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Lecture 11
=µ ≅ 3, 00
7,5
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Step 4: Transform the capacity curve to
a capacity spectrum
List of contents: At this stage we need to assume a vibration mode for the building
under investigation.
Pushover method of
Given that both storeys have the same height and the floor mass at
analysis
each level is exactly the same, a linear distribution of forces with height
is assumed. Thus:
Ψ1 = 0.5 and Ψ2 = 1.0.
Additionally, m1=m2=mtot/2.
∑m
j =1
j ψj
12,500 ⋅ 0.5 + 12,500 ⋅1.0
= Γ = = 1.2
N
⋅ 2
+ ⋅ 2
∑ m j ψ 2j
12,500 0.5 12,500 1.0
CIE 5260
Structural Response to j =1
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2
 L =∑ψ j ⋅ m j =(1 + 0.50) ⋅12500 =18750
Lecture 11
j =1
 M * = Γ ⋅ L = 1.2 ⋅18750 = 22500 kg

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Step 4: Transform the capacity curve to
a capacity spectrum
The capacity spectrum can be calculated from the Vb-utop diagram.
List of contents:
Make use Vb utop
of eq.=of Sa = , Sd
Pushover method of
slide 9
L ⋅Γ Γ
analysis
utop [mm] Vb [kN] Sd [m] Sa[m/s^2]

0.0 0 0,0000 0,0000
7.5 47 0,0063 2,0889
50
22.0 47
2.50
0,0183 2,0889
?
40 2.00
Sa [m/s2]
Vb [kN]
30 1.50
1.00
20
0.50
10
0.00
0 0.000 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020
CIE 5260 0 5 10 15 20 25 Sd [m]
Structural Response to Utop [mm]
Earthquakes
Lecture 11 Pushover Curve Capacity Spectrum
S dy M*
= π
T 2=
*
2π= *
0,34 s
S ay 
K
K eq ⋅Γ
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Step 5: Check structural performance
Combining the capacity spectrum with the ADRS, one can read the
displacement demand (short period structure with T*<Tc):
S ae 14,10
List of contents:
=Rµ = = 6, 74
S ay 2, 09
42,1  0, 60 
Pushover method of
=
S de 42,1 mm 
slide 12
→
= Sd ⋅ ( 6, 74 − 1) + 1 = 69, 0
analysis 6, 74  0,34 
→ utop = Γ ⋅ S d = 1, 2 ⋅ 69 ≅ 83 mm
The displacement demand is larger than the displacement capacity

(83 mm>22 mm)  the structure cannot sustain an earthquake with
a PGA of 0.5g and thus does not satisfy the design requirement.
T*=0,34 s
CIE 5260
Structural Response to Td=2s
Earthquakes
Lecture 11
Sde(T*)
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Step 5: Check structural performance
What is the maximum PGA that the structure can withstand?
List of contents:
Through an iterative procedure, it is found that the structure can
Pushover method of sustain an earthquake with peak ground acceleration up to 0,155[g].*
analysis
In this case the displacement demand is:

Sd=18,2 mm  utop=1,2∙18,2 = 21,8 mm~22,0mm
Td=2,0 s
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 11
* Note that Rμ changes during the iterative process because Sae changes!
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pros and cons
Advantages of the PMoA:

List of contents:
• Based on “statics”  easy to grasp
Pushover method of
• Encourages the structural engineer to:
analysis
o observe important seismic response quantities
o provide sound judgement of non-linear deformation
pattern/failure mode to be expected
Disadvantages of the PMoA:

• Based on static loading  may not be able to reproduce
important dynamic phenomena!
• Applicable to systems in which a single vibration mode
dominates the response
CIE 5260
Structural Response to • Primary mode of vibration not always easy to predict in
Earthquakes
Lecture 11 complex 3D systems
• Assumes that the mode of vibration of the linear elastic system
will be unchanged in the non-linear regime (?)
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EN1998-1:2004 – Annex B
List of contents:
Eurocode 8 provisions regarding Pushover
Pushover method of Method of Analysis here.
analysis
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 11
23/ 41
List of contents:
ZeusNL
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 11
24/ 41
ZeusNL: open source FEM software
List of contents:
ZeusNL
Zeus Nonlinear (ZeusNL) provides an easy and efficient

way to run accurate nonlinear dynamic time-history,
conventional and adaptive pushover, and eigenvalue
analysis.
In this tutorial, this software will be used to perform a

pushover analysis on a 2D, three-storey steel structure.
CIE 5260
Earthquakes Download link
Lecture 11
https://code.google.com/archive/p/zeus-nl/downloads
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Tutorial
Step 1 - Defining the geometry
• Right click the .exe file and run it as administrator
List of contents: • Once you do it, you should see the screen in Fig. 1
ZeusNL
CIE 5260
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Lecture 11
Fig. 1: Start screen
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Tutorial
Step 1 - Defining the geometry
• Once on this screen, click the Template button, which can be
found on the top left.
List of contents:
ZeusNL
CIE 5260
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Lecture 11
Fig. 2: Template button
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Tutorial
Step 1 – Defining the geometry
• The Template window opens; select the Structural Model you want
to use (2D in this example, 3D in your assignment).
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• Define the geometry of the structure. In this example, we analyse a
ZeusNL steel structure with 2 bays, 3 storeys subjected to Static
Pushover. Select 2 elements per member.
• Select Triangular distribution of loads, to make it more
connected with the course.
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 11
Fig. 3: Template window
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Tutorial
Step 2 – Defining the problem (Load)
• Next, a dialog box appears prompting you to specify the Maximum
Nominal Proportional Load. This corresponds to the load applied
List of contents:
at the top node or nodes (in case of 3D), for a load factor of 1. You
ZeusNL
are free to chose your value, but I would recommend sticking to
100e2 or 100e3. Please be careful with the units. The program
works in N and mm.
CIE 5260
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Lecture 11 Fig. 4: Nominal load
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Tutorial
Step 2 – Defining the problem
(Materials)
• Setting up the problem is very easy and intuitive. Follow the toolbar
List of contents: from left to right.
ZeusNL
• First, we have the Materials module.
• In this module, change the values of Young’s Modulus and the yield
strength of the steel given in your assignment.
CIE 5260
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Lecture 11
Fig. 5: Material definition

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Tutorial
Step 2 – Defining the problem (Section)
• Next, there is the Sections module.

List of contents:
• For this example, circular hollow section CHS 220x8 is adopted.
ZeusNL • The same sections should used for the columns and the beams in
the case of the assignment.
CIE 5260
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Lecture 11
Fig. 6: Section definition
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Tutorial
Step 2 – Defining the problem (Loads)
• Examine the Applied Loading module to understand how the

List of contents: loading works (which nodes are loaded and with which load factor).
As triangular loading has been applied, you will notice that the
ZeusNL
nominal load is applied at the nodes of the top storey, decreasing
linearly towards the bottom story.
• Apply the gravity loads computed in the assignment at the nodes.
CIE 5260
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Lecture 11
Fig. 7: Nodal loads
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Tutorial
Step 3 – Running the Analysis
• Next, run the analysis by pressing the Run button highlighted in

List of contents: Fig. 8.
ZeusNL
• Remember that it will not work unless you run the program as
administrator.
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Structural Response to Fig. 8: Running the analysis
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Lecture 11
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Tutorial
• After running it, you should get a message, “The analysis was
List of contents: completed successfully”. If you do not get this message, it means
that your structure is not stable (buckling from self weight or loss
ZeusNL
of stability during pushover due to P-delta effects, etc.). Should this
happen, increase the section area.
• Next, click on the Post-Processor button, just to the right of Run.
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 11
Fig. 9: Starting the Post-Processor facility
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Tutorial
• In the Post-Processor window, open the analysis results and

List of contents: choose to display Nodal displacement vs Load factor.
ZeusNL
• Choose the node at the top (in our case n141) and Ux for
displacement along x-direction.
CIE 5260
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Lecture 11
Fig. 10: Load factor-nodal displacement curve for top node

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Tutorial
Tips
• In the previous slide, you have been shown how to obtain the load
factor-displacement graph for the top node.
List of contents:
• Please notice that this is not your pushover curve, as in the
ZeusNL pushover curve the base shear is plotted.
• To obtain the base shear, the load factor needs to be multiplied by
the sum of proportional loads (at all stories). Remember that the
load factor is the same at a specific time step for all the storeys. In
the case of 2D, base shear will simply be the sum of the forces
applied at the node of each storey (=100+66.6+33.3 kN).
• It is easy to do mistakes, so check the Applied Loading module
before running the analysis to understand well which nodes are
loaded and with what load.
• As a conclusion, the force at each node is F= Nominal load x Load
factor. After calculating the base shear, you can plot the pushover
CIE 5260
curve by plotting it against the top node displacement, which is
Structural Response to directly given by the postprocessor.
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Lecture 11
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Tutorial
Tips
• Notice that in your pushover curve, you might get negative load
factors after failure, leading to strange looking graphs. This is not a
List of contents: problem, as this suggests a “messy” post-failure behaviour that we
are not interested in. As long as the load factor is increasing with
ZeusNL positive values until failure, your curve is good.
• For further explanation and tips on the software, please consult the
technical guide of the software by clicking Help->Documentation
or pressing F1.
• You are also free to use the ZBeer facility to plot the Pushover
curve (or to corroborate your results). The procedure to use Zbeer
is described in the Extra slides.
• Good luck with your assignment  !
CIE 5260
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Lecture 11
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Extra Slides - ZBeer
• ZeusNL provides another useful utility called Zbeer, using which the
Pushover curve can also be obtained.
• Click on the Zbeer button as indicated in Fig. 11
List of contents:
ZeusNL-ZBeer
CIE 5260
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Lecture 11
Fig. 11: Starting the ZBeer facility
38/ 41
• In the window that opens, select Static Pushover and open your
.dat file
• Add a monitor; in the Enter Monitor window that opens up,
List of contents:
• Select Base Shear-Drift as Monitor type
ZeusNL-ZBeer
• Select Vx (Base shear along x-direction) and Ux(Drift in x-
direction)
CIE 5260
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Lecture 11
Fig. 12: Defining the monitor in ZBeer facility

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• Enter the names of nodes at the base (n111, n211 and n311 in
this case) in the Name field.
• Enter the name of a top node (n141 here) in the Up Node
List of contents:
field and bottom node (n111 here) in the Down Node field.
ZeusNL-ZBeer The drift is calculated between these two nodes. Click OK.
• Click on the Beer. For further help, See Appendix F in the technical
guide.
CIE 5260
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Lecture 11
Fig. 13: Running ZBeer

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Reading material
Essential reading:
o Lecture slides
o Lecture notes: Chapter 4 (p. 69-85)
o EN1998-1:2004 – Annex B
o FE software ZeusNL
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Lecture 11
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CIE 5260

Tel.: 015 27 89225, Room 3.44
Lecture 11
CIE 5260
Delft, 2019
1/ 17
List of contents:
Introduction to seismic analysis of linear MDoF
Discrete versus continuous systems
systems
Equations of motion of MDoF

• Discrete versus continuous dynamic systems
systems
• Derivation of equations of motion of MDoF systems
(recollection of knowledge CIE4140)
• Planar systems in translational motion
• Planar systems in rocking motion
CIE 5260
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Lecture 11
2/ 17
List of contents:
Discrete versus systems
continuous systems

systems
CIE 5260
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Lecture 11
3/ 17
List of contents:
Discrete versus
continuous systems

systems
mtot/N
EI (x), m(x)
k’ L
Discrete model of a beam 1-D continuum model of a beam
CIE 5260
Structural Response to The physical system is one and the same and it is our choice to
Earthquakes
Lecture 11 describe it by using discrete or continuum models. This choice
depends on the statement of the problem and the answers we seek.
4/ 17
List of contents:
systems
Equations of motion of
MDoF systems
CIE 5260
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Lecture 11
5/ 17
Derivation of equations of motion
List of contents:
• The derivation of equations of motion of MDoF discrete
systems has been treated extensively in previous courses
Discrete versus continuous on Structural Dynamics (CIE4140). Here we focus on the
systems
correct implementation of the seismic action.
MDoF systems
• There are two principal ways to derive the equations of

motion:
a) Displacement method
b) Lagrange method
CIE 5260
• Both methods are assumed to be known at this stage!
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Lecture 11
6/ 17
Planar systems in translational motion
• A two-storey building frame
List of contents:
Discrete versus continuous

systems
MDoF systems
〉 Ground motion: u g (t )
CIE 5260
Structural Response to 〉 Total motions of mass 1 and 2 : u1 (t ) , u2 (t )
Earthquakes
Lecture 11
〉 Relative motions of mass 1 and 2 with respect to ground: x1 (t ) = u1 (t ) − u g (t )
x=
2 (t ) u2 (t ) − u g (t )
7/ 17
Planar systems in translational motion
We formulate the EoM by considering the fact that the masses

experience the total acceleration:
List of contents:
=
u (t ) 
x(t ) + r ug (t )
 r is the influence vector (unit vector in the case of planar motion
systems
Equations of motion of and uniform ground excitation). The influence vector is derived by
MDoF systems
considering a rigid body motion of the system along the direction
in which earthquake is applied. That holds only for uniform ground
excitation at all support points of the structure!
Therefore, ui (t ) =

xi (t ) + ug (t ), i=
1, 2
CIE 5260 Note:

Earthquakes
Lecture 11  capital bold sysmbols denote matrices → M, K,C
 small bold symbols denote vectors → u, x,r
 small italic symbols denote scalars → u g (t), xi (t )
8/ 17
Equations of motion in relative motion
STEP I: Displace mass 1 STEP II: Displace mass 2

List of contents:
x1 ( t ) > 0, x2 ( t ) =
0 x2 ( t ) > 0, x1 ( t ) =
0
Discrete versus continuous x1 ( t ) > 0, x2 ( t ) =
0 x2 ( t ) > 0, x1 ( t ) =
0
systems
MDoF systems
CIE 5260
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Lecture 11
9/ 17
List of contents:

systems
MDoF systems
Equation of motion for mass #1:

x1 ( t ) + k1 x1 ( t ) + k2  x1 ( t ) − x2 ( t )  + c1 x1 ( t ) + c2  x1 ( t ) − x2 ( t )  =
m1  −m1ug ( t )
CIE 5260
Structural Response to Equation of motion for mass #2:
Earthquakes
x2 ( t ) + k2  x2 ( t ) − x1 ( t )  + c2  x2 ( t ) − x1 ( t )  =
−m2 ug ( t )
Lecture 11
m2 
10/ 17
The matrix form of the coupled equations of motion can

List of contents:
be expressed as:
systems M  −M r ug ( t )
x(t ) + C x (t ) + K x(t ) =

MDoF systems
F (t )
with:
 m1 0  c1 + c2 −c2   k1 + k2 −k2  Eq(1)
=M =  ,C  =  ,K   ,
 0 m2   −c2 c2   −k2 k2 
 x1  1
=x =  ,r  
 x2  1
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Lecture 11
11/ 17
Equations of motion in total motion
How can one derive the equations of motion in terms of total
displacements of the masses?
List of contents:
By substitution of:
Discrete versus continuous x=
1 (t ) u1 (t ) − u g (t ) 
systems  x=
(t ) u(t ) − r u g (t )
x=
2 (t ) u 2 (t ) − u g (t ) 
MDoF systems
into the equations of motion derived in terms of relative motion:

x1 ( t ) + k1 x1 ( t ) + k2  x1 ( t ) − x2 ( t )  + c1 x1 ( t ) + c2  x1 ( t ) − x2 ( t )  =
m1  −m1ug ( t )
x1 ( t ) + k2  x2 ( t ) − x1 ( t )  + c2  x2 ( t ) − x1 ( t )  =
m2  −m2 ug ( t )
We obtain the EoM expressed in terms of total displacements:
CIE 5260 m1u1 ( t ) + k1u1 ( t ) + k2 u1 ( t ) − u2 ( t )  + c1u1 ( t ) + c2 u1 ( t ) − u2 ( t )  =

Earthquakes
Lecture 11 = k1u g ( t ) + c1u g ( t )
m2 u2 ( t ) + k2 u2 ( t ) − u1 ( t )  + c2 u2 ( t ) − u1 ( t )  =
0
12/ 17
Equations of motion in total motion
The matrix form of the EoM with respect to the total motion
of the masses:
List of contents:
(t ) + Cu
Mu  (t ) + Ku(t ) = k r u g (t ) + cr u g (t )
Discrete versus continuous 
systems F (t ) Eq(2)
Equations of motion of  k1   c1 
MDoF systems =k r =  r 0
, c
0  
We recall here the EoM in terms of relative to the ground

motion of the masses:
M  −M r ug ( t )
x(t ) + C x (t ) + K x(t ) = Eq(1)

F (t )
CIE 5260
Eq (1) and Eq ( 2 ) are exactly equivalent, however, Eq (1)

Earthquakes
Lecture 11
is preferred because ug (t ) is directly provided by the seismic
recordings and is less prone to filtering errors.
13/ 17
Planar systems in rocking motion
Assuming the ground rocking motion at the base of the

structure is given in the figure below:
List of contents:

systems
MDoF systems
CIE 5260
Earthquakes Task: Derive the equations of motion of the system for the relative
Lecture 11
motions (with respect to the ground) as denoted in the figure.
14/ 17
List of contents:

systems
MDoF systems
The influence vector is obtained by subjecting the system to a rigid

body rotation θ g (t ) :
= 1θ g (t ), x2, g (t )
x1, g (t ) h= 2θ g (t ), x3, g (t )
h= lθ g (t )
 h1 
(t )  h2  θ g=
CIE 5260
Structural Response to ⇒ x g= (t ) r θ g (t )
Earthquakes
Lecture 11  l 
The transformation between relative and total motions of the masses holds:
u(t ) = x(t ) + x g (t ) ⇒ u(t ) = x(t ) + r θ g (t ) ⇔ x(t ) = u(t ) − r θ g (t )
15/ 17
List of contents:

systems
MDoF systems
The equations of motion written in matrix form read:
M 
x(t ) + C x (t ) + K x(t ) =
Pe (t ), in which:
CIE 5260  m1 0 0   h1 
−  0 m2 + m3 0   h2  θg (t ) =
−Mrθg (t )
Earthquakes
Lecture 11
Pe (t ) =
 0 0 m3   l 
16/ 17
Reading material
List of contents:
Essential reading:

o Lecture slides
systems
o Lecture notes: Chapter 5, sections 5.1-5.2 (p. 87-95)
systems
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 11
17/ 17
CIE 5260

Tel.: 015 27 89225, Room 3.44
Lecture 12
CIE 5260
Delft, 2019
1/ 50
Seismic analysis of linear MDoF systems

• One-storey building subjected to seismic excitation
• Stiffness matrix and static condensation method
• Equations of motion of multi-storey buildings
• Modal Analysis in earthquake engineering (undamped
systems)
• Case study: Three-storey building (Maple files)
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 12
2/ 50

systems)
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 12
3/ 50
Assuming the ground rocking motion at the base of the

structure is given in the figure below:
List of contents:
EoM of MDoF systems
Modal analysis of
undamped systems
Case study
CIE 5260
Earthquakes Task: Derive the equations of motion of the translational degrees of
Lecture 12
freedom of the system denoted in the figure for the relative (with
respect to the ground) motions of the masses.
4/ 50
List of contents:
EoM of MDoF systems
Modal analysis of
undamped systems
Case study
The influence vector is obtained by subjecting the system to a rigid

body rotation θ g (t ) :
= 1θ g (t ), x2, g (t )
x1, g (t ) h= 2θ g (t ), x3, g (t )
h= lθ g (t )
 h1 
(t )  h2  θ g=
CIE 5260
Structural Response to ⇒ x g= (t ) r θ g (t )
Earthquakes
Lecture 12  l 
The transformation between relative and total motions of the masses holds:
u(t ) = x(t ) + x g (t ) ⇒ u(t ) = x(t ) + r θ g (t ) ⇔ x(t ) = u(t ) − r θ g (t )
5/ 50
List of contents:
EoM of MDoF systems
Modal analysis of
undamped systems
Case study
The equations of motion written in matrix form read:

?
M 
x(t ) + C x (t ) + K x(t ) =
Pe (t ), in which:
CIE 5260  m1 0 0   h1 
−  0 m2 + m3 0   h2  θg (t ) =
−Mrθg (t )
Earthquakes
Lecture 12
Pe (t ) =
 0 0 m3   l 
6/ 50

systems)
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 12
7/ 50
One-storey asymmetric plan building
Assume the top view of the single-storey building shown in

the figure below subjected to translational ground motion:
List of contents:
EoM of MDoF systems
Modal analysis of
undamped systems
Case study
λ EI  λ = 3 for clamped-free column

= ki with 3 < λ < 12 
h3 λ = 12 for clamped-clamped column
CIE 5260
bi ⋅ li3
Earthquakes
Lecture 12
= Ii = with i A, B, C
12
li ⋅ bi3 bi ⋅ li3
=
 Neglect out-of-plane stiffness of the walls, i.e. I w,i =  Ii
12 12
8/ 50
1.Unit displacement along x-direction
=
u x 1,= θ 0
u y 0,=
List of contents: k=
xx k xB + k xC
EoM of MDoF systems k yx = 0
Modal analysis of
d
undamped systems =
kθ x (k xC − k xB )
Case study 2
2. Unit displacement along y-direction
u=
x 0, u=
y θ 0
1,=
CIE 5260 k xy = 0
k yy = k yA
Earthquakes
Lecture 12
kθ y = −ek yA
9/ 50
3. Unit rotation along θ-direction

List of contents:
=
u x 0,= θ 1
u y 0,=
EoM of MDoF systems
d
Modal analysis of
=
kθ x (k xC − k xB )
undamped systems
2
Case study
kθ y = −ek yA
d2 d2
kθθ = k xB + k xC + e 2 k yA
4 4
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 12
10/ 50
List of contents:
EoM of MDoF systems
Modal analysis of
undamped systems
Case study
The equations of motion along x-,y-,θ−direction reads:
m ( ux + ugx ) + ( k xB + k xC ) u x +
d
( k xC − k xB )θ =
0
2
CIE 5260 m ( uy + ugy ) + k yAu y − ek yAθ =
0
Earthquakes
 
( )
Lecture 12
2 2
d d d
I o θ + θg + ( k xC − k xB ) u x − ek yAu y +  k xB + k xC + e 2 k yA  θ =
0
2  4 4 
11/ 50
The matrix notation of equation of motion is expressed as:
List of contents:  mx 0 0  ux (t )   k x x kx y k xθ  u x (t ) 

0  
EoM of MDoF systems  my 0  uy (t )  +  k yx k yy k yθ  u y (t ) 
Modal analysis of
 0 0 I o   θ(t )   kθ x kθ y kθθ   θ (t ) 
undamped systems
 
Case study  
 mx 0 0   1  0 0 
−  0 m y
= 0   0  ugx (t ) + 1  ugy (t ) + 0  θg (t ) 
  
 0 0  
I o   0  
0   
1  usually neglected 
 
 in practice! 
m ( B2 + H 2 )
I0 =
CIE 5260 12
Earthquakes
Lecture 12
12/ 50
Generic formulation of the equations of
motion of MDoF systems
List of contents:
The general formulation of the equations of motion reads:
EoM of MDoF systems
Modal analysis of 3
undamped systems ∑ M ri ugi (t )
M x(t ) + C x (t ) + K x(t ) =−
i =1
Case study
For planar motion, the expression above simplifies to:
M x(t ) + C x (t ) + K x(t ) =
−M r ug (t )
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 12
13/ 50

systems)
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 12
14/ 50
Stiffness matrix and static
condensation method
• The general approach for the derivation of the stiffness

matrix of a structure is to apply to each DoF a unit
List of contents:
displacement (or rotation) and derive column-by-column
EoM of MDoF systems
the elements of the stiffness matrix.
Modal analysis of
undamped systems
• It is instructive to illustrate how the stiffness matrix is
Case study
composed and how the static condensation method can be
applied to eliminate those DoF in which zero mass is
assigned.
• The derivation is generalized for frames consisting of

classical beams which deform in bending.
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 12
15/ 50
General stiffness terms of a beam
List of contents:
EoM of MDoF systems
Modal analysis of
undamped systems
Case study
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 12
16/ 50
Cantilever beam with two lumped
masses
The cantilever beam with two point masses and the DoFs are shown
in the following figures:
List of contents:
EoM of MDoF systems
Modal analysis of
undamped systems
Case study
1) Displacement at DoF #1
192 EI −96 EI
=k11 = , k 21
L3 L3
CIE 5260 24 EI
Earthquakes
=k31 0,= k41
Lecture 12 L2
−96 EI
k51 =
L3
17/ 50
masses
−96 EI 96 EI
List of contents: =k12 = , k 22
L3 L3
EoM of MDoF systems −24 EI −24 EI
=k32 = , k 42
Modal analysis of L2 L2
undamped systems
k52 = 0
Case study
3) Rotation at DoF #3
−24 EI
=k13 0,=k23
CIE 5260
L2
16 EI 4 EI
Earthquakes
Lecture 12
=k33 = , k43
L L
24 EI
k53 = 3
L
18/ 50
masses
4) Rotation at DoF #4
24 EI −24 EI
List of contents: =k14 = , k 24
L2 L2
EoM of MDoF systems 4 EI 8EI
=k34 = , k44
Modal analysis of L L
undamped systems
k54 = 0
Case study
−96 EI
=k15 = 3
, k25 0
L
CIE 5260 24 EI
Structural Response to =k35 = 2
, k45 0
Earthquakes
Lecture 12
L
96 EI
k55 = 3
L
19/ 50
masses
List of contents:
EoM of MDoF systems
Modal analysis of
undamped systems
Case study
The total stiffness matrix reads:
 24 −12 0 3L −12 
 −12 12 −3L −3L 0 
 K ff K fb  8 EI 
CIE 5260 =K =   0 −3L 2 L2 L2 / 2 3L 
K bf K bb  L 
3

Earthquakes
Lecture 12  3 L −3 L L2
/ 2 L 2
0 
 −12 0 3L 0 12 
20/ 50
Two-storey frame
Derive the stiffness matrix of the system below:
EI
List of contents:
EoM of MDoF systems
Modal analysis of
2EI
undamped systems
2EI 2EI
Case study
Mass is assigned only at the two translational DoFs:
 2m 0 0 0 0 0 
CIE 5260  0 m 0 0 0 0
Structural Response to  
 M tt M t 0   0 0 0 0 0 0 
Earthquakes
Lecture 12
=M =   0 0 0 0 0 0
 0t
M M 00   
 0 0 0 0 0 0
 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 
21/ 50
Two-storey frame
The stiffness matrix reads:

16h 2 2h 2 2h 2 0 
K Kt0   
K =  tt EI  2h 2 16h 2 0 2h 2 
List of contents:
 K 0t K 00  K 00 = 3
h  2h 2 0 6h 2 h2 
EoM of MDoF systems  
 0 2h 2 h2 6h 2 
Modal analysis of
undamped systems EI  72 −24 
K tt =  −24 24  EI  6 h 6 h −6 h −6 h 
h3   K= K=
T
 6h 6h 6h 6h 
Case study
t0 0t
h3 
The equations of motion of this system subjected to a uniform

ground excitation read:
−Mrug ( t )
(t ) + Cu (t ) + Ku(t ) =
Mu
u(t ) = [u1 u6 ]
CIE 5260 T
Earthquakes
u2 u3 u4 u5
Lecture 12
r = [1 1 0 0 0 0]
T
22/ 50
Static condensation method
To apply the static condensation method, the original system of

equations of motion is rewritten in a partitioned form:
 M tt  t   K tt
Mt 0   u K t 0   ut   M tt M t 0   rt 
List of contents:
M    +    =
−     ug (t )
 0t  0   K 0 t
M 00   u K 00   u0   M 0t M 00  r0 
EoM of MDoF systems
Modal analysis of
undamped systems
Case study t + M t 0 u

M tt u  + K tt ut + K t 0 u 0 =
−M tt rt ug (t ) Eq(1)
 0
0
M 0t u 0 + K 0t ut + K 00 u 0 =
t + M 00 u −K 00 −1K 0t ut
0 ⇒ u0 = Eq(2)
 
0 0
Substituting Eq(2) into Eq(1) results in the EoM describing the dynamic
behaviour of the system subjected to a uniform ground motion:
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 12 t + K
M tt u ˆ u =
tt t −M tt rt ug (t )
ˆ= K − K T K −1K
 K tt tt 0t 00 0t
23/ 50
Static condensation method
For the two-storey frame derived previously we have partitioned

the matrices as follows
16h 2 2h 2 2h 2 0 
EI  72 −24   2 2 2
List of contents:
K tt = 3  EI 2
K 00 = 3  2
h 16 h 0 2 h 
h  −24 24  h  2h
EoM of MDoF systems 0 6h 2
h 
2
 2 2 2
Modal analysis of  0 2 h h 6 h 
undamped systems EI  6 h 6 h − 6 h − 6 h 
K= K=T
h 3 6h 6h 6h 6h 
t0 0t
Case study
Applying the static condensation we obtain:
ˆ = −1 EI  54.88 −17.51
− T
=
h3  −17.51 11.61 
K tt K tt K 0t K 00 K 0t
CIE 5260 The final equation of motion reads:

Earthquakes
Lecture 12  2 0  u1 (t )  EI  54.88 −17.51  u1 (t )   2 0 1
m +
 u (t )  h 3  −17.51 11.61  u (t )  =
− m  0 1 1 ug (t )
 0 1  2    2    
24/ 50

systems)
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 12
25/ 50
Multi-storey buildings
• Multi-storey building with N-floors subjected to tri-axial
excitation.
• The floors behave rigidly in-plane (diaphragmatic behaviour)
List of contents:
EoM of MDoF systems
Modal analysis of
undamped systems
Case study
(b) Top view of the floor
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
(a) Side view of the building
Lecture 12
26/ 50
 A building with N floors is described by 3N-DoFs:
List of contents:
u = [u1x u1 y θ1 u2 x u2 y θ 2 ... uNx uNy θ Nx ]T
EoM of MDoF systems

u [u=
1 x u2 x ... u Nx u1 y u2 y ... u Ny θ1x θ 2 ... θ N ]T [u x u y θ]T
Modal analysis of
undamped systems in which u x (t), u y (t), θ(t) are column vectors of length N containing
Case study the displacements of all floors along the x, y and θ coordinates.
 This re-arrangement of terms allows a direct generalization of the

expression derived previously for a single-storey building as follows:
(
−M rx ugx ( t ) + ry ugy ( t ) + rθ θg ( t )
(t ) + Cu (t ) + Ku(t ) =
Mu )
CIE 5260
= [1=
0 0] , ry [ 0 1 0] and rθ
= [0 0 1]
T T T
Structural Response to with rx
Earthquakes
Lecture 12
are vectors of length [3 N × 1].
27/ 50
 The partitioned form of the matrices above is gives as:
m x 0 0
M =  0 my 0 
 0 0 I 0 
List of contents:
 m1x 0   0  m1 y 0  0 
EoM of MDoF systems
 0 m2 x   0  0 m2 y  0 
Modal analysis of mx =   my =  
           
undamped systems
   
 0 0  mNx   0 0  mNy 
Case study
 I 0,1 0  0 
0 I  0  mi ( L2xi + L2yi )
=I o ,i =  with I
0,2
      0, i
12
 
 0 0  I 0, N 
CIE 5260
Structural Response to  K xx K xy K xθ   C xx C xy C xθ 
Earthquakes    
Lecture 12 K =  K xy K yy K θ y  C =  C xy C yy Cθ y 
K xθ K yθ K θθ  C xθ C yθ Cθθ 
     
(usually) derived with the use of a FE package (usually) approximated by using Rayleigh damping
28/ 50

systems)
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 12
29/ 50
Methods of analysis in linear systems
The methods of analysis of linear MDoF systems are:

List of contents:
a) Classical modal analysis (based on the modes of the

EoM of MDoF systems
non-damped system)
Modal analysis of
undamped systems b) Frequency domain method of analysis
Case study
c) Direct time integration method
d) Response spectrum method of analysis
e) Modal analysis (based on the modes of the damped
system)
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 12
30/ 50
Methods of analysis in linear systems
The methods of analysis of linear MDoF systems are:

List of contents:
a) Classical modal analysis (based on the modes of the

EoM of MDoF systems
non-damped system)
Modal analysis of
undamped systems b) Frequency domain method of analysis
Case study
c) Direct time integration method
d) Response spectrum method of analysis
e) Modal analysis (based on the modes of the damped
system)
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 12
31/ 50
Modal Analysis: general steps
• Solve the eigenvalue problem to determine the eigenfrequencies and

eigenmodes of the structural system
Step 1
List of contents:
EoM of MDoF systems • Express the dynamic response in the modal domain and apply orthogonality
of modes to decouple the EoM.
Modal analysis of Step 2
undamped systems
Case study
• Find the modal earthquake forces. Define modal participation mass.

Step 3
• Solve for the dynamic response at each modal degree of freedom using the
modal forces and the initial conditions at t=0 (Lecture 7).
Step 4
CIE 5260
• Find the response of the system back to the real coordinates.
Step 5
Earthquakes
Lecture 12
32/ 50
Eigenvalue problem of a MDoF system
(t ) + Kx(t ) =
Mx 0 ⇒ free vibrations (no force)
The general solution for the undamped system reads:
2N N
x(t ) ∑ X ∑ X sin(ω t + φ )
List of contents:
=  exp( s t=
i i ) or x(t ) i i i
=
EoM of MDoF systems i 1 =i 1
Substituting this solution into EoM yields:
Modal analysis of
( s M + K ) X ( −ω M + K ) X
undamped systems
Case study
2
i i = 0 or i
2
i = 0
For a non-trivial solution we set:
det ( si2 M +=
K ) 0 or det ( −ωi2 M +=
K) 0
The eigenfrequencies are the positive roots of the characteristic equation.
N N N
CIE 5260
x(t ) = ∑ X i sin(ωi t + φi ) = ∑ Φ
ˆ A sin(ω t + φ ) = ∑ Φ
i i i i
ˆ u (t )
i i
Structural Response to =i 1 =i 1 =i 1
Earthquakes
Lecture 12 with Φ
ˆ : eigenvector, independent of initial conditions
i
ωi : natural frequency, independent of initial conditions

φi , Ai : phase angle and amplitude, to be determined by initial conditions
33/ 50
Orthogonality of the modes
Proof of orthogonality condition
Let us consider two separate solutions of eigenvalue problems:

List of contents: ωr2 MΦ
ˆ = KΦ
r
ˆ
r
EoM of MDoF systems ωs2 MΦ

ˆ = KΦ
s
ˆ
s
Modal analysis of
We pre-multiply the first equation with Φ
ˆ T and the second with Φ
s
ˆT
r
undamped systems
ˆ T ω 2 MΦ
Φ ˆ =Φˆ T KΦ
ˆ
Case study s r r s r
ˆ T ω 2 MΦ
Φ ˆ =Φˆ T KΦ
ˆ
r s s r s
Applying symmetry condition to the previous equations yields:

ωr2 Φ
ˆ T MΦ
s
ˆ =Φ
r
ˆ T KΦ
s
ˆ
r
ωs2 Φ
ˆ T MΦ
s
ˆ =Φ
r
ˆ T KΦ
s
ˆ
r
CIE 5260
Structural Response to By subtracting the second equation from the first one yields
Earthquakes
Lecture 12
(ω 2
r − ωs2 ) Φ
ˆ T MΦ
s
ˆ =
r 0
34/ 50
Orthogonality of the modes
For r ≠ s, ωr2 − ωs2 ≠ 0, thus

Φˆ T MΦ
s
ˆ =0
r
Φˆ T KΦ
ˆ =0
s r
List of contents:
For r = s, it can generally be proven that
EoM of MDoF systems
Φˆ T MΦ
s
ˆ ≠0
r
Modal analysis of
undamped systems Φˆ T KΦ
ˆ ≠0
s r
Case study
Thus, the diagonal modal mass matrix and modal stiffness matrix are
expressed as follows:
M* = ΦT M Φ
K * = ΦT K Φ
Using orthogonality we also obtain:
CIE 5260
Structural Response to ω12 0  0   m11* 0  0   k11* 0  0 
Earthquakes     
Lecture 12
0 ω22  0  0 *
m22  0  0 *
k22  0 
Ω M= K ⇒
2 * *
=
               
    
 0 0  ω N2   0 0  m*NN   0 0  k NN
*

35/ 50
Mode normalisation techniques
There are two main approaches for normalisation of the eigenvectors:
I) Normalization with respect to the mass matrix yielding a mass-

List of contents: orthonormal set of eigenmodes. This normalization technique is
usually implemented in FE packages. Modes are normalized so that
EoM of MDoF systems they yield a unit diagonal modal mass matrix:
Modal analysis of
undamped systems
=*
mnn Φ
ˆ=
n MΦ n
T ˆ 1
Case study
Φ T MΦ =→
I M* =→
I K* =Ω2
II) Normalization with respect to the maximum displacement

amplitude of each eigenmode so that this is equal to unity. This
approach has been adopted when one applies the so-called modal
pushover method (discussed in Lecture 11):
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 12
Φ̂i ,max = 1.00  Unit amplitude of each mode at a predefined
location, i.e. top floor in a building.
36/ 50
Case study: Three-storey building
List of contents:
EoM of MDoF systems
Modal analysis of
undamped systems
Case study
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 12
37/ 50
Case study: Derivation of EoMs
List of contents:
EoM of MDoF systems
Modal analysis of
undamped systems
Case study
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 12
38/ 50
−Mrug , x ( t )
(t ) + Cu (t ) + Ku(t ) =
Mu
 m1 0 0
 M =  0 m2 0  ,
List of contents:
EoM of MDoF systems  0 0 m3 

Modal analysis of
undamped systems c1 + c2 −c2 0 
Case study  C = −c2 c2 + c3 −c3  ,
 0 −c3 c3 
 k1 + k2 −k2 0  1
 K = − k2 k2 + k3 − k3  , r = 1
 0 − k3 k3  1
CIE 5260
Earthquakes Classical modal analysis Maple file 12.1
Lecture 12
Step 1: Eigenvalue problem
39/ 50
Transformation of the system of EoMs
to the modal domain
We assume a solution to the problem in the following form:

N
List of contents: ∑ Φˆ i ui (t ) =
x(t ) =
i =1
Φ u(t )
EoM of MDoF systems  x(t ) : a vector of displacement in the real coordinate system
Modal analysis of  Φ : matrix with all eigenvectors
undamped systems
 u(t ) : modal coordinate vector
Case study
The matrix equation of motion for the non-damped case reads:
(t ) + Kx(t ) =
Mx −Mrug (t )
x (t ) =Φ u (t )
 (t ) + KΦu(t ) = −Mrug (t )
→ MΦu
CIE 5260 ×Φ T
Structural Response to → Φ

T
 MΦ
u(t ) + Φ T
 KΦ u(t ) = −Φ T Mrug (t )
Earthquakes
Lecture 12
M* K*
K =Ω M
* 2 *
 (t ) + Ω 2 M*u(t ) = −Φ T Mrug (t )
→ M *u
40/ 50
to the modal domain
(t ) + Ω 2 M*u(t ) =
M *u −Φ T Mrug (t )
List of contents:
× M*( −1)
EoM of MDoF systems
Modal analysis of
undamped systems u −M*( −1) ( Φ T Mr ) ug (t )
(t ) + Ω 2 u(t ) =
Case study
 u1 (t )  ω12 0  0   u1 (t )   Γ1 
 u (t )     Γ 
 1 + 0 ω22  0   u1 (t ) 
−  2  ug (t )
=
             
CIE 5260
      
Earthquakes

 N   0
u ( t ) 0  ω N2  u N (t )  Γ N 
Lecture 12
Φ̂iT Mr
 Γi = * Each modal equation is
mii
uncoupled!
41/ 50
to the modal domain
The equation of motion can also be written in scalar form in each

modal coordinate:
List of contents:
EoM of MDoF systems ui (t ) + ωi2 ui (t ) = −Γi ug (t ),

Modal analysis of
kii* Φ
ˆ T KΦ
ˆ Li Φˆ T Mr Eq.(3)
undamped systems with: ω = 2
= i i
and Γ= = i
mii Φ ˆ MΦ mii Φ
ˆ MΦ
i i
* T ˆ * T ˆ
Case study i i i i
Γi is called the modal participation factor. However, this terminology is

misleading because this factor:
• depends on the way modes are normalised (check Maple file 12.1)
• does not depend on the amplitude of the load
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 12
The modal participation factor gives no information as to the
contribution of a mode on the final response (other than correlating
the direction of loading to a particular vibration mode). In this course,
we avoid this definition.
42/ 50
Response in the modal domain
Returning back to the equation of motion Eq(5):
ui (t ) + ωi2 ui (t ) = −Γi ug (t )

List of contents:
The solution to this EoM for a system with zero initial conditions reads:
EoM of MDoF systems
Modal analysis of Γi t
undamped systems − ∫ ug (t ) sin (ωi ( t − τ ) ) dτ
ui (t ) =
ωi 0
Case study
For non-zero initial conditions the solution above can be generalised as:
Γi t
ui (t ) Ai sin (ωi t + φi ) −
=
ωi ∫ u (t ) sin (ω ( t − τ ) )
0
g i dτ
with Ai , φi to be determined by the initial conditions x(0) and x (0) :
CIE 5260
Earthquakes Φ ˆ T Mx(0)   Φ ˆ T Mx (0)   ˆ T Mx(0) 
Φ
Ai = +
   φ = −1
 ωi ˆ T Mx (0) 
Lecture 12 i i i
and tan
ω Φ
* * i
 mii   m
i ii   i 
43/ 50
Response in the real domain
Once the modal displacements are obtained, the response in the

real coordinate system reads:
N
List of contents:
x (t ) =∑ Φˆ i ui (t ) =Φu(t )
i =1
EoM of MDoF systems

The choice of the upper truncation limit of the modal summation is
Modal analysis of
undamped systems
based on various criteria. The most widely chosen criterion for the
truncation of the number of modes to be included in the modal
Case study
summation is based on the modal participation mass.
The base shear is related to the modal mass which (per mode i )
is defined as follows:
( )
2
 Li  Φ̂ MrT
i
mi =
Γi Li =
 *  Li =ˆ T ˆ
CIE 5260
Structural Response to  mii  Φ i MΦ i
Earthquakes
Lecture 12
44/ 50
Response in the real domain
∑=
m i mtot → Summation of all modal masses equals the
i =1 total mass of the structure!
List of contents:
EoM of MDoF systems

In Eurocode 8, the truncation of the modes is based on a total
mass participation criterion which is defined as follows:
Modal analysis of
undamped systems
K
Case study
∑m
i =1
i ≥ 0.90 mtot
• Eurocode 8 suggests that modes contributing cumulatively up

to 90% of the total mass of the structure should be included in
the modal summation.
• Higher modes contributing to the remaining 10% of the total
CIE 5260
mass can be safely excluded.
Earthquakes
Lecture 12
Does this criterion always guarantee the convergence of
the solution for all physical quantities?
45/ 50

systems)
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 12
46/ 50
List of contents:
EoM of MDoF systems
Modal analysis of
undamped systems
Case study
Classical modal analysis Maple file 12.1

CIE 5260
Structural Response to Steps 2-5: Total response
Earthquakes
Lecture 12
47/ 50
Extra slides
List of contents:
• Modal earthquake forces
EoM of MDoF systems
Modal analysis of
undamped systems
Case study
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 12
48/ 50
Modal earthquake forces
From Eq.(3) in slide 42, the modal earthquake force is simply
given:
p mf (t ) = −Γug (t )
List of contents:
where p mf (t ) is the vector of modal forces
EoM of MDoF systems The right-hand side of the equation of motion in the actual
Modal analysis of coordinates reads:
undamped systems Peff (t ) = −Mrug (t )
Case study
One can express the spatial dependence in terms of modal
earthquake forces per mode i given by sî :
N N
Mr = i ∑ sˆ = ∑ Γ MΦˆ
=i 1 =i 1
i i
Thus, the contribution of each mode Φ

ˆ to
i Mr (seismic force
spatial dependence) is given by:
CIE 5260
Earthquakes sî =Γ i MΦ
ˆ
i
Lecture 12
The vector sî defines the spatial distribution of the earthquake

forces per vibration mode.
49/ 50
Reading material
Essential reading:
o Lecture slides
o Lecture notes:
• Chapter5: 5.1.2 - 5.5 (p. 92-122)
• Chapter5: 5.9.1 (p. 151-160)
o Maple files
Optional reading:
CIE 5260 o Chapter 13 (p. 513-617) by Anil K. Chopra
Earthquakes
Lecture 12
50/ 50
CIE 5260

Tel.: 015 27 89225, Room 3.44
Lecture 13
CIE 5260
Delft, 2019
1/ 26
List of contents:
Modal analysis of damped

systems
Frequency domain method • Modal Analysis in earthquake engineering (damped
of Analysis
systems)
Direct time integration
method • Frequency domain method of analysis
Case studies • Direct time integration method
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 13
2/ 26
List of contents:
Modal analysis of
damped systems
of Analysis
systems)
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 13
3/ 26
Consideration of structural damping
List of contents:
In contrast to the derivation of stiffness and mass matrices, damping
Modal analysis of
matrix is difficult to be estimated directly from the geometry of the
damped systems
structure.
The damping ratio ζ i per vibration mode can be determined in two main
Frequency domain method
of Analysis
ways:
method
• Hammer impacts  exciting a broadband frequency spectrum
Case studies
• Forced vibrations  controlled vibrations through a frequency
sweep
• Measurements of ambient vibrations of the dynamic system
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 13
4/ 26
Derivation of modal damping ratio
List of contents:
SDoF system subjected to harmonic force:
p0
mx + cx + kx p0 sin (ωt ) or 
= ζωn x + ωn2 x
x + 2= sin (ωt )
Modal analysis of m
damped systems
The steady-state response of this system reads:
p0
of Analysis
=
xsteady (t ) Rd sin (ωt − φ )
Direct time integration 
k
xstatic
method
1
Case studies with Rd = Eq.(1)
(1 − (ω / ω ) )
n
2 2
+ ( 2ζω / ωn )
2
 2ζ (ω / ωn ) 
φ =tan  −1

 1 − (ω / ω )2 
 n 
The power spectral density is defined as the amplitude squared:

1
Rd2 =
( )
CIE 5260 2 2
1 − (ω / ωn ) + ( 2ζω / ωn )
2
Earthquakes
Lecture 13
One can derive the damping ratio by a plot of either Rd versus (ω / ωn ) or

spectral density Rd2 versus the same ratio (ω / ωn ) .
5/ 26
List of contents:
By defining the ratio (ω / ωn ) =Ω, and taking the derivative of Rd (Ω)
Modal analysis of with respect to Ω, one can determine a dimensionless frequency Ω
damped systems
corresponding to the peak of the graph as shown below:
of Analysis
Ω res = 1 − 2ζ n2 Eq.(2)
method
Case studies
Substituting Eq ( 2 ) into Eq (1) :

1
=
Rd ,max = Rd , res
2ζ 1 − ζ 2
CIE 5260 To find the value of the damping ratio ζ , we will set Eq(1) equal to the
Earthquakes
Lecture 13 amplitude of the Rd at 1/ 2 Rd , res .
The choice of 1/ 2 Rd , res is based on the rule of half-power width 1/2 Rd2, res
6/ 26
List of contents:
1  
− 8ζ 2 (1 − ζ 2 ) 0
 ⇒ Ω 4 − 2 (1 − 2ζ 2 ) Ω 2 + 1=
1 1
= 
2  2ζ 1 − ζ 2 
(1 − Ω2 ) + ( 2ζΩ )2
2
Modal analysis of
damped systems

The roots of the above equation are:
of Analysis
( ) ( )
1/ 2 1/ 2
Direct time integration Ω =1 − 2ζ + 2ζ 1 − ζ
+ 2 2
, Ω =1 − 2ζ − 2ζ 1 − ζ
− 2 2
method
Case studies
Neglecting from the above equation the terms proportional to ζ 2 , results at:
Ω+ = 1 + 2ζ , Ω− = 1 − 2ζ
Using Taylor series expansion and keeping only the first term, we get:
Ω+ = 1 + ζ , Ω− = 1 − ζ
Subtracting the smaller root from the larger one, results at:
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 13
Ω + − Ω − ∆Ω ω + − ω −
∆Ω = Ω − Ω = 2ζ ⇒ ζ =
+ −
= = Eq.(3)
2 2 2ωn
7/ 26
List of contents:
Modal analysis of Concluding remarks:

damped systems
Frequency domain method • Eq.(3) gives a first order approximation of the damping ratio.
of Analysis

• The damping is usually amplitude-dependent and therefore one
method should use the approximate value for the level of ground
motion expected.
Case studies
• In modern design codes, the standard amount of damping is

5%. However, one should be careful with this value.
• Viscous damping should account only for the response of the

system in the linear regime as other non-linear forms of energy
dissipation are already considered through the explicit
consideration of the inelastic response of the system.
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 13
8/ 26
Forms of damping in MDoF systems
List of contents:
In MDoF systems damping can be inserted in the following forms:
Modal analysis of
damped systems
1) Mass proportional damping
Frequency domain method C = α0 M
of Analysis
2) Stiffness proportional damping
method
C = α1 K
Case studies 3) Rayleigh damping (both stiffness and mass proportional)
C α 0 M + α1 K
=
4) Caughey damping
N −1
C = M ∑ α l [M −1 K ]l
l =0
CIE 5260
Note:
Structural Response to • (1) and (2) are special cases of (3).
Earthquakes
Lecture 13 • Caughey damping is a generalisation of Rayleigh damping.
9/ 26
Mass proportional damping
List of contents:
C = α0 M
Modal analysis of
damped systems Using the modes of vibration Φ
ˆ and applying orthogonality yields:
i
of Analysis
Φ ˆ =α Φ
ˆ T CΦ α 0 M*
0 i MΦ i ⇒ C =
ˆT ˆ *
Direct time integration i i
method
cii* α 0 mii* α0
ζi
⇒= = =
Case studies
2mii*ωi 2mii*ωi 2ωi
o A modal damping of this form is inversely proportional to the frequency.
CIE 5260 o This type of energy dissipation is rarely considered in practice as the
Earthquakes damping usually tends to increase with frequency.
Lecture 13
o However, the use of mass proportional damping results in diagonal C*

matrix and a decoupled set of modal equations of motion.
10/ 26
Stiffness proportional damping
List of contents:
C = α1 K
Modal analysis of
damped systems Using the modes of vibration Φ
ˆ and applying orthogonality yields:
i
of Analysis
Φ ˆ =α Φ
ˆ T CΦ α1 K *
1 i KΦ i ⇒ C =
ˆT ˆ *
Direct time integration i i
method
cii* α1ωi2 mii* α1ωi
ζi
⇒= = =
Case studies
2miiωi
*
2miiωi
*
2
o A modal damping of this form is linearly increasing with frequency.
CIE 5260 o This form of damping is more realistic compared with the mass
Earthquakes proportional damping.
Lecture 13
o Still, it is not consistent with most of the collected experimental data.
11/ 26
Rayleigh damping
List of contents:
C= α 0 M + α1K ⇒ C* = α 0 M* + α1K *
Modal analysis of
damped systems
cii* α 0 mii* + α1ωi2 mii* α 0 α1ωi
Frequency domain method ζi
= = = +
of Analysis
2mii*ωi 2mii*ωi 2ωi 2
method Consider an estimate of the modal damping ratios ζ 1 and ζ 2
Case studies of two modes of the system, then we solve for α 0 and α1 :
2ω1ω2 (ζ 1ω2 − ζ 2ω1 ) 2 (ζ 2ω2 − ζ 1ω1 )
α0 = , α1 =
ω22 − ω12 ω22 − ω12
 In practice α 0 and α1 are identified by choosing two modes of the system.

 It is adviced to use those two modes that are expected to participate the most in
the response of the system.
CIE 5260
Structural Response to  In earthquake engineering applications, the first mode is always one of the
Earthquakes
Lecture 13 two modes chosen, the other one being the second mode or a higher order
one.
12/ 26
Rayleigh damping
List of contents:
Case A: α 0 > 0, α1 > 0,

Modal analysis of
damped systems ω1 ζ 2 ω2
when < <
Frequency domain method ω2 ζ 1 ω1
of Analysis

method
Case studies Case B: α 0 > 0, α1 ≤ 0,

ζ 2 ω1
when ≤
ζ 1 ω2
Case C: α 0 ≤ 0, α1 > 0,
CIE 5260 ω2 ζ 2
Structural Response to when ≤
Earthquakes
Lecture 13 ω1 ζ 1
Figure borrowed from lecture slides CIE4140
13/ 26
Caughey damping
List of contents: Caughey damping is a generalisation of the classical Rayleigh

damping to overcome difficulties when:
Modal analysis of • a large number of modes participate in the response
damped systems • none of the two modes considered is dominant
of Analysis N −1 N −1
∑ αl ( M K ) ∑α C
−1 l
= =
C M
Direct time integration l l
=l 0=l 0
method
Case studies
For the nth generalised mode we have:
N −1
C n =Φ ˆ =∑ α Φ
ˆ T CΦ ˆ TC Φˆ
n n l n l n
l =0
l =0 : ˆ Tα M Φ
C n =Φ ˆ =α m*
n 0 n 0 n
l =1: ˆ T
(
C n =Φ n Mα1 ( M K ) Φ
−1 1
ˆ =α Φ
n 1 n KΦ n =
ˆT ˆ
)
α1kn* =α1ωn 2 mn*
CIE 5260
Structural Response to l = 2: ˆ T ( Mα M −1KM −1K ) Φ
Cn = Φ ˆ =Φˆ Tα KM −1KΦ
ˆ
n 2 n n 2 n
Earthquakes
=α 2 Φ
ˆ T KM −1ω 2 MΦ
ˆ= α ω 2 Φ ˆ= α ω 4 m*
Lecture 13 ˆ T KΦ
n n n 2 n n n 2 n n
...
14/ 26
Caughey damping
List of contents:
N −1
Modal analysis of
damped systems
Cn = ∑ α l ω 2l mn*
l =0
of Analysis

The damping ratio of the nth mode is given by:
method 1 N −1
ζ n = ∑ α l ω 2l −1
Case studies 2 l =0
 The first two terms of the Caughey series are the same as the Rayleigh
damping.
 Caughey damping has a serious drawback: terms with l ≥ 2 result in a

CIE 5260
fully coupled C matrix → not convenient for classical modal analysis.
Earthquakes
Lecture 13
15/ 26
Vibrations of damped systems
List of contents: The equation of motion including viscous damping reads:

Mx(t ) + Cx (t ) + Kx(t ) =
−M r ug (t )
Modal analysis of
damped systems
Frequency domain method Let us assume a response in terms of the undamped modes:
of Analysis N

) Φu(t=
x(t= ) ∑ Φˆ u (t )
i =1
i i
method
where Φ is real-valued eigenmatrix obtained by solving Mx
(t ) + Kx(t ) =
0
Case studies
We substitute the assumed solution of x(t ) into the EoM:

MΦu(t ) + CΦu (t ) + KΦu(t ) =
−M r ug (t )
−Φ T M r ug (t )
(t ) + C*u (t ) + K *u(t ) =
M *u
with:
CIE 5260
Structural Response to  M* Φ T MΦ → diagonal matrix
=
Earthquakes
Lecture 13
 K * Φ T KΦ → diagonal matrix
=
 C* Φ T CΦ
= → fully populated matrix
16/ 26
Vibrations of damped systems
List of contents:
Using the Rayleigh damping, however, we can force a diagonal C* matrix:
Modal analysis of ui (t ) + 2ζ iωi ui (t ) + ωi2 ui (t ) = −Γi ug (t )
damped systems
cii* Li Φˆ T Mr
Frequency domain method with ζ= , Γ= = i
2miiωi mii Φ
ˆ MΦ
i i
of Analysis
* * T ˆ
i i

method The general solution to the modal equation reads:
Case studies
(
t ) Ai exp ( −ζ iωi t ) sin ωi t 1 − ζ i2 + φi
u i (= )
-
1
ωi 1 − ζ i2
∫0
t
( )
Γi ug (τ ) exp ( −ζ iωi ( t − τ ) ) sin ωi 1 − ζ i2 ( t − τ ) dτ
2
Φ
ˆ T Mx(0) Φˆ T Mx (0) + ω ζ Φ ˆ T Mx(0) 
= Aj 1+  
j j j j j
CIE 5260 m*jj  ω 1− ζ 2 Φ ˆ T Mx(0) 

Structural Response to  j j j 
Earthquakes
Lecture 13  ω 1− ζ 2 Φ ˆ T Mx(0) 
−1  
 φ j = tan
j j j
 Φ j Mx (0) + ω j ζ j Φ j Mx(0) 

ˆ T ˆ T
 
17/ 26
List of contents:

systems

of Analysis

method
Case studies
Modal analysis for system with Maple file 13.1

CIE 5260
Structural Response to damping
Earthquakes
Lecture 13 Steps 1-5: Total response
18/ 26
List of contents:

systems
Frequency domain • Modal Analysis in earthquake engineering (damped
method of Analysis
systems)
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 13
19/ 26
Frequency domain method of analysis
List of contents: The forward and inverse Fourier transforms of x(t ) are written as:
+∞
Modal analysis of damped =x (ω ) ∫ x(t ) exp ( −iωt ) dt
−∞
systems
1 +∞
Frequency domain x(t ) = ∫ x (ω ) exp ( iωt ) d ω
method of Analysis
2π −∞

method The governing equation of motion reads:
Case studies Mx(t ) + Cx (t ) + Kx(t ) =
−Mrug (t )
Applying the integral transform in the EoM results at:

( −ω M + iωC + K ) x (ω ) =
2
−Mrα g (ω ) ⇒
( −ω 2 M + iωC + K ) ( −Mrα (ω ) )
−1
CIE 5260
x (ω ) = g
Earthquakes
Lecture 13 Response Dynamic Earthquake
in the stiffness load in the
frequency matrix frequency
domain domain
20/ 26
Frequency domain method of analysis
List of contents:
Once x (ω ) is known the response in time domain reads:
1 ∞ 1 ω*
Re  x (ω ) exp ( iωt )  d ω ≈ Re  x (ω ) exp ( iωt )  d ω
π∫ π∫
=
systems x(t )
0 0
Frequency domain
method of Analysis

method o The solution in the frequency domain is exact and thus one does
not need to approximate the damping matrix.
Case studies
o It is only applied to systems with damping and zero initial

conditions.
o The numerical value of the upper limit of truncation in the

inverse Fourier integral is chosen so that all frequencies of
interest are included (see Maple file).
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 13
21/ 26
List of contents:

systems

of Analysis

method
Case studies
Frequency domain analysis Maple file 13.2

CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 13
22/ 26
List of contents:

systems
of Analysis
systems)
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 13
23/ 26
List of contents:
The equation of motion and initial conditions are written as:

systems Mx(t ) + Cx (t ) + Kx(t ) =
−Mrug (t )
Frequency domain method x(0)=x (0)=0
of Analysis

method The state-space respresentation of the system is given as:
Case studies y (t)=x (t)
y (t)=M −1 ( −Mrug (t ) − Kx(t ) − Cy (t ) )
x(0) = 0
y (0) = 0
The above system of equations can be solved by available software

CIE 5260 packages, for example, in Matlab or in Maple.
Earthquakes
Lecture 13
24/ 26
List of contents:

systems

of Analysis

method
Case studies
Direct time integration method Maple file 13.3

CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 13
25/ 26
Reading material
Essential reading:
o Lecture slides
o Lecture notes: Sections 5.5-5.7 (p. 122-135),
5.9.1-5.9.3 (p. 150-163)
o Maple files
Optional reading:
o Chapter 13 (p. 513-617) by Anil K. Chopra
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 13
26/ 26
CIE 5260

Tel.: 015 27 89225, Room 3.44
Lecture 14
CIE 5260
Delft, 2019
1/ 32
List of contents:
Response Spectrum Analysis

Background theory • Response Spectrum method of Analysis (RSA)
Analysis using the RSA
• Background theory
Modal combination rules
Pitfalls of RSA • Analysis using the response spectrum method

Peak response to multi- • Modal combination rules for peak response
component ground excitation
• Common pitfalls in application of RSA
Case study 14.1
Extra slides • Case study

• Peak response to multi-component ground excitation
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 14
2/ 32
List of contents:
Response Spectrum
Analysis
• Response Spectrum method of Analysis (RSA)
Background theory

Modal combination rules • Analysis using the response spectrum method
Pitfalls of RSA
• Modal combination rules for peak response
Peak response to multi-
Case study 14.1 • Case study
Extra slides
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 14
3/ 32
Background theory of the RSA
For design purposes, we are interested in peak response
quantities and not in the whole time history of the response:
List of contents:
Response Spectrum
• The exact response to a specific earthquake event cannot be used
Analysis
for the design  the same earthquake event may never occur
twice.
Background theory
Analysis using the RSA • The design of a structure is (usually) based on the peak value of
Modal combination rules stresses and displacements.
Pitfalls of RSA

component ground excitation Can the peak response for design purposes be determined
Case study 14.1 directly from the response spectrum of the ground motion
Extra slides without carrying out a full dynamic analysis in the time domain?
CIE 5260 • SDoF systems  “yes” (Lectures 7-10)

Earthquakes
Lecture 14
• MDoF systems  “qualified yes”
4/ 32
Modal analysis versus RSA
 (t ) + 2ζ ω D (t ) + ω 2 D (t ) =
D −ug (t )
i i i i i i
→ Sa (Ti , ζ i )
List of contents:
Response Spectrum
Analysis
Background theory
(t ) + Cx (t ) + Kx(t ) =
Mx −M r ug (t )
N
ui (t ) + 2ζ iωi ui (t ) + ωi2 ui (t ) = −Γi ug (t )
Modal combination rules ) Φu(t=
x(t= ) ∑ Φˆ i ui (t )
 Γi Sα (Ti , ζ i )
i =1
Pitfalls of RSA
→ ui ,max = Γi D i ,max =
Sα (Ti , ζ i )
→ ui ,max =| Γi S d (Ti , ζ i ) |≈ Γi
Case study 14.1 ui (t ) + 2ζ iωi ui (t ) + ωi2 ui (t ) = −Γi ug (t ) ωi2
Extra slides
CIE 5260
xi (t ) = Φ
ˆ u (t )
i i xi ,max = Φ
ˆ u
i i ,max
Earthquakes
Lecture 14
N
x(t ) Φu
= = (t ) ∑ x (t )
i =1
i x max
5/ 32
Analysis steps in application of the RSA
List of contents:
• Define the design response spectrum (Lectures 7-8).
Step 1
Response Spectrum
Analysis
Background theory
• Solve the eigenvalue problem of the MDoF system to obtain
Step 2 eigenperiods and the normalised eigenvectors (Lectures 12-13).
Pitfalls of RSA
• Transform the coupled system of ODEs from the actual domain to
Step 3 the modal domain (Lectures 12-13).
Case study 14.1 • Solve for each modal DoF to obtain the peak response (Lecture
Extra slides Step 4 14), i.e. displacements, stresses, or any other quantity of interest.
CIE 5260 • Statistically combine the individual responses to find the most
Earthquakes probable peak response. If multiple directions are involved
Lecture 14 Step 5 combine statistically the individual response along each direction.
6/ 32
Analysis using RSA method
(t ) + Cx (t ) + Kx(t ) =

Mx −Mr ug (t )
List of contents: N
Response Spectrum
x(t=
) ∑ Φˆ u (t )
i =1
i i
Analysis
Background theory
ui (t ) + 2ζ iωi ui (t ) + ωi2 ui (t ) = −Γi ug (t )

Leaving aside Γi , we can concentrate the maxima of an ensemble
Pitfalls of RSA
of ground motions by solving the following equation:
component ground excitation  (t ) + 2ζ ω D (t ) + ω 2 D (t ) =
D −u (t )
i i i i i i g
Case study 14.1
⇓
Extra slides
The maxima of the responses can be gathered in a
response spectrum plot Sa (Ti ,ζ i ) (Lecture 7)
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
⇓
Lecture 14
The obtained (or given) response spectrum Sa (Ti ,ζ i )
defines the seismic input in the RSA method
7/ 32
List of contents:
Response Spectrum
Analysis
Background theory
Pitfalls of RSA
Peak response to multi- Figure: Acceleration response spectra Figure: Mean and Mean-plus-one
component ground excitation of 9 ground motion recordings standard-deviation acceleration response
spectra of 9 ground motion recordings
Case study 14.1
Extra slides
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 14 Figure: Type 1 design response
spectrum for ground type C,
according to Eurocode 8
8/ 32
Dynamic analysis is required in order to:

List of contents:
a) To obtain the ordinates of the response spectrum acceleration

Response Spectrum
(or displacement) at the location of interest. When this is
Analysis
provided by the design code we still need to adjust it to the
Background theory
location of interest  Lecture 7-8.

b) To derive the eigenperiods Ti and eigenvectors Φ i of the
Pitfalls of RSA dynamic system under investigation  Lecture 12-13.
component ground excitation c) To derive the multiplication factors Γi by transforming the
Case study 14.1
coupled set of equations from the actual domain to the modal
domain  Lecture 12-13.
Extra slides
CIE 5260 Items (a)-(c) above define the required input to perform the
Earthquakes RSA. Once known, the analysis to be carried out is a static
Lecture 14
one.
9/ 32
Calculation of peak displacements per
vibration mode
The response spectrum contains all peak responses of the equation:
List of contents:
 (t ) + 2ζ ω D (t ) + ω 2 D (t )= −u (t ) 
D → S (T , ζ ); S (T , ζ )
i i i i i i g a i i d i i
Response Spectrum
Analysis
Background theory By knowing the solution to the above equation, the peak response
at each modal coordinate ui reads:
Sα (Ti , ζ i ) Seismic input
ui ,max = max | Γi Di (t ) |=| Γi S d (Ti , ζ i ) |≈ Γi
Pitfalls of RSA
Peak response to multi- ωi 2

Li Φ̂iT Mr
Case study 14.1  Γ= =
mii Φ
ˆ T MΦ Eigenvalue analysis and
i
Extra slides
* ˆ
i i
modal transformation
CIE 5260 The response for a single mode "i " in the actual coordinates reads:
Earthquakes
ˆ Γ Sα (Ti , ζ i )
Lecture 14
max | xi (t ) |= xi ,max = Φ
ˆ u = ˆ Γ S (T , ζ ) = Φ
Φ
ωi
i i ,max i i d i i i i 2
10/ 32
Calculation of peak displacements per
vibration mode
List of contents:
Response Spectrum
Sa3 Mode 3
Analysis
Background theory

Sa2
Modal combination rules Mode 2
Pitfalls of RSA
Peak response to multi- Mode 1

Sa1
Case study 14.1
Extra slides
CIE 5260
Structural Response to Sα (Ti , ζ i ) ˆ Sα (Ti , ζ i )
Earthquakes
Lecture 14 ui ,max ≈ Γi 
→ xi ,max= Φ
ˆ u = ΓΦ
ωi2 ωi
i i ,max i i 2
Maximum response of a single mode
11/ 32
Calculation of peak forces and stresses
The procedure to calculate the members forces per vibration mode is:
List of contents:
Response Spectrum  Calculate the vector of forces as a result of the RSA per mode
Analysis
KΦi =ωi MΦi
ˆ 2 ˆ
Background theory Fi = Kxi ,max = Γi S d (Ti , ζ i ) KΦ
ˆ →
i
Γi S d (Ti , ζ i ) ωi2 MΦ
ˆ ≈ Γ S ( T , ζ ) MΦ
ˆ ≈ sˆ S (T , ζ )
Fi = i i α i i i i α i i
Pitfalls of RSA
Peak response to multi- When the mass matrix is diagonal:

Fji =Γi Sα (Ti , ζ i ) m j Φ ji =sˆ ji Sα (Ti , ζ i )
Case study 14.1
Extra slides
- Fji is scalar amplitude (force at DoF "j " for mode number "i ")
- m j is the mass assigned to DoF "j "
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
 Apply these forces in the structural modal at mass "j " in
Lecture 14
order to derive the stresses in the members. This procedure
is a standard static analysis procedure (not discussed further here).
12/ 32
Statistical modal combination rules
List of contents:
In general we cannot determine the exact max|x(t)| using the
Response Spectrum
response spectrum method of analysis because the modal
Analysis responses obtain their peaks at different time instants.
Background theory
M odal com bination rules How do we combine the individual maxima per vibration mode?
Pitfalls of RSA

We estimate the likelihood of the peak response and not
component ground excitation the peak response. The most common statistical combination
Case study 14.1 rules are as following:
Extra slides
1. Absolute sum rule (ABSSUM);
2. Square-root-of-the-sum-of-squares rule (SRSS);
CIE 5260 3. Complex Quadratic Combination rule (CQC).
Earthquakes
Lecture 14
13/ 32
ABSSUM modal combination rule
Assumes that all maxima occur simultaneously (ABSSUM) :

List of contents:
N N
Response Spectrum
x max=
i ,max
=i 1 =i 1
∑x = ∑ Γ Φˆ S (T , ζ )
i i d i i
Analysis
Background theory

At each DoF j we have:
N N
M odal com bination rules
Pitfalls of RSA
x =
( j)
max
( j)
∑x
i ,max
=i 1 =i 1
= ∑ Γ Φˆ i
( j)
i S d (Ti , ζ i )

Case study 14.1

( i d i i )
ˆ ( j ) S (T , ζ ) , one always considers
Thus, whatever the sign of Γi Φ
Extra slides
the absolute value, since phase information is lost. We further note that:
max x(t ) ≤ x max → conservative!
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Due to its conservatism, it is rarely applied in practice except for a few cases:
Lecture 14
- dynamics of structure-liquid systems subjected to earthquakes
14/ 32
SRSS modal combination rule
Square - root - of - sum - of - squares (SRSS) rule :

List of contents: 1/ 2 1/ 2
 N 2  N 2
Response Spectrum
x=
=
max (
 i 1=
x )
 ∑ i ,max  =

∑ i i d i i 
i 1
Γ Φ
ˆ S ( T , ζ (
)

)
Analysis
Background theory
At each DoF j we have:
1/ 2 1/ 2
 N ( j) 2   N 2
Pitfalls of RSA
x=
=
( j)
max
 i 1=  i 1
ˆ ( j)
(
 ∑ ( xi ,max ) =  ∑ Γi Φ i S d (Ti , ζ i ) 

)
 This rule provide very good estimation of the actual max x(t ) for
Case study 14.1
most MDoF systems with well-separated eigenfrequencies.
Extra slides
 max x(t ) ≤ x max or max x(t ) ≥ x max

CIE 5260
→ this means that the statistical combination of the
Earthquakes
Lecture 14 modes is not always conservative!
15/ 32
CQC modal combination rule
Complex quadratic combination (CQC) rule :
1/ 2
 N N   N 1/ 2
 N N  
x max  ∑∑ ρij xi ,max  ∑ ( xi ,max ) +  ∑∑ ρij xi ,max x j ,max  
2
List of contents: = = x j ,max 
=i 1 =j 1  =i 1 =i 1 =j 1  i ≠ j 

Response Spectrum
Analysis
 Calculation of ρij from Roseblueth − Elorduy (1971):
Background theory
1 ωi 1 − ζ i2 − ω j 1 − ζ j2 2
Analysis using the RSA ρ= , ε
= , ζ= '
ζ + Eq.(1)
1 + ε ij2 ζ i'ωi + ζ 'j ω j ωi , j ts
ij ij i , j i , j
Pitfalls of RSA
 Calculation of ρij from Der Kiureghion equation:
Peak response to multi- 8 ζ iζ j ( β ij ζ i + ζ j ) β ij3/ 2
component ground excitation ρij = Eq.(2)
(1 − β ) + 4ζ iζ j β ij (1 + β ) + 4 (ζ )β
2
ij
2
ij i
2
+ζ 2
j
2
ij
Case study 14.1
Extra slides
The CQC-rule overcomes the limitation of SRSS for closely-spaced

CIE 5260
eigenfrequencies. We note that:
Earthquakes xCQC max ≥ x SRSS max because:
Lecture 14
1/ 2
 N
2
1/ 2  N  N N  
 ∑ ( i ,max )  ≤ ∑ ( xi ,max ) +  ∑ ∑ ρij xi ,max x j ,max  

2
x
=i 1  =i 1 =i 1 =j 1  i ≠ j 

16/ 32
CQC modal combination rule
Eq.(1)
Eq.(2)
List of contents:
Response Spectrum
Analysis
Background theory
Pitfalls of RSA

Case study 14.1
Extra slides
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 14
Figure: Variation of the correlation coefficient for varying ratio of
eigenperiods for different values of critical damping ratio
(Source: Anil K. Chopra)
17/ 32
Notes on statistical combination rules
List of contents:
The SRSS and CQC rules are based on random vibration theory
and assumptions of smooth response spectra.
Response Spectrum
Analysis
• More accurate for ground motions which contain a wide
Background theory
band range of frequencies and a long strong motion
duration, i.e. t>Tf
Pitfalls of RSA
• Less accurate when:
Peak response to multi- o the frequency content is narrow band, i.e. when soil
column resonates;
Case study 14.1 o the duration of strong motion shaking is short with
Extra slides respect to the natural period of vibration of the system,
i.e. Groningen seismicity.
ζ>0.5% (mostly met in engineering systems of interest)

CIE 5260
Structural Response to •
Earthquakes
Lecture 14
18/ 32
Common pitfalls in application of RSA
List of contents:  Do not confuse the RSA with an analysis of the same system in
Response Spectrum
the frequency domain.
Analysis
Background theory
 The response spectrum solution reads:
Sα (Ti , ζ i )
ui ,max =| Γi S d (Ti , ζ i ) |≈ Γi
Pitfalls of RSA ωi2

Case study 14.1  This is not the same as the frequency domain solution:
Extra slides
N
∑ Γi D i (ω ) and Sd (Ti , ζ i ) ≠ ui (ω )

ui (ω ) =
i =1
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 14
19/ 32
Common pitfalls in application of RSA
 Carefully apply the statistical combination rules :

List of contents:
Response Spectrum
For example, the correct way of calculating the inter-storey drift is
Analysis
Background theory
to first calculate the inter-storey drift per mode and then apply the
Analysis using the RSA statistical combination rule:
xi( ) − xi( ) ∑ ( ∆ir )

Pitfalls of RSA r −1 2
∆
= → ∆
= → correct way
r r r
i

inter-storey drift floor " r "
Case study 14.1
Extra slides

∑(x )
2
(r ) (r )
x max = max 
 (r ) ( r −1)
→∆
= − xmax → wrong way !
r
CIE 5260
xmax
∑(x )
( r −1) ( r −1) 2 
Earthquakes
Lecture 14
x max = max 

20/ 32
List of contents:

Pitfalls of RSA • Analysis using the response spectrum method

Peak response to multi- • Modal combination rules for peak response
Case study 14.1
Extra slides • Case study

CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 14
21/ 32
Case study: RSA
List of contents: The same three-storey building discussed in Lectures 12-13.
Background theory
Pitfalls of RSA

Case study 14.1
Extra slides
CIE 5260
Earthquakes Response Spectrum Analysis Maple file 14.1
Lecture 14
22/ 32
List of contents:

Modal combination rules Pitfalls
of RSA • Analysis using the response spectrum method
• Modal combination rules for peak response
component ground
excitation • Common pitfalls in application of RSA
Case study 14.1
• Case study
Extra slides
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 14
23/ 32
Multi-component excitation
Example of one-storey building:

List of contents:
Background theory

of RSA

component ground
excitation
Case study 14.1
Extra slides
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 14
24/ 32
Multi-component excitation
m ( ux + uxg ) + ( k xB + k xC ) u x +
d
( k xC − k xB )θ =
0
List of contents:
2
m ( uy + uyg ) + k yAu y − ek yAθ =
0
 
( )
2 2
d d d
I o θ + θg + ( k xC − k xB ) u x − ek yAu y +  k xB +
Background theory

k xC + e 2 k yA  θ =
0
2  4 4 
of RSA

component ground
 mx 0 0   ux   k x x kx y k xθ   u x   mx 0 0    1  0  
excitation
0    
 my 0  uy  +  k yx k yy k yθ  u y  =
−  0 m y 0   0  ugx (t ) + 1  ugy (t ) 
Case study 14.1
 0 0 I o   θ   kθ x kθ y kθθ   θ   0 0 I o   0  0  

Extra slides
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
2
∑ M ri ugi (t )
Lecture 14
M x(t ) + C x (t ) + K x(t ) =−
i =1
25/ 32
Principal axes of ground motion
List of contents: • In the classical modal analysis one can derive the response
to each component separately and then superimpose the
individual responses (valid for linear systems only).
Background theory

3
∑ M ri ugi (t )
of RSA M x(t ) + C x (t ) + K x(t ) =−
Peak response to multi- i =1
component ground
excitation • In RSA, however, this not that straightforward, as the
Case study 14.1 seismic input is provided in terms of separate responses
Extra slides along each orthogonal coordinate.
• Thus, the question arises of the combination of the

CIE 5260
estimated maxima along each separate direction while
Earthquakes
Lecture 14
applying RSA with seismic input along x-, y-, and z-axis.
26/ 32
Principal axes of ground motion
List of contents:
In the RSA method, the excitation is defined in terms of
principal components of seismic action:
Background theory • Major principal component: Sα ,h (T , ζ )

Modal combination rules Pitfalls • Intermediate principal component: γ Sα ,h (T , ζ )

of RSA
Peak response to multi- • Minor principal component (along vertical direction): Sα ,v (T , ζ )

component ground
excitation
Case study 14.1

Eurocode 8:
Extra slides
 γ=1 which is a rather conservative assumption
 check ground motion intensity from Lecture 6.
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 14
27/ 32
EN1998-1 provisions
EN1998 - 1 : 4.3.3.5 provides rules for combining the seismic action:

List of contents:
Response Spectrum Analysis 1) r=

cr max rx + α ry + α rz ; α rx + α ry + rz ; α rx + ry + α rz  with α =0.3:
Background theory
a) EEdx"+" 0.30 EEdy"+" 0.30 EEdz
Modal combination rules Pitfalls b) 0.30EEdx"+" EEdy"+" 0.30 EEdz

of RSA
c) 0.30EEdx"+" 0.30 EEdy"+" EEdz
component ground "+" : "to be combined with"
excitation
Case study 14.1
Extra slides
2) γ =
1, which is conservative and yields: rcr = rx2 + ry2 + rz2
EEd = 2
EEdx + EEdy
2
+ EEdz
2
CIE 5260 EEdi i = x, y, z : effects after applying the RSA in each direction for γ =1.
Earthquakes
Lecture 14
28/ 32
Reading material
Essential reading:
o Lecture slides
o Lecture notes: Sections 5.8 (p.136-150), 5.9.4 (p.
163-164)
o Maple files
Optional reading:
o Chapter 13 (p. 513-615) by Anil K. Chopra
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 14
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Extra slides
List of contents:
Principal components of the ground motion and orientation
Response Spectrum Analysis of the structure
Background theory

of RSA

Case study 14.1
Extra slides
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 14
30/ 32
Structural response for incident angle
List of contents:
θ : the rotation angle
Response Spectrum Analysis from x -axis to
Background theory principal axes

of RSA The peak response as a function of the rotation angle θ is written:
( ) ( )
rx2 + ( γ ry ) cos 2 θ + ( γ rx ) + ry2 sin 2 θ + 2 (1 − γ 2 ) rxy sin θ cos θ + rz2
Peak response to multi- 2
r (θ ) =
2
Case study 14.1

 r j , j = x, y, z : peak response to single component of the ground motion
Extra slides
defined by Sα (T ,ζ ) along the relevant direction.
1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2
 N N   N N   N N 
= rx =∑∑ ρij ri , x r j , x  , ry =∑∑ ρij ri , y r j , y  , rz  ∑∑ ρij ri , z r j , z 
CIE 5260 =i 1 =j 1  =i 1 =j 1  =i 1 =j 1 
Structural Response to 1/ 2
Earthquakes  N N 
Lecture 14
rxy =  ∑ ∑ ρij ri , x r j , y  ,
=i 1 =j 1 
 For γ =1 → r (θ ) = r0 = rx2 + ry2 + rz2
31/ 32
Critical response
The critical angle is given as:

List of contents: dr (θ ) 1  2rxy 
0 θ crit = tan  2
=⇒ −1

dθ 2  r − r2
Response Spectrum Analysis  x y 
1/ 2
Background theory
  rx2 + ry2   rx2 − ry2 
2 
→ rcr= rmax ≈ (1 + γ ) 
 2
 + (1 − γ )
2
  + rxy2 + rz2 
  2 
    2  
of RSA

component ground excitation If we assume that θ = 0:
Case study 14.1
π 
r (0) =rx2 + ( γ ry ) + rz2 , r   =( γ rx ) + ry2 + rz2
2 2
Extra slides
2
Subsequently, rcr ≈ max[r (0), r (π / 2)], for components of equal

CIE 5260
intensity γ =1:
Earthquakes
Lecture 14
rcr = rx2 + ry2 + rz2
32/ 32
CIE 5260

Tel.: 015 27 89225, Room 3.44
Lecture 15
CIE 5260
Delft, 2019
1/ 36
List of contents:
Problem statement
Seismic analysis of MDoF systems subjected to
Equations of motion
multi-support excitation
Modal analysis • Statement of the problem
Frequency domain modal
solution
• Derivation of equations of motion
• Modal analysis of multi-support excitation
• Frequency domain modal solution
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 15
2/ 36
List of contents:
Problem statement
Equations of motion
solution
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 15
3/ 36
Statement of the problem
Let us consider the example of a two-storey frame subjected to

multi-support ground excitation (excluding SSI)
List of contents:
Problem statement
Equations of motion
u2 (t )
Modal analysis

solution
u1 (t )
u3 (t ) u4 (t ) u5 (t ) u6 (t ) u7 (t )
⇒ DoF of the structure u t (t )=[u1 (t ) u2 (t )]T

CIE 5260
Earthquakes
⇒ DoF of the support locations u b (t )=[u3 (t ) ... u7 (t )]T
Lecture 15
⇒ u b (t ) = u g (t ) → no soil-structure interaction
⇒ u g (t ): denotes the ground motion input vector [N g × 1]
4/ 36
List of contents:
Problem statement
Equations of motion
solution
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 15
5/ 36
Example 1: Simple frame
The single-storey frame shown below is subjected to multi-

excitation at support locations 1 and 2:
List of contents:
Problem statement
Equations of motion
Modal analysis

solution
The system consists of a rigid beam supported by two

CIE 5260
Structural Response to (massless) columns. We assign to the system 3 DoFs:
Earthquakes
Lecture 15
• One for the mass that moves as a rigid body;
• Two for the support locations #1 and #2.
6/ 36
• We apply the displacement method to derive EoM of the system.
• We assign fictitious masses at #1 and #2 which will be removed
List of contents: later on.
Problem statement
Equations of motion
Modal analysis

solution
u3 (t ) = u (t )
CIE 5260
Structural Response to u1 (t ) = u g1 (t )
Earthquakes
Lecture 15
u2 (t ) = u g 2 (t )
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The equation of motion in matrix form is written as:
m 0 0   ut (t )   2 K c − Kc − K c   u t (t )   0 
      
0   ug ,1 (t )  +  − K c 0   u g ,1 (t )  = pg1 (t ) 
List of contents:
 0 mb ,1 Kc
Problem statement 0
 0 mb ,2  ug ,2 (t )   − K c 0 K c  u g ,2 (t )   pg 2 (t ) 
Equations of motion
Modal analysis
=
 M ff =
m, M fb =
M T
bf 0
solution  mb ,1 0 
 M bb =  
 0 m b ,2 
 K ff =2 K c , K fb = [− Kc − Kc ] =
K bfT
 Kc 0
 K bb =
0 K c 
The EoM in partitioned form read:

CIE 5260
Earthquakes
[N f × N f ] [N f × Ng ]
Lecture 15
M ff M fb   ut  C ff C fb   u t   K ff K fb   ut   0 
M + + =
 bf M bb  u
b  Cbf Cbb  u b  K bf K bb  ub  p g (t ) 
[ N g × N f ][ N g × N g ]
8/ 36
Example 2: Beam modelled in FEM
The cantilever beam with two point masses is shown in the following
figures below. Derive the stiffness and mass matrices in
List of contents: partitioned form from a translational ground motion at DoF #5.
Problem statement
Equations of motion
Modal analysis

solution
 24 −12 0 3L −12 
 −12 12 − 3 L − 3 L 0 
K ff K fb  8 EI  
=K =   0 −3L 2 L 2
L / 2 3L 
2
K
 bf K bb  L 
3

 3 L −3 L L2
/ 2 L 2
0 
 −12 0 3L 0 12 
CIE 5260
m / 2 0 0 0 0 
Structural Response to  0 m/4 0 0 0 
Earthquakes
M ff M fb  
=M =   0 0 
Lecture 15
0 0 0
 M bf M bb   
 0 0 0 0 0 
 0 0 0 0 m / 4 
9/ 36
Equations of motion in partitioned form
u2 (t )
u1 (t )
List of contents:
Problem statement
u3 (t ) u4 (t ) u5 (t ) u6 (t ) u7 (t )
[N f × N f ] [N f × Ng ]
Equations of motion
Modal analysis M ff M fb   ut  C ff C fb   u t   K ff K fb   ut   0 

M + + =
 bf M bb  u
b  Cbf Cbb  u b  K bf K bb  ub  p g (t ) 
solution [ N g × N f ][ N g × N g ]
⇒ total displacements of the structural DoF → u t (t )=[u1 (t ) u2 (t )]T

⇒ displacements of the support DoF → u b (t )=[u3 (t ) ... u7 (t )]T
⇒ u b (t ) = u g (t ) → no soil-structure interaction
⇒ u g (t ): denotes the ground motion input vector
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 15
M + + =
 bf M bb  u
 g  Cbf Cbb  u g  K bf K bb  u g  p g (t ) 
10/ 36
Displacement vectors
M + + =
 bf M bb  u
 g  Cbf Cbb  u g  K bf K bb  u g  p g (t ) 
List of contents:
Problem statement
Equations of motion − ( M fb u
t (t ) + C ff u t (t ) + K ff ut (t ) =
M ff u  g (t ) + C fb u g (t ) + K fb u g (t ) ) Eq(1)
Modal analysis

To solve the problem we need to determine ut (t ) and p g (t ).
solution
We separate the displacement vector into two parts:

 ut (t )   u s (t )  u(t ) 
u (t )  =  +  Eq(2)
 g 
  g 
u (t )   0 
CIE 5260
Structural Response to dynamic displacement vector
Earthquakes
Lecture 15
static displacement vector from a static application of u g (t )
11/ 36
Solution of the static component
The vector u s (t ) is evaluated by the static formulation of the problem

List of contents:
(we neglect all time derivatives):
Problem statement
 K ff K fb   u s (t )   0 
Equations of motion
K  =
Modal analysis  bf K bb  u g (t )  p sg (t ) 
Frequency domain modal  p sg (t ) being the static force required to impose u s (t )
solution
From K ff u s (t ) + K fb u g (t ) =
0, we obtain:
− K −ff1
u s (t ) = K fb u g (t ) =
r u g (t ) Eq(3)
    
[ N f × N f ] [ N f × N g ] [ N g × 1] [ N f × N g ] [ N g × 1]
in which r = −K −ff1K fb is the influence matrix.
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 15 The second equation K bf u s (t ) + K bb u g (t ) = p sg (t ) can be used to obtain
p sg (t ) but this is not needed!
12/ 36
Solution of the dynamic component
Substitution of Eq(2) into Eq(1) yields:

List of contents:
Eq(2)
Problem statement Eq(1)  (t ) + C ff u (t ) + K ff u(t ) = p e (t )
→ M ff u
− ( M ff u  g (t ) ) − ( C ff u s (t ) + C fb u g (t ) )
Equations of motion
p e (t ) =  s (t ) + M fb u
Modal analysis
Frequency domain modal − ( K ff u s (t ) + K fb u g (t ) )

solution
Eq(3)
 (t ) + C ff u (t ) + K ff u(t )= p e (t )
→ M ff u
− ( M ff r + M fb ) u
p e (t ) =  g (t ) − ( C ff r + C fb ) u g (t )
CIE 5260 −K −ff1 K fb u g (t ) =

u s (t ) = r u g (t ) → static component
Earthquakes
Lecture 15
ut (t ) = u s (t ) + u(t ) → total displacement
13/ 36
Solution of the dynamic component
Assumptions (often reasonable in practical cases):

List of contents:
Problem statement  The damping contribution is much smaller than the inertial contribution:
Equations of motion  s (t ) + M fb u
M ff u  g (t ) >> C ff u s (t ) + C fb u g (t )
Modal analysis

solution
 The mass matrix is diagonal → M fb =M bfT =0
With these assumptions, the final equation of motion reads:
(t ) + C ff u (t ) + K ff u(t ) =
M ff u  g (t )
−M ff ru
CIE 5260
Earthquakes Equations of motion to solve for the relative
Lecture 15
to the support dynamic ground motion!
14/ 36
Alternative representation of the
seismic action
Ng
List of contents:
u (t ) =
s −1
−K K fb u g (t ) =
ff ∑ rî ugi (t )
r u g (t ) =
i =1
Problem statement
 rî denotes the i th column of matrix r
Equations of motion
 u gi (t ) is the support displacement at DoF ''i "
Modal analysis

solution
Ng
p eff (t ) =
−M ff r u −∑ M ff rî ugi (t )
 g (t ) =
i =1
CIE 5260 For a linear system one can find the individual response
Earthquakes
Lecture 15 for each component "i" and then sum up the individual
contributions to obtain the total response.
15/ 36
Summary steps of solution approach
STEP 1 : Derive M, C and K → partition the matrices

List of contents:
Problem statement
Equations of motion STEP 2 : Derive the influence matrix r = −K −ff1K fb

Modal analysis

solution −K −ff1 K fb u g (t ) =
STEP 3 : Obtain the static vector u s (t ) = r u g (t )
STEP 4 : Solve for the dynamic part the following equation:

− ( M ff r + M fb ) u
(t ) + C ff u (t ) + K ff u(t ) =
M ff u  g (t ) − ( C ff r + C fb ) u g (t )
CIE 5260 s (t ) + M fbu

M ff u  g (t ) >>C ff u s (t ) +C fbu g (t )
Structural Response to →
Earthquakes
Lecture 15
(t ) + C ff u (t ) + K ff u(t ) =
M ff u  g (t )
−M ff r u
16/ 36
The single-storey frame shown below is subjected to multi-

excitation at support locations 1 and 2:
List of contents:
Problem statement
Equations of motion
Modal analysis

solution
The system consists of a rigid beam supported by two

CIE 5260
Structural Response to columns. We assign to this system 3 DoFs:
Earthquakes
Lecture 15
• One for the mass that moves as a rigid body;
• Two for the support locations #1 and #2.
17/ 36
The equation of motion in matrix form is written as:

List of contents: m 0 0   ut (t )   2 K c − Kc − K c   u t (t )   0 
      
 0 mb ,1 0   ug ,1 (t )  +  − K c Kc 0   u g ,1 (t )  = pg1 (t ) 
Problem statement
0
 0 mb ,2  ug ,2 (t )   − K c 0 K c  u g ,2 (t )   pg 2 (t ) 
Equations of motion
Modal analysis

 M ff =
m, M fb =
MTbf =
0, K ff = [− Kc
2 K c , K fb = − Kc ]
solution
 
1 1 1
−K −ff1K fb =
 r= − [− Kc − Kc ] =
 
2Kc 2 
2
 r1 r2 
Ng
−∑ m ri u g ,i (t ) → u(t ) + ω12 u (t ) =
m u(t ) + 2 K c u (t ) = −ug (t )
CIE 5260 i =1
Earthquakes
Lecture 15
 ω12 = 2 K c / m
 ug (t )
=
1
2
( ug ,1 (t ) + ug ,2 (t ) )
18/ 36
List of contents:
Problem statement
Equations of motion
solution
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 15
19/ 36
Modal analysis in multi-support excitation
Under the assumptions mentioned before, the final equation of motion reads:
List of contents: Ng
(t ) + C ff u (t ) + K ff u(t ) =
M ff u −M ff ru −∑ M ff rˆl ugl (t )
 g (t ) = Eq(4)
Problem statement
l =1
Equations of motion
Modal analysis
• r=−K −ff1 K fb (influence matrix)
solution
u s (t ) + u(t ) (total displacement)
• ut (t ) =
• u s (t ) =
r u g (t ) (static displacement), u(t) (dynamic displacement)
• u gl (t) (ground acceleration of support location ''l'')
The task is to calculate the individual response to pˆ eff ,l (t)= − M ff rˆl ugl (t )
by using the modal analysis method.
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 15
20/ 36
Ng
(t ) + C ff u (t ) + K ff u(t ) =
M ff u −M ff ru −∑ M ff rˆl ugl (t )
 g (t ) = Eq(4)
l =1
List of contents:
Problem statement
Assuming a displacement field in terms of modes:
Equations of motion N
Modal analysis
u(t)=Φq(t ) = ∑ Φ
ˆ q (t )
i i
i =1
solution
Substituting this back into Eq(4) yields:
Ng
MΦq −∑ Mrˆl ugl (t )

(t ) + CΦq (t ) + KΦq(t ) = Eq(5)
l =1
Pre-multiplying Eq(5) by Φ T and use of the orthogonality property:

Ng
CIE 5260 qi (t ) + 2ζ iωi qi (t ) + ω q (t ) =

2
i i −∑ Γil ugl (t )
Structural Response to l =1
Earthquakes
Lecture 15
Φˆ T Mrˆ L
 Γil = Ti l
= il*
Φ
ˆ MΦ
i
ˆ
i
mii
21/ 36
The EoM at each modal coordinate qi (t ) reads:

List of contents: Ng
qi (t ) + 2ζ iωi qi (t ) + ωi2 qi (t ) =−∑ Γil ugl (t )

Problem statement l =1
Equations of motion
Modal analysis At each modal coordinate ''i '', we need to calculate the response
Frequency domain modal N g load combinations:
solution
Ng Ng
qi (t=
)
il
=l 1 =l 1
∑q (t=
) ∑Γ il Dil (t )
 (t ) + 2ζ ω D (t ) + ω 2 D (t ) =
D −ugl (t )
il i i il i il
 Dil (t ) → response to the i th -mode SDoF

CIE 5260
Earthquakes
system due to excitation at support location ugl (t )
Lecture 15
qil (t ) + 2ζ iωi qil (t ) + ωi2 qil (t ) = −Γil ugl (t )
22/ 36
One needs to first obtain Dil (t ) and subsequently qil (t ) and qi (t ). Finally, the
List of contents: response in the real coordiante system equals:
N N Ng
Problem statement
=
u(t) ∑ Φˆ q=
=i 1
(t ) ∑∑ Φ
i i
ˆ Γ
=i 1 =l 1
i il Dil (t )
Equations of motion
Modal analysis The quasi-static displacement u s (t ) is given by:

Ng
solution
=
u (t ) r=
s
u g (t ) ∑ rˆ u
l =1
l gl (t )
The total response is equal to:

Ng N Ng
u (t ) = u (t ) + u(t ) =
t s
∑ rˆ u
l =1
l gl (t ) + ∑∑ Φ
ˆ Γ D (t )
i il il
i =1 l =1
The structural analysis using the method derscribed above is essentially

CIE 5260 similar to the one in which all supports move sychronously.
Earthquakes
Lecture 15
The only extra step is to consider multiple load cases per ''i'' corresponding
to different support excitation u gl (t ).
23/ 36
List of contents:
Problem statement
Equations of motion
solution
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 15
24/ 36
Frequency domain modal solution
Step 1: Define tranfer function of a SDoF system in the frequency domain
(well-known function, see lecture notes CIE4140)
List of contents:
 −1 
H i (iω ) =  
Problem statement
 −ω 2
+ ωi
2
+ 2i ζ ω
i i ω 
Equations of motion
Modal analysis
Step 2: Find the response at each modal coordinate "i" and for each
solution
support excitation "l":
D (ω )
Ng Ng  il 
) ∑ qil (ω=
qi (ω= ) ∑ Γil H i (iω ) a gl (ω )
=l 1 =l 1 
FT of GA
Step 3: Find the dynamic response in the real coordinates by summing

up over all modes "i":
CIE 5260 N Ng
∑∑ Φˆ Γ
Earthquakes u (ω )
= i il H i (iω )a gl (ω )
Lecture 15 =i 1 =l 1
25/ 36
Frequency domain modal solution
List of contents: Step 4: Find the total response in the real coordinates by summing
up the static and dynamic components:
Problem statement
Ng
Equations of motion
 u (ω ) = ∑ rˆl u gl (ω )
s
Modal analysis l =1
Ng N Ng
∑ rˆ u (ω ) + ∑∑ Φ
solution
 u (ω ) = u (ω ) + u (ω ) =
t s
l gl
ˆ Γ H (iω ) a (ω )
i il i gl
=l 1 =i 1 =l 1
Step 5: Find the total response in the time domain:

1 +ω 2 +ω
ut (t ) = ∫ Re u t (ω ) exp ( iωt )  d ω = − ∫ Im u t (ω )  sin (ωt ) d ω
π 0 π 0
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 15
26/ 36
Case study: Multi-support excitation
The industry support frame shown below is subjected to a non-uniform
support excitation.
Side view
CIE 5260 Top view

Earthquakes
Lecture 15
27/ 36
The DoFs in the system are shown in the following figure:
Assuming that the structure is subjected to a given ground signal,

calculated the dynamic response for two cases:
CIE 5260 • Case 1: Considering the same excitation for all supports.
Earthquakes
Lecture 15 • Case 2: Considering multi-support excitation by the passage of a
surface Rayleigh wave with a given time delay.
28/ 36
The DoFs in the system are shown in the following figure:
25 m
Case 2 : Passage of a Rayleigh wave
x
= =
u g ( x, t ) Im{ Ao exp(iωt - iγ R x)} Im{ Ao exp(iω (t - )}
cR
CIE 5260

phase delay
Earthquakes
Lecture 15 We assume that: cR = 50 m/s (given based on soil properties)
How much time does the crest of wave need to cover the distance
between two column series?
29/ 36
Calculation of column stiffness
K j =( λ EI / h j 3 ) with: λ =3 ÷ 12 → we choose hereafter λ =6.

3
∑K j
CIE 5260
Structural Response to Per series of columns → K i =
Earthquakes j =1
Lecture 15
30/ 36
Impose unit displacement along #1  derive the 1st
column of the stiffness matrix
=
K11 5 K1 + 5 K 2
K 21 = −5 K 2
CIE 5260 K=
31 K=
41 K=
51 K=
61 K=
71 − K1
Earthquakes
Lecture 15
31/ 36
Impose unit displacement along #2  derive the 2nd
K12 = −5 K 2
K 22 = 5 K 2
CIE 5260
K=
32 K=
42 K=
52 K=
62 K=
72 0
Earthquakes
Lecture 15
32/ 36
Impose unit displacement along #3  derive the 3rd
K13 = − K1
K 23 = 0
K 33 = K1
CIE 5260
Structural Response to K=
43 K=
53 K=
63 K=
73 0
Earthquakes
Lecture 15
Similar procedure for the rest of the degrees of freedom!
33/ 36
The M, K and C matrices are given:
 m1 0 
 M ff M fb 
= 2  , M
= = = M= 
M bb 
M M M 0,
ff
0 m1
bf fb bb
M bf
 3 
5 ( K1 + K 2 ) −5 K 2   − K1 − K1 − K1 − K1 − K1 
K=   , K= K=
T
 0
− 0 
ff fb bf
 5 K 2 5 K 2   0 0 0
 K1 0 0 0 0
0 K 0 0 0 
 1   K ff K fb 
K bb =  0 0 K1 0 0  , K=  
   K bf K bb 
0 0 0 K1 0 
 0 0 0 0 K1 
⇒ C ff= α 0 M ff + α1K ff
CIE 5260
Earthquakes The equation of motion for case 2 reads:
Lecture 15
Ng
(t ) + C ff u (t ) + K ff u(t ) =
M ff u −∑ M ff rˆl ugl (t )
 g (t ) =
−M ff r u
l =1
34/ 36
Multi-support excitation Maple file L15
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 15
35/ 36
Reading material
List of contents:
Problem statement Essential reading:

Equations of motion
o Lecture slides
Modal analysis
o Lecture notes: section 5.11 (p.179-195)
solution
o Maple file
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 15
36/ 36
CIE 5260

Tel.: 015 27 89225, Room 3.44
Lecture 16
CIE 5260
Delft, 2019
1/ 46
Methods of seismic analysis of structures

• Overview of seismic design methods
• Overview of seismic input specifications
Seismic analysis of non-linear MDoF systems

• Dynamics of non-linear MDoF systems
• Equivalent elastic analysis using the behaviour factor
method
• Case study
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 16
2/ 46


method
• Case study
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 16
3/ 46
Eurocode 8: Design of structures for
earthquak e resistance
List of contents:
Parts of Eurocode 8:
Methods of
analysis • EN 1998-1: General rules, seismic actions and rules for
Dynamics of non- buildings
linear systems
Behaviour factor
method • EN 1998-2: Bridges
Case study
• EN 1998-3: Assessment and retrofitting of buildings
• EN 1998-4: Silos, tanks and pipelines
• EN 1998-5: Foundations, retaining structures and
geotechnical aspects
• EN 1998-6: Towers, masts and chimneys
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 16
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurocode_8:_Design_of_structures_f
or_earthquake_resistance
4/ 46
List of contents:
Methods of
analysis
Dynamics of non-
linear systems
Behaviour factor
method
Case study
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 16
5/ 46
List of contents:
Methods of
analysis
Dynamics of non-
linear systems
Behaviour factor
method
Case study
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 16
6/ 46
Methods of analysis of structures
Can the seismic response be approximated by a single mode of
vibration (regularity criteria in plan and elevation, etc.)?
List of contents:
Methods of yes no
analysis
Dynamics of non-
linear systems
Behaviour factor
method SDoF systems MDoF systems
Case study
Lateral Force Method (L9,L10) Response Spectrum Method

- Linear design: q=1.00 - Linear design: q=1.00 (L14)
- Non-linear design: q>1.00 - Non-linear design: q>1.00 (L16)
Pushover Method (L11) Non-linear Time History

CIE 5260
- Shape function based on Analysis (NLTH)
Earthquakes
fundamental vibration mode - seismic input  series of ground
Lecture 16
motion accelerations
Seismic input  Acceleration Response Spectra

7/ 46


method
• Case study
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 16
8/ 46
Horizontal elastic spectrum (EN1998-1)
The parameters S, TB , TC and TD depend on the ground type and the
surface-wave magnitude, Ms (Type 1: Ms>5.5 & Type 2: Ms<5.5).
List of contents:
Methods of
analysis
Dynamics of non-
linear systems
Behaviour factor
method
Case study for Type 1 elastic response spectra (Eurocode 8). for Type 2 elastic response spectra (Eurocode 8).
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 16
9/ 46
Horizontal design spectrum (EN1998-1)
2 T  2.5 2  
List of contents: • 0 ≤ T ≤ TB : S d (T ) = ag ⋅ S ⋅  + ⋅ − 
 3 TB  q 3 
Methods of
analysis 2.5
Dynamics of non- • TB ≤ T ≤ TC : S d (T ) = ag ⋅ S ⋅
linear systems q
Behaviour factor
method
 2.5  TC  
Case study =
 g a ⋅ S ⋅ ⋅  
• TC ≤ T ≤ TD : S d (T )  q  T 
 ≥ β ⋅ ag 
 
 2.5  TC ⋅ TD  
=
 g a ⋅ S ⋅ ⋅  2 
• TD ≤ T : S d (T )  q  T 
 ≥ β ⋅ ag 
 
CIE 5260
Earthquakes β = 0.2 : lower bound of the design response spectrum
Lecture 16
10/ 46
Vertical design spectrum (EN1998-1)
2 T  3.0 2  
• 0 ≤ T ≤ TB : Svd (T ) = avg ⋅  + ⋅ − 
 3 TB  q 3 
List of contents:
3.0
Methods of • TB ≤ T ≤ TC : Svd (T ) = avg ⋅
analysis q
Dynamics of non-
linear systems
 3.0  TC  
Behaviour factor =
 vga ⋅ ⋅  
method • TC ≤ T ≤ TD : Svd (T )  q  T  q ≤ 1.5
Case study
 ≥ β ⋅ avg 
 
 3.0  TC ⋅ TD  
=
 vga ⋅ ⋅  2 
• TD ≤ T : Svd (T )  q  T 
 ≥ β ⋅ a 
 vg 
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 16
11/ 46
Ground accelerations (EN1998-1)
List of contents:
Methods of
analysis
Dynamics of non-
linear systems
Behaviour factor
method
Case study
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 16
12/ 46
List of contents:
Methods of
analysis
Dynamics of non-
linear systems
Behaviour factor
method
Case study
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 16
13/ 46
List of contents:
Methods of
analysis
Dynamics of non-
linear systems
Behaviour factor
method
Case study
How many input signals are needed?
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 16
14/ 46


method
• Case study
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 16
15/ 46
Non-linear EoMs
The EoM of a MDoF non-linear system reads:
 ( t ) + Cx ( t ) + f s ( x,sgn ( x ) , t ) =
−M r ug ( t )
List of contents:
Mx Eq(1)
Methods of analysis
   
Inertia term Linear damping NL stiffness matrix External forcing
Dynamics of non-
linear systems
Behaviour factor
method
In the linear case ⇒ f s ( x,sgn ( x ) , t ) → Kx ( t ) .
Case study
What makes the solution of Eq(1) challenging ?
 The stiffness matrix needs to be updated at each instant of time.

 The solution has to be repeated for several sets of ground motions
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
to account for record-to-record variability.
Lecture 16
 The non-linearities depend on force-deformation relation
or stress-strain relations of the individual members.
16/ 46
NLTH analysis of MDoF systems
Non-linear time history (NLTH) analysis is computationally demanding

(used only in special cases) because:
List of contents:
Methods of analysis • An ensemble of suitable ground motions compatible with the

Dynamics of non- tectonic characteristics needs to be selected or artificially generated.
linear systems
Behaviour factor • A large number of NLTH analyses (seven according to EN1998-
method
1:4.3.3.4.3) is usually required to accommodate record-to-record
Case study
variability.
• An accurate inelastic description of each member of the structure
needs to be known.
• The structural model should adequately capture strength
deterioration, stiffness degradation, strength hardening and pinching
from the very local scale of the material law behaviour to the global
scale of the structure as whole.
CIE 5260
Earthquakes • Robust commercial Finite Element packages are required to perform
Lecture 16
such analysis together with very experienced end-users.
• The analysis itself is time consuming.
17/ 46
Analysis of non-linear MDoF systems
Frequency domain • Superposition of harmonics does

method not hold
List of contents:
Methods of analysis Classical modal analysis • Superposition of modes does not

Dynamics of non- method hold
linear systems
Behaviour factor
method
Direct time integration • Exact method
Case study
• Computationally demanding
• Used only in special cases
Lateral force method • Approximate linear method
(q=1 or q>1) • Based on a single vibration mode!
• Lectures 9 & 10
Pushover method • Non-linear method
(q=1) • Based on a single vibration mode!
CIE 5260 • Lecture 11
Earthquakes Modal response • Approximate linear method
Lecture 16
spectrum method • Superposition of modes (?)
(q=1 or q>1) • Lectures 14 & 16
18/ 46


method
• Case study
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 16
19/ 46
The behaviour factor method
The principal idea of the behaviour factor method is:
List of contents:
• Instead of designing a structure to withstand the elastic forces,
Methods of analysis we design it to withstand reduced forces  reduce the elastic
Dynamics of non- spectrum by a behaviour factor “q”.
linear systems
Behaviour factor
method
• The higher the value of the q-factor, the higher the amount of
Case study non-linear deformation we accept in the system.
One needs to perform a Response Spectrum Analysis with a

reduced response spectrum.
CIE 5260
• Is the q-factor the same for all vibration modes?
Earthquakes
Lecture 16 • What is the main conceptual difference when compared to the
RSA in linear systems?
20/ 46
The behaviour factor method
Wide applicability of the behaviour factor method among the

List of contents: Earthquake Engineering community because:
Methods of analysis
Dynamics of non- • It is easy to apply and straightforward  it is based on
linear systems
simple and easy to explain strength-based criteria.
Behaviour factor
method
Case study
• It can be combined with a linear model of the structure.
• A vast amount of literature and code provisions are available
to help engineers in the choice of appropriate q-factors.
• Given the uncertainty in many other parameters, it does not
yield necessarily less accurate predictions of the expected
dynamic behaviour in major earthquakes.
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 16
21/ 46
Analysis steps
• Representation of the seismic action in the form of elastic

List of contents: acceleration response spectra along the various directions
Step 1 (Lecture 8).
Methods of analysis
Dynamics of non-
linear systems
Behaviour factor
• Choice of the q-factor based on the properties of the structural
system (Lecture 16).
method
Case study
Step 2
• Response spectrum analysis with design spectra (Lecture 14)

Step 3
CIE 5260 • Interpretation of the outcome of the analysis regarding available

Structural Response to displacement ductility capacity.
Earthquakes
Lecture 16
Step 4
22/ 46
Analysis steps
Step 1: Representation of the seismic action
List of contents:
Methods of analysis
Dynamics of non-
linear systems
Behaviour factor
method
Case study
for Type 1 elastic response spectra (Eurocode 8). for Type 2 elastic response spectra (Eurocode 8).
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 16
23/ 46
Analysis steps
Step 2: Choice of the q-factor and derivation

of the design spectra (most crucial step)
List of contents:
Methods of analysis • A single factor should cover all types of non-linear characteristics at
Dynamics of non- all levels (from micro to macro level)
linear systems
Behaviour factor • The difference between elastic spectral ordinates (before applying
method
the q factor) and the design spectral ordinates (after applying the q
Case study
factor) is associated with the amount of energy absorbed in plastic
deformations.
Figure: Type 2 elastic

CIE 5260 acceleration response
Structural Response to spectrum for soil type C
Earthquakes
Lecture 16 scaled to a peak ground
acceleration of αg =0.2g
(black line) plotted versus
the non-linear spectrum
obtained for q=1.5
24/ 46
Analysis steps
Step 3: Response Spectrum Analysis with the

design spectra (linear elastic analysis)
List of contents:
Methods of analysis
Dynamics of non-
linear systems
Behaviour factor
• The analysis procedure has been covered in Lecture 14. The
method only difference is in the use of the ”design response spectra”
Case study
(q>1) instead of the ”elastic response spectra” (q=1).
• Be aware: this holds only for the calculation of the members

forces. For the displacements the q-factor should be set to
one  Why?
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 16
25/ 46
Analysis steps
Step 4: Interpretation of the outcome of the analysis
List of contents:
Analysis with the q-factor
Methods of analysis method using the input from
Dynamics of non- the inelastic spectrum
linear systems
Behaviour factor
method
Case study
The force experienced by the The force experienced by the

system (dynamic analysis for the system (dynamic analysis for the
design spectrum) does not design spectrum) exceeds the
exceed the yield force yield force
CIE 5260
Structural Response to The ductility demand is smaller
Earthquakes than the ductility capacity The ductility demand is larger
Lecture 16 than the ductility capacity
System may yield but its
deformation is within acceptable System yields and its
limits! deformation is unacceptable
26/ 46
Drawbacks of the method
What are the drawbacks of the method?

List of contents:
Methods of analysis
Dynamics of non-
linear systems
• It assumes that modes are decoupled.
Behaviour factor Is that true for non-linear systems?
method
Case study • It is based on the principle of mode superposition.
Does it hold for non-linear systems?
• It makes use of a single q-factor for all vibration modes.
Is this assumption realistic?
• It assumes that the modes of vibration are not altered by
the non-linearity of the system
CIE 5260
Is this assumption realistic?
Earthquakes
Lecture 16
27/ 46
Modal analysis in NL systems?
• It assumes that modes are decoupled. Is that true for non-

linear systems?
List of contents:
Methods of analysis
• It is based on the principle of mode superposition. Does it
Dynamics of non- hold for non-linear systems?
linear systems
Behaviour factor
method
Case study The EoM of a MDoF non-linear system reads:
 ( t ) +
Mx Cx ( t ) + f s ( x,sgn ( x ) , t ) =
−M r ug ( t )
   
Inertia term Linear damping NL stiffness matrix External forcing
We can still assume a solution in terms of modes…

CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 16
28/ 46
However, the non-linear stiffness term will couple all modes!

List of contents:
Methods of analysis
Dynamics of non-
linear systems
Behaviour factor
method
Case study
To find the response of a single mode all other modes will
contribute…
Remarks:
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 16
29/ 46
If we assume that the coupling is weak then…
List of contents:
Methods of analysis
Dynamics of non-
linear systems
To find the response of a single mode we neglect contribution
Behaviour factor
method of all other modes!
Case study
Thus, by:
i) neglecting and coupling of the modes (assumption 1);
ii) assuming that convergence of the solution will be reached
with the chosen set of modes (assumption 2);
we have an EQM in the modal domain:
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 16
30/ 46
The solution can be found by solving an uncoupled non-linear

EQM in the modal domain:
List of contents:
Methods of analysis
Dynamics of non-
linear systems
Behaviour factor
method
Case study
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 16
31/ 46
Behaviour factor in EN1998-1
Choice of the q-factor according to EN1998-1:

List of contents:
Methods of analysis
Dynamics of non-
linear systems - General definition in Eurocode 8
Behaviour factor
method
- List of typical q-factors for buildings:
Case study
• Concrete structures
• Steel structures
• Timber structures
• Masonry structures
- Design spectra
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 16
32/ 46
Choice of the behaviour factor q
The value of the q-factor depends on:

List of contents:
• The properties of the structural system as a whole and its
Methods of analysis main load resisting mechanism in the lateral direction
Dynamics of non-
linear systems
Behaviour factor • The material  reinforced concrete, pre-stressed concrete,
method
timber, steel, fibre-reinforced polymers, etc.
Case study
• The type and seismic detailing of the connections between

the members and their ductility capacity.
• The direction of loading; horizontal or vertical.
• The predominant failure mode (expected) in the system.

CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 16
33/ 46
Definition of the q-factor in EN1998
List of contents:
Methods of analysis
Dynamics of non-
linear systems
Behaviour factor
method
Case study
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 16
34/ 46
Concrete structures
List of contents:
Methods of analysis
Dynamics of non-
linear systems
Behaviour factor
method
Case study
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 16
35/ 46
Concrete structures
List of contents:
Methods of analysis
Dynamics of non-
linear systems
Behaviour factor
method
Case study
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 16
36/ 46
Steel structures
List of contents:
Methods of analysis
Dynamics of non-
linear systems
Behaviour factor
method
Case study
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 16
37/ 46
Steel structures
List of contents:
Methods of analysis
Dynamics of non-
linear systems
Behaviour factor
method
Case study
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 16
38/ 46
Steel structures
List of contents:
Methods of analysis
Dynamics of non-
linear systems
Behaviour factor
method
Case study
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 16
39/ 46
Steel structures
List of contents:
Methods of analysis
Dynamics of non-
linear systems
Behaviour factor
method
Case study
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 16
40/ 46
Steel structures
List of contents:
Methods of analysis
Dynamics of non-
linear systems
Behaviour factor
method
Case study
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 16
41/ 46
Timber structures
List of contents:
Methods of analysis
Dynamics of non-
linear systems
Behaviour factor
method
Case study
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 16
42/ 46
Masonry structures
List of contents:
Methods of analysis
Dynamics of non-
linear systems
Behaviour factor
method
Case study
Groningen buildings
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 16
43/ 46


method
• Case study
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 16
44/ 46
Case study
The three-storey building model is

shown in the following figures; the
List of contents: seismic input are chosen based on
Methods of analysis
the provisions of EN1998-1.
Dynamics of non-
linear systems
Behaviour factor
method Maple file here.
Case study
1. Introduce the elastic response
spectra as defined in EN1998-1
2. Derive the design spectra by

choosing a q-factor
3. Determine the dynamic

response using RSA
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 16 4. Finally, examine the case of a
building with irregular stiffness
in height.
45/ 46
Reading material
List of contents:
Essential reading:
Methods of analysis
Dynamics of non- o Lecture slides
linear systems
Behaviour factor o Lecture notes: Chapter 6 (p.197-215)
method
Case study
o Maple file
Optional reading:
o EN1998-1 - Eurocode 8: Design of structures for
earthquake resistance – Part 1: General rules, seismic
actions and rules for buildings
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 16
46/ 46
CIE 5260

Tel.: 015 27 89225, Room 3.44
Lecture 17
CIE 5260
Delft, 2019
1/ 54
SSI in Earthquake Engineering

• Introduction
• Effects of SSI on the response of structures
• Conceptual formulation of SSI problem
• Modelling of the soil-foundation system
• Case study: Derivation of the soil dynamic stiffness
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 17
2/ 54

• Introduction
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 17
3/ 54
Soil-Structure Interaction (SSI) in
Earthquake Engineering
List of contents:
Introduction
Effects of SSI
� 𝑠𝑠 ?
Conceptual formulation of 𝑔𝑔
�𝑓𝑓−𝑓𝑓
𝐮𝐮 𝐮𝐮
𝑔𝑔
SSI problem
Direct modelling method 𝑔𝑔

𝑔𝑔
� 𝑖𝑖
𝐮𝐮
𝑔𝑔
� 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝐮𝐮 � 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
𝐮𝐮
Substructure method
Modelling of soil-foundation
system
Shallow foundation
Foundation on piles
Case study
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 17
The mechanism of soil-structure interaction (SSI) in

4/ 54

• Introduction
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 17
5/ 54
Effects of SSI on the structural response
• The seismic motion (in all seismic design codes) is

List of contents:
prescribed as a free-field motion at the ground surface.
Introduction
Effects of SSI • The presence of structures resting on top of the soil alters
Conceptual formulation of
the free-field ground motion into some (unknown) ground
SSI problem motion directly beneath the structure.
Direct modelling method
Substructure method
The ground motion beneath the structure needs to be
system determined together with the response of the structure.
Shallow foundation
Foundation on piles
Case study • When do we need to consider SSI?

• What methods of analysis are possible when SSI needs to
CIE 5260
be considered?
Earthquakes
Lecture 17
• Which method to apply and why?
6/ 54
Effects of SSI on the structural response
• The reaction of soil changes the dynamic response of the

List of contents:
structure resting on it  natural period, eigenmodes etc.
Introduction
• The soil-structure response depends strongly on the type of
Effects of SSI
foundations  shallow foundations, foundations on piles.
SSI problem • The fundamental structural period is increased together with
Direct modelling method extra energy dissipation due to radiation of waves into the
Substructure method underlying soil.
system
• Structural response may be amplified in some cases (e.g. soil
Shallow foundation
resonances).
Foundation on piles
Case study
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 17
A soil column may amplify the
structural response at certain
Energy radiated away from the periods (Lecture 4)
structure on the form of waves
7/ 54
Engineering practice regarding SSI
List of contents: In engineering practice, SSI is very often neglected due to:
Introduction
• Increased period of fundamental mode
Effects of SSI
 moves the eigenperiods outside the energy
Conceptual formulation of containing periods of the ground motion.
SSI problem

• Extra damping
Substructure method
 radiation of waves carrying energy away from the
Modelling of soil-foundation vibrating structure.
system
Shallow foundation
Foundation on piles
Case study
CIE 5260
Is this a conservative choice?
Earthquakes
Lecture 17
8/ 54
Engineering practice regarding SSI
List of contents:
The inconsideration of SSI is not always justified:
Introduction • Longer natural periods of vibration are not always beneficial;

Effects of SSI
• Deformation can be (significantly) underestimated when
SSI problem
dynamic SSI is neglected;
Direct modelling method • Radiation damping may not be enough to dissipate the
Substructure method energy due to structural vibrations;
system
• Soil amplification effects may be overlooked.
Shallow foundation
Foundation on piles
Case study
Only through physical understanding of the phenomenon of SSI

CIE 5260
one may (conservatively) neglect or (properly) consider SSI in
Earthquakes
Lecture 17
seismic design of structures.
9/ 54

• Introduction
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 17
10/ 54
Formulation of the SSI problem
List of contents:
Introduction Two principal ways to consider SSI in seismic design:

Effects of SSI
Conceptual formulation
I. Direct method  valid in both linear and non-linear
of SSI problem systems
Substructure method II. Substructure method  valid for linear systems only
system
Shallow foundation
Foundation on piles
Case study Focus will be placed on the substructure method of analysis.
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 17
11/ 54
Direct approach
List of contents:
Introduction
Effects of SSI
of SSI problem
Direct m odelling m ethod
Substructure method
system
Shallow foundation
Foundation on piles
Case study
Both soil and structure are modelled in a single step using a FE model.
CIE 5260
Structural Response to (t ) + Cx (t ) + Kx(t ) =
Mx b (t )
−Mru
Earthquakes
Lecture 17
u b (t ) is the prescribed motion at the boundaries of the soil

(truncated) domain.
12/ 54
Direct approach
List of contents: Key issues related to the direct approach:

Introduction
o Treatment of the truncated soil boundaries;
Effects of SSI
Conceptual formulation o Input motion at the truncated boundaries;

of SSI problem
Direct m odelling m ethod

o Mesh size should be fine  shortest wavelength;
Substructure method
o Soil domain should be large enough  longest wavelength;
system
o Special consideration is needed for soil damping;
Shallow foundation
Foundation on piles o FE package should be able to model both structure and soil with
Case study equal rigour;
o Provides limited insight into the dynamics of the coupled system;

CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 17 o Computationally very demading  inefficient modelling approach
 applicable only to few special cases.
13/ 54
Substructure method
List of contents:
Introduction
Effects of SSI
of SSI problem
Substructure m ethod
system
Shallow foundation
Foundation on piles • Structure (domain I)  FE model of the structure (or any

Case study other discrete or continuous model of finite dimensions)
CIE 5260 • Soil medium (domain II)  soil reaction is represented

Earthquakes by dynamic stiffness matrix of the foundation-soil system;
Lecture 17
• Soil-Structure interface  force equilibrium and

displacement compatibility should be satisfied at all times.
14/ 54

• Introduction
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 17
15/ 54
Classification of foundation types
List of contents:
Introduction Rigid
Effects of SSI Studied in this
course
SSI problem
Shallow foundation
Direct modelling method Structure supported
Substructure method
directly on the ground
surface
Modelling of soil-
Foundation Flexible
foundation system
Shallow foundation
Deep foundation Not studied in
Foundation on piles
this course!
Structure supported by
Case study piles embedded into the
soil
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 17
16/ 54
Modelling methods for dynamic soil
resistivity
List of contents:
Introduction
Frequency dependent
Effects of SSI
Local springs and
dashpots
Modelling methods for soil-
SSI problem
(dynamic springs)
foundation systems
Direct modelling method Frequency independent
Substructure method
Modelling of soil-
foundation system
Shallow foundation
Boundary Element (BE)
approach
Foundation on piles
Case study
Finite Element (FE)
CIE 5260
approach
Earthquakes
Lecture 17
Semi-analytical
methods
17/ 54

• Introduction
• Shallow foundation
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 17
18/ 54
Shallow foundations
• A foundation system in which the structure rests on
List of contents: individual footings on top of a uniform (and rather
rigid) mat foundation;
Introduction
Effects of SSI
• For a rigid foundation block, the motion is fully
Conceptual formulation of determined in space by assigning to it six degrees of
SSI problem
freedom: three translational and three rotational;
Substructure method
Modelling of soil-
foundation system
Shallow foundation
Foundation on piles
Case study
Figure: Rigid Foundation block on top of a soil medium.
Source: G. Gazetas, Foundation vibrations, 1991.
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 17
Task: derive the dynamic reaction of the soil to the
shallow foundation.
19/ 54
Frequency-dependent stiffness and
damping
List of contents:
Introduction
Effects of SSI
SSI problem
Substructure method
Modelling of soil-
foundation system
Shallow foundation
Foundation on piles
Case study
The dynamic reaction of the soil to a rigid foundation

CIE 5260 block can be fully described by a complex-valued [6x6]
Earthquakes dynamic stiffness matrix.
Lecture 17
20/ 54
Definition of dynamic stiffness for the
case of a rigid foundation block
List of contents:
z (t ) + Rz (t ) =
I. Force balance  mu Fz (t )
Introduction
Effects of SSI LB
SSI problem
II. Reaction force  Rz (t ) = ∫∫σ
00
z ( x, y ,t )dxdy
Substructure method
Fourier Domain:
Modelling of soil-
foundation system
Shallow foundation
−mω 2u z (ω ) + R z (ω ) =
Fz (ω )
Foundation on piles
Case study R z (ω ) = kz (ω ) u z (ω )
CIE 5260
(−mω + kz (ω ))u z (ω ) =

Earthquakes
Lecture 17
2
Fz (ω )
21/ 54
Definition of dynamic stiffness for the
case of a rigid foundation block
List of contents:
Introduction
Effects of SSI
SSI problem
Substructure method kz(ω)

Modelling of soil-
foundation system
Shallow foundation
Foundation on piles
Case study
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 17
How can we determine the soil dynamic
stiffness accurately?
22/ 54
Derivation of the dynamic stiffness for
vertical motion
List of contents:
Introduction
Effects of SSI
SSI problem
Substructure method
Modelling of soil-
 R z (ω )
foundation system
k z (ω ) =
Shallow foundation u z (ω )
Foundation on piles
Case study
The determination ofkz (ω ) requires the calculation of the soil

CIE 5260
Structural Response to dynamic displacement u z (ω ) caused by the application of a unit
Earthquakes
Lecture 17
reaction force on top of a massless, rigid foundation.
23/ 54
vertical motion
List of contents:
Introduction
Effects of SSI
SSI problem
Substructure method
Modelling of soil-
foundation system
Shallow foundation
Foundation on piles
Let R z (ω ) =1
Case study
R z (ω ) −1
CIE 5260 u z (ω ) = = 1 → fz (ω ) = 1 → kz (ω ) =  fz (ω )
Earthquakes
kz (ω ) kz (ω ) kz (ω )
Lecture 17
fz (ω ) is the flexibility and kz (ω ) is the dynamic stiffness.
24/ 54
vertical motion
List of contents:
Introduction • A foundation block has 6 degrees of freedom.

Effects of SSI
• Application of a vertical unit force yields the first column of
SSI problem
the flexibility matrix:
Substructure method
fˆz (ω ) = [ f zz ; f zy ; f zx ; f z ,rx ; f z ,ry ; f z ,rz ]T
Modelling of soil-
foundation system
Shallow foundation The rest of the columns are obtained by application of unit
Foundation on piles forces at each of the six degrees of freedom.
Case study
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 17
25/ 54
Derivation of the dynamic stiffness
matrix for horizontal motion
List of contents:
Introduction
Effects of SSI
SSI problem
Substructure method
Modelling of soil-
foundation system
Shallow foundation
Foundation on piles
Case study
Derivation of the third column of the flexibility matrix:

CIE 5260
Earthquakes fˆx (ω ) = [ f xz ; f xy ; f xx ; f x ,rx ; f x ,ry ; f x ,rz ]T
Lecture 17
26/ 54
Derivation of the complete dynamic
stiffness matrix
List of contents:
The complete flexibility matrix is composed by gathering all

Introduction
components obtained column-by-column:
Effects of SSI
f (ω ) =[ fˆz ; fˆy ; fˆx ; fˆrx ; fˆry ; fˆrz ]
SSI problem
Substructure method The dynamic stiffness matrix is obtained by direct inversion of

Modelling of soil- the flexibility matrix:
foundation system
Shallow foundation
 (ω ) = f (ω ) −1
K
Foundation on piles
 
Case study
6×6 6×6
CIE 5260
Structural Response to Note that instead of obtaining the flexibility matrix first and
Earthquakes
Lecture 17 then inverting it, the dynamic stiffness matrix can be derived
directly by applying unit displacement (or rotation) in each
degree of freedom.
27/ 54
Models used for derivation of the
dynamic soil stiffness matrix
List of contents:
Introduction
For the determination of the stiffness matrix, one
Effects of SSI
can use:
SSI problem
• FE models;
Substructure method • BE models;

Modelling of soil-
foundation system • Semi-analytical or analytical models;
• In-situ measurements;
Shallow foundation
Foundation on piles
Case study • Any combination of the above.
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 17
28/ 54
Properties of the dynamic stiffness
matrix
List of contents:
Introduction
 (ω ) is a function of:
K
Effects of SSI
Conceptual formulation of • the shape of the foundation-soil system (circular,

SSI problem rectangular, etc.);
Substructure method • the amount of embedment of the foundation block into the
Modelling of soil- soil (shallow, partially or fully embedded foundation);
foundation system
Shallow foundation • the soil profile;

Foundation on piles
Case study • the mode of vibration and the excitation frequency;
CIE 5260
• the flexibility of the foundation block
Earthquakes
 here we focus on rather rigid foundation blocks and thus this
Lecture 17 part is important only for relatively thin foundation blocks, i.e
thin slabs, beams etc.
29/ 54
Soil stiffness and soil damping
The complex-valued dynamic stiffness matrix can be separated

List of contents:
into the real and imaginary parts:
Introduction
Effects of SSI
 (ω ) Re K
=
K (
 (ω ) + i Im K)
 (ω )( )
SSI problem
Direct modelling method Represents soil Represents soil

Substructure method
stiffness and damping
added mass
Modelling of soil-
foundation system
Shallow foundation
Foundation on piles
The complex-valued dynamic stiffness matrix can be re-written
in the following form:
Case study
=
K (ω ) K  (ω )
ˆ (ω ) + iωC
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 17
ˆ (ω ) = Re ( K
 (ω ) )  (ω )
=
C ˆ (ω )
C + 2 β / ωK
ˆ (ω )
K  
radiation damping material damping
30/ 54
Steps for derivation of the dynamic
stiffness matrix
List of contents:
Introduction • Step 1: treat the soil (half-space, layered soil) as a 3D

Effects of SSI continuum;
SSI problem
Direct modelling method • Step 2: Compose the total dynamic soil stiffness by
Substructure method application of unit displacement at each degree of
Modelling of soil- freedom;
foundation system
Shallow foundation
Foundation on piles • Step 3: represent the exact reaction force of the soil to
Case study the rigid foundation block as:
F s (ω ) = K
ˆ (ω )u (ω )
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 17
31/ 54
Use of tables in engineering design
List of contents:
For engineering design purposes, one can use tables and
Introduction
Effects of SSI
formulae, i.e. the ones given by “G. Gazetas, Foundation
Conceptual formulation of vibrations , 1991, p553-593”, for a direct determination of
SSI problem

the soil impedance matrices in various configurations provided
Substructure method
that the foundation block can be considered as rigid.
Modelling of soil-
foundation system
Shallow foundation
These tables are also presented in the lecture notes (Chapter
Foundation on piles
Case study
8 of the book). Hereafter we discuss their use in application
to a real case study.
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 17
32/ 54
Use of tables in engineering design
List of contents:
Introduction
Effects of SSI
SSI problem
Substructure method
Modelling of soil-
foundation system
Shallow foundation
Foundation on piles
Case study
• Link to Table for case (a)
• Link to Table for case (b)
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
• Link to Table for circular foundations
Lecture 17
33/ 54

• Introduction
• Shallow foundation
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 17
34/ 54
Example: derivation of dynamic
stiffness for rigid shallow foundation
List of contents:
Introduction
Effects of SSI
For the example discussed in the following slides we
SSI problem
have made use of engineering tables provided in “G.
Direct modelling method Gazetas, Foundation vibrations , 1991, p553-
Substructure method 593”. The tables are also included in the lecture
Modelling of soil-foundation notes.
system
Shallow foundation
Foundation on piles
Case study
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 17
35/ 54
Dynamic stiffness-use of tables
List of contents:
Illustrative example:
Introduction
Effects of SSI
= =
2
SSI problem L / B 3.5, Ab 57.6m
I bx ≈ 82m , I by ≈ 904m
4 4
Substructure method
Modelling of soil-foundation = =
f 30Hz, Vs 310m/s
system
Shallow foundation
Foundation on piles
Case study
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 17
36/ 54
Vertical mode (z)
List of contents:
= =
Ab 57.6m
Introduction
2
=
, L 7.45m, =
G 192Mpa, υ 0.33
Effects of SSI
Conceptual formulation of Ab
SSI problem
χ=
4 L2
Substructure method
system Static stiffness:
Shallow foundation
Foundation on piles
Case study K z 2GL (0.73+1.54 χ 0.75 ) ≅ 5500×103 kN/m

=
1−υ
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 17
37/ 54
Vertical mode (z)
a0 ω= 2π ×30×2.15= 1.308
List of contents:
= B
Introduction
Vs 192×106 /2000
Effects of SSI
SSI problem
Substructure method Dynamic stiffness

Modelling of soil-foundation coefficient:
system
Shallow foundation
k z ≅ 0.93
Foundation on piles
Case study
a0 = ω B
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Vs
Lecture 17
Dynamic stiffness (real part):
K z = K z ⋅k z = 5500×103 ×0.93=5.12×106 kN/m

38/ 54
Vertical mode (z)
List of contents: a0 =1.308

Introduction
Effects of SSI
Radiation dashpot coefficient:
SSI problem cz =1.0
Substructure method
=
VLa 3.4 V= =
z 1.0, β 0.05
s, c
system
π (1−υ )
Shallow foundation
Foundation on piles
Radiation dashpot coefficient:
a0 = ω B
Case study
Cz = ( ρVLa Ab )⋅cz = 2.0×500×57.6×1.0 Vs

CIE 5260
Earthquakes ≅ 5.76×104 kN s/m
Lecture 17
2K z
Total damping:=
Cz ( ρVLa Ab )⋅cz + ω β ≅ 6.03×104 kN s/m
39/ 54
Lateral horizontal mode (y)
List of contents:
= =
Ab 57.6m
Introduction
2
=
, L 7.45m, =
G 192Mpa, υ 0.33
Effects of SSI
Conceptual formulation of Ab
SSI problem
χ=
4 L2
Substructure method
system Static stiffness:
Shallow foundation
Foundation on piles
Case study K y= 2GL (2 + 2.50 χ 0.85 ) ≅ 4786×103 kN/m

2 −υ
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 17
40/ 54
a0 ω= 2π ×30×2.15= 1.308
List of contents:
= B
Introduction
Vs 192×106 /2000
Effects of SSI
SSI problem
Substructure method Dynamic stiffness

Modelling of soil-foundation coefficient:
system
Shallow foundation
k y ≅1.2
Foundation on piles
Case study
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 17
K y = K y ⋅k y = 4786×103 ×1.2  5.74×106 kN/m

41/ 54

Introduction
Effects of SSI Radiation dashpot

Conceptual formulation of coefficient: c y =1.0
SSI problem
Substructure method = =
c y 1.0, β 0.05
system
Shallow foundation
Radiation dashpot
Foundation on piles
coefficient:
Case study
C y =( ρVs Ab ) c y =2.0×310×57.6×1.0
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
≅ 3.57×104 kN s/m
Lecture 17
2K y
Total damping: =
Cy ( ρVs Ab )⋅cy + ω β ≅ 3.87×104 kN s/m
42/ 54
Rocking mode (rx)
List of contents:
Static stiffness:
Introduction
() ( )
0.25
= K rx G I bx 0.75 L
Effects of SSI
2.4 + 0.5 B ≈ 2.716×107 kN⋅m
Conceptual formulation of 1−υ B L
SSI problem
Substructure method
Dynamic stiffness coefficient:
system
Shallow foundation
krx 1−0.20a0 =
0.74
Foundation on piles
Case study
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 17
K rx = K rx ⋅krx = 2.716×107 ×0.74 ≅ 2.0×107 kN⋅m
43/ 54
Rocking mode (rx)

Introduction

Conceptual formulation of coefficient: crx = 0.5
SSI problem
crx 1.0, β 0.05
system
Shallow foundation
Radiation dashpot
Foundation on piles
coefficient:
Case study a0 = ω B
Vs
Crx = ( ρVLa I bx )⋅crx = 2.0×500×82.0×0.5
CIE 5260
Earthquakes ≅ 4.1×104 kN s m
Lecture 17
2K
Total damping:=
Crx ( ρVLa Ibx )⋅crx + ω rx β ≅ 5.16×104 kN s m
44/ 54
Torsional mode (t)
List of contents:
Static stiffness:
Introduction

( ) 
10
Effects of SSI
=
K t GJ b 0.75
4 +11 1− B ≅1.48×108
kN m J=b I bx + I by
 L 
Conceptual formulation of  
SSI problem
Substructure method
Dynamic stiffness coefficient:
system
Shallow foundation
kt 1−0.14a0 ≅ 0.82
Foundation on piles
Case study

CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 17
K t =K t ⋅kt 1.48×108 ×0.82 ≅1.21×108 kN m
45/ 54
Torsional mode (t)

Introduction

Conceptual formulation of coefficient: ct = 0.90
SSI problem
ct 0.90, β 0.05
system
Shallow foundation
Foundation on piles
Radiation dashpot
coefficient:
Case study
Ct = ( ρVs J b )⋅ct = 2.0×310×985×0.90

CIE 5260
Earthquakes ≅ 5.5×105 kN s m
Lecture 17
2K
Total damping: =
Ct ( ρVs J b )⋅ct + ω t β ≅ 6.14×105 kN s m
46/ 54
Dynamic Matrix
List of contents: K z 0 0 0 Cz 0 0 0

0 Ky 0 0  0 Cy 0 0 
Introduction  (ω ) =
K + iω  ⇒
Effects of SSI 0 0 K rx 0 0 0 Crx 0
   
SSI problem
0 0 0 Kt  0 0 0 Ct 
Substructure method 5.1×106 0 0 0 

Modelling of soil-foundation  
  0 5.8×106 0 0 
system
⇒ K (ω ) =
Shallow foundation  0 0 2.0×107 0 
Foundation on piles  
 0 0 0 1.2×108 
Case study
6.0×104 0 0 0 
 
CIE 5260
0 3.9×104 0 0 
Earthquakes + (2π 30) i 
Lecture 17  0 0 5.2×104 0 
 5
 0 0 0 6.1×10 
47/ 54
Frequency-independent springs and
dashpots
List of contents:
The use of frequency-independent springs and dashpots (usually
Introduction
tuned at the natural frequency of the structure) allows one to
Effects of SSI
analyse the system in time domain using classical approaches
SSI problem such as modal analysis.
Substructure method
• Can we apply the classical modal analysis with frequency-
Modelling of soil- dependent springs?
foundation system
Shallow foundation
• Can we apply a modal analysis in the frequency domain?
Foundation on piles
Case study
Frequency-independent springs and dashpots should be used
CIE 5260
with great caution because:
Earthquakes • The true soil response is (essentially) frequency-dependent;
Lecture 17
• Earthquake excitation is broadband;
• Multiple modes are usually excited in a structure.
48/ 54
Frequency-independent springs and
dashpots of a circular rigid foundation block
List of contents:
Introduction
4Gr 8Gr 8Gr 3
Effects of SSI =kz = ; kh = ; kθ ;
1 −υ 2 −υ 3(1- υ )
SSI problem
0.56Gr 3 1
Direct modelling method =kθ h = ; kϕ 5.66= r ; (υ
3
).
Substructure method
3(1- υ ) 3
3ρ vs r 3 4.6 ρ vs r 2 0.4 ρ vs r 4
Modelling of soil-
=Cr = ; Ch = ; Cθ ;
foundation system
1 −υ 2 −υ 1 −υ
Shallow foundation
0.4 ρ vs r 3 1
Foundation on piles
=Cθ h = ; Cϕ 0.8 = ρ vs r 4 (υ )
Case study 2 −υ 3
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
The subscript 𝑧𝑧, ℎ, 𝜃𝜃, 𝜑𝜑 stand for vertical, horizontal,
Lecture 17
rocking and torsional motion, respectively.
49/ 54
Critical thinking (homework)
List of contents:
• Can you think of a method to derive the dynamic

Introduction
stiffness matrix in the case of flexible foundations?
Effects of SSI
SSI problem • How would you derive the (distributed) support
Direct modelling method reaction to a beam resting on top of a soil medium
Substructure method using the sub-structuring approach we discussed
Modelling of soil- in this lecture?
foundation system
Shallow foundation
Foundation on piles
Case study
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 17
50/ 54

• Introduction
• Foundation on piles
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 17
51/ 54
Foundations on piles
List of contents:
Models used to treat pile foundations:
Introduction
Effects of SSI • Dynamic Winkler-type or Kelvin-Voigt type

Conceptual formulation of foundation (represent soil reaction) acting on piles;
SSI problem

• Analytical functions (or semi-analytical) that enforce
Substructure method
BCs in terms of soil modes at the pile-soil interface ;
Modelling of soil-
foundation system
• FE or FE-BE formulations;
Shallow foundation
Foundation on piles
• Analytical or semi-analytical formulations that focus
Case study on dynamic impedance matrix at the level of the
pile-head alone.
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 17
52/ 54
Use of engineering tables in the
design
List of contents:
Introduction
Effects of SSI
SSI problem
Substructure method
Modelling of soil-
foundation system
Shallow foundation
Foundation on piles
Case study
CIE 5260 The active length of a pile. Three characteristic soil profiles.
Earthquakes
Lecture 17
• Link to Table for sway and rocking impedance

• Link to Table for axial impedance
53/ 54
Reading material
Essential reading:
o Lecture slides
o Lecture notes: Sections 8.1-8.3 (p. 251-276)
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 17
54/ 54
CIE 5260

Tel.: 015 27 89225, Room 3.44
Lecture 18
CIE 5260
Delft, 2019
1/ 43

• Structure on a rigid foundation block
• Seismic response of an elevated water tank including SSI
• Seismic response of MDoF systems including SSI
• Extra slides: alternative representation of the SSI problem
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 18
2/ 43
Soil-Structure Interaction (SSI) in
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 18
The mechanism of soil-structure interaction (SSI) in

3/ 43
Derivation of complex dynamic stiffness
of shallow and piled foundations
Goal:
Substitution of the foundation-soil
CIE 5260
substructure with an effective
Earthquakes
dynamic stiffness matrix at the centre
Lecture 18 of mass of the shallow foundation
block or at the pile head level…
4/ 43

List of contents:

Structure on rigid
foundation block
Dynamic soil stiffness
EoM of the structure
Equilibrium equations at SS
interface
Solution to the coupled SSI
problem
Elevated water tank
including SSI
MDoF systems including SSI
Extra slides
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 18
5/ 43
Substructure method
List of contents:
Structure on rigid
foundation block
interface
problem
Elevated water tank
including SSI
Extra slides • Structure (domain I)  FE model of the structure (or any
other discrete or continuous model of finite dimensions)
CIE 5260  Soil medium (domain II)  soil reaction is represented

Earthquakes by dynamic stiffness matrix of the foundation-soil system;
Lecture 18
• Soil-Structure interface  force equilibrium and

displacement compatibility should be satisfied at all times.
6/ 43
List of contents:
Structure on rigid
foundation block
interface
problem
Elevated water tank
including SSI
Extra slides
• The structure rests on top of a rigid foundation block

CIE 5260 • Both horizontal and rocking motions are considered
Earthquakes • The soil is homogeneous and extends to infinity
Lecture 18
• The free-field ground motion is given (input)
• All structural and soil parameters are known.
7/ 43
Step 1: Derivation of soil impedances
The dynamic stiffness matrix is discussed in Lecture 17.
List of contents: Given the dimensions of the foundation block, the following
soil dynamic stiffness matrix is obtained:
Structure on rigid
foundation block
Dynam ic soil stiffness
EoM of the structure kxx (ω ) kxr (ω )
Equilibrium equations at SS  d (ω ) = 
K 
interface 
 rx
k (ω ) krr (ω ) 
problem
Elevated water tank
including SSI
kxx : Translational dynamic stiffness
krr : Rocking dynamic stiffness
Extra slides
CIE 5260
kxr : Translational-rocking dynamic stiffness
Earthquakes
Lecture 18
Derivation of soil impedances of circular foundation blocks in graphical form can be

found here.
8/ 43
Deformed configuration
List of contents:
Structure on rigid
foundation block
interface
problem
Elevated water tank
including SSI
Extra slides
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 18
Figure: Deformed configuration of the structure.
9/ 43
Definition of displacements and
rotations
The total motion at the foundation level:

List of contents:
Structure on rigid
foundation block
u=
t
g ( t ) u g ( t ) + u I
g (t )
θ=
t
g ( t ) θ g ( t ) + θ I
g (t )
interface
problem
Elevated water tank ug (t )
including SSI : free-field ground motion (known).
Extra slides
ugI (t ) : additional translational motion caused by SSI (unknown).
CIE 5260
θ g (t ) : free-field rocking motion (known).
Earthquakes
Lecture 18
θ gI (t ) : additional rocking motion caused by SSI (unknown).
10/ 43
Step 2: Formulation of the EoM of the
mass on top
List of contents:
Structure on rigid
foundation block
interface
problem
Horizontal balance of forces for structural mass 𝑚𝑚:
Elevated water tank
including SSI mutot (t ) + cx (t ) + kx (t ) =
0
Extra slides tot
u (t ) = u g (t ) + u gI (t ) + x(t ) + hθ gI (t )
total motion
 structural response

ground translational motion rocking motion
of the structure
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 18
mx(t ) + cx (t ) + kx(t ) + m(ug (t ) + ugI (t ) + h θgI (t )) =

0
11/ 43
Step 3: Equilibrium equations at the
soil-structure interface
List of contents:
Structure on rigid
foundation block
Equilibrium equations at
SS interface
problem Translational balance of forces at soil-structure interface:
Elevated water tank
including SSI
mutot (t ) + mbugt (t ) =
Vb (t )
Extra slides
u tot (t ) = u g (t ) + u gI (t ) + x(t ) + h θ gI (t )
CIE 5260 u=
t
g ( t ) u g ( t ) + u I
g (t )
Earthquakes
Lecture 18
(
m ug (t ) + ugI (t ) +  ) ( )
x(t ) + hθ gI (t ) + mb ug (t ) + ugI (t ) =
Vb (t )
12/ 43
Step 3: Equilibrium equations at the
soil-structure interface
List of contents:
Structure on rigid
foundation block
SS interface
problem
Elevated water tank Balance of moments at soil-structure interface:
including SSI
MDoF systems including SSI mh utot (t ) + ( J + J b ) θgI (t ) =
M b (t )
Extra slides
u tot (t ) = u g (t ) + u gI (t ) + x(t ) + h θ gI (t )
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 18
( ) ( )
x(t ) + mh 2 + J + J b θgI (t ) =
mh ug (t ) + ugI (t ) +  M b (t )
13/ 43
Step 3: Set of coupled equations in the
time domain
List of contents:
Structure on rigid
foundation block
SS interface
problem
Elevated water tank
including SSI
mx(t ) + cx (t ) + kx(t ) + m(ug (t ) + ugI (t ) + h θgI (t )) =
0
Extra slides
(
m ug (t ) + ugI (t ) +  ) ( )
x(t ) + hθ gI (t ) + mb ug (t ) + ugI (t ) =
Vb (t )
CIE 5260
( ) ( )
Earthquakes
Lecture 18 x(t ) + mh 2 + J + J b θgI (t ) =
mh ug (t ) + ugI (t ) +  M b (t )
14/ 43
Step 4: Set of coupled equations in the
frequency domain
List of contents: The equations of motion in frequency domain can be obtained by

means of application of the Fourier Transform:
Structure on rigid
foundation block
(−ω 2 m + iω c + k ) ⋅ x (ω ) − ω 2 mu gI (ω ) − ω 2 mhθgI (ω ) =−mu g (ω ) =−ma g (ω )
−ω 2 mx (ω ) − ω 2 (m + mb )u gI (ω ) − ω 2 mhθgI (ω ) − Vb (ω ) =

SS interface
−(m + mb )a g (ω )
problem
Elevated water tank −ω 2 mhx (ω ) − ω 2 mhu gI (ω ) − ω 2 (mh 2 + J + J b )θgI (ω ) − M b (ω ) =−mha g (ω )
including SSI
Extra slides
a g (ω )  free-field ground acceleration is frequency domain.
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 18
15/ 43
Step 5: Express forces and moments
through the dynamic stiffness matrix
List of contents:
Structure on rigid
foundation block
SS interface
Solution to the coupled SSI Because free-field motion satisfies the
problem stress-free boundary conditions at the
Elevated water tank
including SSI
ground surface.
Extra slides =
F 
s (ω ) K d (ω )u
 tg (ω ) ⇒ F
=s (ω )
 d (ω )u g (ω ) + K
K  d (ω )u Ig (ω )
  
=0
(stress-free surface condition)
CIE 5260  Vb (ω )  kxx kxr  u gI (ω )

Structural Response to ⇒ =   ⋅ 
Earthquakes
Lecture 18
M 
 b  (ω ) krx krr  θgI (ω )
V bII(ω );M bII(ω ) = − V bI (ω );M bI (ω )

   
force and moment in substructure II force and moment in substructure I
16/ 43
Step 5: Express forces and moments
through the dynamic stiffness matrix
List of contents: (−ω 2 m + iω c + k ) ⋅ x (ω ) − ω 2 mu gI (ω ) − ω 2 mhθgI (ω ) =−mu g (ω ) =−ma g (ω )

Structure on rigid −ω 2 mx (ω ) − ω 2 (m + mb )u gI (ω ) − ω 2 mhθgI (ω ) − Vb (ω ) =
−(m + mb )a g (ω )
foundation block
Dynamic soil stiffness −ω 2 mhx (ω ) − ω 2 mhu gI (ω ) − ω 2 (mh 2 + J + J b )θgI (ω ) − M b (ω ) =−mha g (ω )
SS interface
 Vb (ω )  kxx kxr  u gI (ω )
 =−
   ⋅  I
θ ω

problem M (ω
 b   rx) k k rr   g ( )
Elevated water tank
including SSI
(−ω 2 m + iω c + k ) x (ω ) − ω 2 mu gI (ω ) − ω 2 mhθgI (ω ) =
−ma g (ω ) (A)
Extra slides
( )
−ω 2 mx (ω ) + kxx (ω ) − ω 2 (m + mb ) u gI (ω ) +
CIE 5260
( )
+ kxr (ω ) − ω 2 mh θgI (ω ) =
−(m + mb )a g (ω ) (B)
( )
Earthquakes
Lecture 18
−ω 2 mhx (ω ) + krx (ω ) − ω 2 mh u gI (ω ) +
( )
+ krr (ω ) − ω 2 (mh 2 + J + J b ) θgI (ω ) =−mha g (ω ) (C)
17/ 43
Step 6: Solve the coupled problem
k11 k12 k13   x (ω )   m 

  
List of contents:
k21 k22 k23 ⋅u gI (ω ) = −a g (ω ) m + mb 
k31 k32 k33  θgI (ω )  mh 
Structure on rigid
foundation block

interface
 k11 = −ω 2 m +iωc + k
 k12
= k21
problem
Elevated water tank
= −ω 2 m
including SSI
Extra slides
 k13
= k3=1 −ω 2 mh
 k22 = kxx (ω ) −ω 2 (m + mb )
 k2=3 k32
= kxr (ω ) −ω 2 mh
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 18
 k33 = krr (ω ) −ω 2 (mh 2 + J + J b )
18/ 43
Step 6: Solve the coupled problem
k11 k12 k13   x (ω )   m 

  
k21 k22 k23 ⋅u gI (ω ) = −a g (ω )m + mb 
List of contents:
k31 k32 k33  θgI (ω )  mh 

Structure on rigid
foundation block
interface  −s 1 (ω ) fs (ω )
u (ω ) = K
problem in which:
Elevated water tank
including SSI  x (ω )  k11 k12 k13   m 
 I    
−a g (ω )m + mb 
u (ω ) =u (ω ) ; K (ω ) =  k23 ; fs (ω ) =
Extra slides  g  s k21 k22
θgI (ω )   k33   mh 
  k31 k32
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 18
+∞
 
u(t ) = ∫ Re u
1
 (ω ) exp(iωt )  dω
π 0   −1  
 K s (ω ) f s (ω ) 
19/ 43
General remarks regarding SSI problem
• Two extra unknowns, namely u gI (ω ) and θgI (ω ) , need to

List of contents: be solved for  Why?
Structure on rigid
foundation block • The coupled problem needs to be solved in frequency
Dynamic soil stiffness domain, because the dynamic soil stiffness matrix is
frequency-dependent.
interface
problem • The SDoF problem is formulated provided that:
Elevated water tank • the real structure can be approximated by a SDoF;
including SSI
• The structure is resting on rigid mat foundation.
Extra slides
• The exact same formulation can be used for piled
foundations as long as the pile head dynamic stiffness
CIE 5260
matrix is determined.
Earthquakes
Lecture 18
20/ 43

List of contents:

Structure on rigid
foundation block
interface
problem
Elevated water tank
including SSI
Extra slides
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 18
21/ 43
Elevated water tank subjected to
seismic excitation with SSI
List of contents:
Structure on rigid
foundation block
interface Circular foundation block;
problem
Consider only the in-plane
Elevated water tank
including SSI horizontal and rocking
MDoF systems including SSI motions;
Extra slides
Maple files here.

CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 18
22/ 43

CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 18
23/ 43
MDoF system modelled as generalised
SDoF structure
List of contents:
• When one can approximate the response of a structure
by a single mode of vibration the procedure is rather
Structure on rigid straightforward:
foundation block
Dynamic soil stiffness 1. Solve eigenvalue problem of MDoF system rigidly
supported on ground find eigenfrequencies and
interface eigenmodes of vibration;
problem
2. Choose only the fundamental mode of vibration and
Elevated water tank
including SSI calculate modal participation mass, effective modal
MDoF systems including stiffness, modal damping and modal height
SSI
Extra slides  actual quantities are replaced by modal quantities
in all the previous slides…
CIE 5260 3. Treat the MDoF system as generalised SDoF system and
Earthquakes solve the SSI problem as discussed previously.
Lecture 18
24/ 43
MDoF structural system including SSI
(generic form ulation )
M ss M sf  d 2 uts  Css Csf  d  uts  K ss K sf   uts   0 

M  +  +  t =
M ff  dt 2 utf  C fs C ff  dt utf  K fs K ff   t
List of contents:
 fs u f  p f 
Structure on rigid
foundation block
+∞
s(ω ) = ∫ s(t ) exp(-iωt ) dt
−∞
interface
problem  ss
K  sf 
K u ts   0 
Elevated water tank   ff   t = t 
including SSI
K fs K  u f  p f 
MDoF systems including
SSI  ss ,K
 K  sf ,K
 fs ,K
 ff : submatrices forming the dynamic stiffness of the
Extra slides
soil-structure system
CIE 5260
 u ts : displacement vector of the structural DoFs excluding the
Earthquakes DoF of the soil-structure interface
Lecture 18
 u tf : displacement vector of the soil-structure interface DoFs
 p tf : total interaction forces developed at the soil-structure interface DoF

25/ 43
List of contents:
 ss
K  sf 
K u ts (ω )   0 
  t = t  Eq.(1)
 ff   f ( ) p f 
 ω
Structure on rigid K fs K  u
foundation block
• Force equilibrium at the soil-structure interface:
interface
Solution to the coupled SSI p tf = −p gf Eq.(2)
problem
Elevated water tank
including SSI
p tf → forces acting on the structure (substructure I)
SSI
p gf → forces acting on the soil (substructure II)
Extra slides
• Displacement compatibility at the soil-structure interface:

CIE 5260
Structural Response to u tf = u gf Eq.(3)
Earthquakes
Lecture 18
u tf → displacements of the structure (substructure I)
u gf → displacements of the soil (substructure II)
26/ 43
List of contents:
𝑔𝑔
�𝑓𝑓−𝑓𝑓
𝐮𝐮
Structure on rigid
foundation block
𝑔𝑔 𝑔𝑔
� 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝐮𝐮
interface
problem
Elevated water tank
including SSI
SSI
Extra slides
Expanding the soil displacement field at the interface:

CIE 5260 u gf =u tf
Earthquakes
u = u
g
f
g
f−f +u +u
g
sc
g
rad 
→u tf = u gf − f +u scg +u rad
g
Lecture 18
u tf −u gf − f =u sgc +u rgad Eq.(4)
27/ 43
𝑔𝑔
List of contents: �𝑓𝑓−𝑓𝑓
𝐮𝐮
Structure on rigid 𝑔𝑔
𝑔𝑔
foundation block � 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝐮𝐮
interface
problem
Elevated water tank
including SSI
SSI
Examining now the forces acting on the soil (substructure II):
 
 d (u sgc +u rad )
Extra slides
 d u = K
p = K
g  d  u f − f +u sc +u rad= K
g g g g g
f f
 
 =0 
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
From Eq.(4) we note:
Lecture 18
=  d (u −u
p K
g
f
t
f
g
f−f ) →
=p t
f K d ( f−f
p gf =− p tf
 
u g
− 
u t
f )
Eq.(5)
28/ 43
𝑔𝑔
List of contents: �𝑓𝑓−𝑓𝑓
𝐮𝐮
Structure on rigid 𝑔𝑔
𝑔𝑔
foundation block � 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝐮𝐮
interface
problem
 ss
K  sf 
K u ts   0 
  ff   t = t 
u f  p f (ω )
Elevated water tank
including SSI K fs K 
SSI
Extra slides Combining Eq.(4) and Eq.(5) and substituting back into Eq.(1) :
CIE 5260  ss
K K  sf  u ts   0 
Earthquakes   ff + K d  t =  g 
Lecture 18
K fs K  u f  K d u f − f 
29/ 43
 ss
K K  sf  u ts   0 
  ff + K d  t =  g 
u f  K d u f − f 
List of contents:
K fs K 
Structure on rigid
foundation block
The matrix equation above can be solved at every frequency
EoM of the structure provided that:
interface • The matrices are partitioned as discussed in Lecture 15;
problem • The input motion is given as the free-field motion at the
Elevated water tank surface of the ground (check Lecture 16 for generation
including SSI
of suitable time histories);
SSI
• The soil impedance matrix (soil dynamic stiffness matrix)
Extra slides
is derived with the methods discussed in Lecture 17.
The response in the time domain is obtained by means of
CIE 5260
the inverse Fourier Transform.
Earthquakes
Lecture 18
The procedure for incorporation of the SSI in the case of a beam

resting on top of the soil is very similar (this topic will be discussed
further in Lecture 19).
30/ 43

CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 18
31/ 43
(alternative form ulation )
M ss M sf   v ts  C ss C sf   v ts  K ss K sf   v ts   0 
⋅ t +  ⋅ + ⋅ =
M ff   C ff  v tf  K fs K ff  v tf  ptf 
List of contents:
M v f  C fs
 fs
Structure on rigid
foundation block
• Subscript “s ” refers to the structure whereas subscript “f ” to
Equilibrium equations at SS foundation DoFs;
interface
problem • v ts (t ) : vector of total displacement of the structural DoFs;
Elevated water tank
including SSI
• v tf (t ): vector of the total displacement of foundation DoFs;
Extra slides
• ptf (t ) : total nodal forces developed at the soil-structure
interface (unknown).
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 18 * Note: For more information on then partition of matrices into
foundation DoFs and structural DoFs please recall the material
presented in Lecture 15.
32/ 43

quasi-static vectors
List of contents: =
v tf (t ) v gf (t ) + v rf (t ) + v df (t )
 
free-field ground motion; dynamic vector
Structure on rigid the only known!
foundation block
EoM of the structure  
quasi-static vectors
interface
v ts=
(t ) v g
s (t ) + v rs (t ) + v
d
s (t )
Solution to the coupled SSI quasi-static dis. dynamic vector
problem of the structure
resulting from
Elevated water tank free-field
including SSI ground motion
We have: K ss v s (t ) + K sf v f (t ) =
g g
Extra slides 0
−K ss −1K sf v gf (t ) =
v sg (t ) = −K ss −1K sf u g (t )
CIE 5260
v sg (ω ) = 12 (K ss −1K sf a g (ω ))
Earthquakes
Lecture 18
ω
+∞
where a g (ω )
= ∫
−∞
u g (t ) ⋅ e − iωt dt
33/ 43
List of contents:
Equilibrium of forces at the SSI interface:
Structure on rigid
K fs ⋅ ( v sg (t ) + v rs (t ) ) + K ff ⋅ ( v gf (t ) + v rf (t ) ) + G ff ⋅ v rf (t ) =
0
foundation block
K fs ⋅ v rs (t ) + ( K ff + G ff ) ⋅ v rf (t ) =
−K fs ⋅ v sg (t ) − K ff ⋅ v gf (t ) =
−p f
interface
problem
And recall −K ss −1K sf v gf (t ) =
v sg (t ) = −K ss −1K sf u g (t )
Elevated water tank
including SSI
Extra slides
One will have:
K ss K sf   v rs   0 
⋅ =
K
 fs K ff + G ff  v rf  −p f 
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 18 1
( )
− 2 K ff − K fs K ss −1K sf a g (ω )
pf =
ω
34/ 43
List of contents:
Having solved the quasi-static components, we can
return to the original EoM:
Structure on rigid
foundation block
Dynamic soil stiffness M ss M sf  
v ds  C ss C sf   v ds  K ss K sf   v ds 
M  ⋅ d  +   ⋅ d  +   ⋅ d  =
Equilibrium equations at SS  fs M ff  
v f  C fs C ff  v f  K fs K ff  v f 
interface
problem M ss M sf    v rs  C ss
v sg +  C sf   v sg + 
v rs  K ss K sf   v sg + 
v rs 
−  ⋅ g r  −   ⋅ g r  +   ⋅ g r 
Elevated water tank
including SSI M fs v f + 
M ff   v f  C fs C ff  v f + v f  K fs K ff  v f +  vf

MDoF systems including SSI =0
Extra slides
0
+ t 
p f 
CIE 5260
in which p f = −G ff v f (t ) is the seismic input force.
Structural Response to t d
Earthquakes
Lecture 18
35/ 43
List of contents:
In frequency domain we have:
Structure on rigid
foundation block
 2 M ss M sf  Css Csf  K ss K sf   v ds (ω )
 −ω + ω + 
M    K ff + G ff   v df (ω )
i
Equilibrium equations at SS   fs M ff  C fs C ff  K fs
interface
Solution to the coupled SSI 2
M ss M sf   v sg (ω ) + v rs (ω ) 
problem =ω   v g (ω ) + v r (ω )
Elevated water tank M
 fs M ff    f f 
including SSI
Extra slides if we neglect the viscous contribution due to:
C ss Csf   v sg + 
v rs  M ss M sf    v rs 
v sg + 
C  ⋅ g r  <<   ⋅ g r 
CIE 5260  fs C ff  v f + 
v f  M fs v f + 
M ff   vf
Earthquakes
Lecture 18
36/ 43
Summary of steps for peforming substructure
List of contents:
analysis in MDoF systems:
Structure on rigid
1. Derivation of G  ff (ω ) ;
foundation block
2. Partitioning of EoMs. Choosing wisely the DoFs
and their motions;
interface
Solution to the coupled SSI 3. Calculate v sg (ω )
problem
Elevated water tank 4. Calculate p f (ω )
including SSI
5. Calculate v s (ω ) and v f (ω )
r r
Extra slides
6. Calculate v ds (ω ) and v f (ω )
d
7. Composition v ts (ω ) and v tf (ω )
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
8. Inverse Fourier transform to obtain v ts (t ) and v tf (t )
Lecture 18
If all supports move in phase, then v gf (t ) = I ug (t )
37/ 43
(m odal decom position )
The direct solution per excitation frequency:

List of contents:
Structure on rigid  2 M ss M sf  Css Csf  K ss K sf   v ds (ω )

 −ω   + iω C  + K 
K ff + G ff   v df (ω )
foundation block
Dynamic soil stiffness  M
 fs M ff   fs C ff   fs
Equilibrium equations at SS M M   
v g
(ω ) + 
v s (ω )
r

=ω 2 ss sf s
interface
 v g (ω ) + v r (ω )
Solution to the coupled SSI M
 fs M ff    f f 
problem
Elevated water tank
including SSI
Issues of the direct solution per excitation frequency:
Extra slides
• The size of the matrix can be very large, especially if

the structures are modelled in FE package;
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 18 • The damping matrix C ss of the structure needs to be
composed which is not always possible.
38/ 43
List of contents:
To overcome large matrix discretization and the

Structure on rigid
foundation block difficulty of composing damping matrix, modal
decomposition can be used for the structure (using the
Equilibrium equations at SS structural modes on a fixed ground).
interface
problem
This requires the definition of:
Elevated water tank
including SSI
• a functional basis for the response of the
Extra slides
superstructure, i.e. modal shapes;
CIE 5260
• a damping ratio of the structure (usually 2%-5%).
Earthquakes
Lecture 18
39/ 43
 2 M ss M sf  Css Csf  K ss K sf   v ds (ω )
 −ω   + iω C  + K 
List of contents:
 M
 fs M ff   fs C ff   fs K ff + G ff   v df (ω )
Structure on rigid
foundation block 2
M ss M sf   v sg (ω ) + v rs (ω ) 
Dynamic soil stiffness =ω   v g (ω ) + v r (ω )
M
 fs M ff    f f 
interface
rewrite
problem
Elevated water tank
including SSI
−ω 2 M ss v ds − ω 2 M sf v df + iωCss v ds + iωCsf v df + K ss v ds + K sf v df =
Extra slides
= ω 2 M ss ( v sg + v rs ) + ω 2 M sf ( v gf + v rf ) Eq.6
CIE 5260  d − ω 2 M v d + iωC v d + iωC v d + K v d + ( K + G ) v d =

−ω 2 M fs V
s ff f sf s ff f fs s ff ff f
ω 2 M fs ( v sg + v rs ) + ω 2 M ff ( v gf + v rf )
Earthquakes
Lecture 18 = Eq.7
40/ 43
N  N×1
List of contents:
v = ∑ Φ i Ai = Φ
d
s

 A
i =1 N× N
Structure on rigid
foundation block 
Substituting the mode to Eq.6 and premultiplying Φ
T

EoM of the structure ∗
 R 
Equilibrium equations at SS 
( −ω 2M ss∗ + iωCss∗ + K ss∗ ) A + ( −ω 2M sf + iωCsf + K sf ) v df =
interface
problem
Elevated water tank
including SSI = ω 2ΦT M ss ( v sg + v rs ) + ω 2ΦT M sf ( v gf + v rf ) Eq.8
Extra slides
Similarly from Eq.7:
CIE 5260
( −ω M2
fs + i ω C sf + K sf ) A (
 + −ω 2 M + iωC + ( K + G ) v d =
ff ff ff ff f )
= ω 2 M fs ( v sg + v rs ) + ω 2 M ff ( v gf + v rf )
Earthquakes
Lecture 18 Eq.9
41/ 43
∗
 R 

List of contents: ( −ω 2M ss∗ + iωCss∗ + K ss∗ ) A + ( −ω 2M sf + iωCsf + K sf ) v df =
Structure on rigid = ω 2ΦT M ss ( v sg + v rs ) + ω 2ΦT M sf ( v gf + v rf )
foundation block
( −ω M + iωCsf + K sf ) A (
 + −ω 2 M + iωC + ( K + G ) v d = )
2
EoM of the structure fs ff ff ff ff f
= ω 2 M fs ( v sg + v rs ) + ω 2 M ff ( v gf + v rf )
interface
problem
Elevated water tank
including SSI
M ss ∗ = ΦT M ss Φ (diagonal matrix)
MDoF systems including SSI Css ∗ = ΦT Css Φ (diagonal matrix for Rayleigh damping)
Extra slides
K ss ∗ = Ω 2 M ss ∗ (diagonal matrix)
M sf = ΦT M sf (usually zero matrix)
M fs = M fs Φ (usually zero matrix)
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Csf = ΦT Csf (usually zero matrix)
Lecture 18
C fs = C fs Φ (usually zero matrix)
K sf = ΦT K sf (fully-populated matrix)
K fs = K fs Φ (fully-populated matrix)
42/ 43
Reading material
Essential reading:
o Lecture slides
o Lecture notes: Sections 8.4-8.7 (p. 276-290)
o Maple files
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 18
43/ 43
CIE 5260

Tel.: 015 27 89225, Room 3.44
Lecture 19
CIE 5260
Delft, 2019
1/ 59
List of contents:
Seismic analysis of linear continuous systems

Recollection of previous
knowledge • One-dimensional continua
Modal Analysis
• Modal Analysis of 1D continua in earthquake engineering
Eigenvalue problem
Mode orthogonality • Response Spectrum method of analysis

Forced vibrations
Modal damping
Response Spectrum Analysis • Case study

Frequency domain Analysis
• Mathematical proof of mode orthogonality (extra slides)
Case study
Extra slides
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 19
2/ 59

• One-dimensional continua
• Response Spectrum method of analysis
• Case study
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 19
3/ 59
Systems modelled as continua
List of contents:
knowledge
Modal Analysis
Eigenvalue problem
Mode orthogonality
Forced vibrations
Modal damping Waves in a layered soil overlying a half-space

Case study
Extra slides
CIE 5260
Structural Response to Pipeline on discrete supports A chimney of a factory
Earthquakes
Lecture 19
4/ 59
1-D continua
Dynamic systems which are characterised by distributed
List of contents:
mass and elasticity in one direction.
Recollection of previous • Geometry: one dimension much greater than the other
knowledge two (e.g. for a beam  h/L<0.1).
Modal Analysis
Eigenvalue problem
• Dynamics: the excited wavelengths in the structure are
Mode orthogonality
long compared to the relevant dimensions that are not
considered explictily. For a beam: λ>>max{h;b}.
Forced vibrations
Modal damping
Case study
Extra slides
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 19
5/ 59
Classical 1-D wave equation
List of contents:
1. Taut cable in transverse motion

knowledge
Modal Analysis
Eigenvalue problem
Mode orthogonality
Forced vibrations 2. Rod in longitudinal motion

Modal damping
Case study
Extra slides
3. Beam in pure shear motion
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 19
6/ 59
Classical 1-D wave equation
List of contents:
knowledge
Modal Analysis
Eigenvalue problem
Mode orthogonality
Forced vibrations
Modal damping
Case study
Extra slides
In all four models above, the same wave
CIE 5260
Structural Response to equation of motion applies!
Earthquakes
Lecture 19
* Note: For detailed derivations check lecture notes CIE4140  Lectures 10-13.
7/ 59
Examples of structures of finite length
modelled as beams
List of contents:
knowledge
Modal Analysis
Eigenvalue problem
Mode orthogonality
Forced vibrations
Modal damping
Case study
Extra slides
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 19
A fixed-based tower subjected to seismic excitation.
8/ 59
Examples of structures of finite length
modelled as beams
List of contents:
knowledge
Modal Analysis
Eigenvalue problem
Mode orthogonality
Forced vibrations
Modal damping
Case study
Extra slides
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 19
Deck of a bridge in bending motion supported at discrete

locations with infinitely rigid (in axial motion) supporting piers.
9/ 59
Beam equation
List of contents:
Displacement:
knowledge =
u t ( x, t ) u
( x, t ) + u g (t )
 
Modal Analysis total displacement dis. relative to the ground ground displacement
Eigenvalue problem
Mode orthogonality
Equation of motion:
Forced vibrations
Modal damping
∂2  ∂ 2 u ( x, t )   ∂ 2u ( x, t ) d 2u g (t ) 
 EI ( x)  + m( x )  +  =
0
∂x 2  ∂x 2  ∂ t 2
 dt 2


stiffness term: related to relative motion inertia term: related to total acceleration
Case study
∂u ( x, t )
Extra slides
ϕ ( x, t ) =
− EI ( x) κ ( x, t )
M ( x, t ) =
∂x
CIE 5260 ∂ϕ ( x, t ) ∂M (x, t)
=
Structural Response to κ ( x , t ) = V ( x , t )
Earthquakes
Lecture 19 ∂x ∂x
* Note: For a detailed derivations checks lecture notes CIE4140  Lectures 14-15.
10/ 59
Tower subjected to ground excitation
List of contents:
Recollection of previous EoM in terms of relative m otion :

knowledge
Modal Analysis
∂2  ∂ 2u ( x, t )  ∂ 2u ( x, t ) d 2ug (t )
+ m( x ) =
− m( x )
∂x 2  ∂x 2 
Eigenvalue problem
EI ( x )
∂t 2  dt 2
Mode orthogonality force caused by ground motion
Forced vibrations
BCs at x=0:
Modal damping

u(0, t) = 0
∂u(x, t)
Case study
ϕ (0, t) =
− x =0 =
0
∂x
Extra slides
BCs at x=L:
CIE 5260
Structural Response to A fixed-based tower subjected
Earthquakes
Lecture 19
to seismic excitation M=
( L, t ) V=
( L, t ) 0
∂ 2u ( x, t ) ∂ 3u( x, t )
⇒
= =
L= =0
∂x 2 ∂x 3
x x L
11/ 59
List of contents:
Recollection of previous EoM in terms of total m otion :

knowledge
Modal Analysis
∂2  ∂ 2u t ( x, t )  ∂ 2u t ( x, t )
+ m( x ) =
∂x 2  ∂x 2 
Eigenvalue problem
EI ( x ) 0
∂t 2
Mode orthogonality
Forced vibrations
BCs at x=0:
Modal damping

u t (0, t ) = u g (t ) (translational motion)
ϕ t (0, t ) = 0 (no rocking motion)
Case study
Extra slides
BCs at x=L:
CIE 5260
Structural Response to A fixed-based tower subjected
Earthquakes to seismic excitation M=
( L, t ) V=
( L, t ) 0
Lecture 19
∂ 2u t ( x, t ) ∂ 3u t ( x, t )
⇒
= =
L= =0
∂x 2 ∂x 3
x x L
12/ 59
Systems of infinite length excited by
seismic waves
List of contents:
knowledge
Modal Analysis
Eigenvalue problem
Mode orthogonality
Forced vibrations
Modal damping

Wave mechanics
Case study
principles should be
Extra slides
applied!
CIE 5260
Earthquakes Infinitely long pipeline on top of the soil subjected to seismic excitation
Lecture 19
13/ 59
seismic waves
List of contents:
knowledge
Modal Analysis
Eigenvalue problem
Mode orthogonality
Forced vibrations
Infinitely long pipeline supported directly by the ground
Modal damping
Case study
Extra slides
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 19 Infinitely long pipeline supported by Winkler foundation
14/ 59
seismic waves
List of contents:
knowledge
Modal Analysis
Eigenvalue problem
Mode orthogonality
Forced vibrations
Infinitely long pipeline resting on discrete supports excited by
co-axial horizontal ground motion.
Modal damping
Case study
Extra slides
CIE 5260
Earthquakes Infinitely long pipeline resting on discrete supports excited by
Lecture 19
vertical ground motion.
15/ 59
Preliminary design of a pipeline on top
of a soil stratum
List of contents:
• Longitudinal motion
knowledge
Modal Analysis
Assume the ground motion (and consequently the structural response
if the latter is imposed kinematically into the system) is a travelling
Eigenvalue problem
harmonic wave:
Mode orthogonality
Forced vibrations  x 
u ( x,= t ) u0 sin(ωt − kx
t ) u g ( x,= = ) u0 sin  ω (t − ) 
Modal damping
 c 
Frequency domain Analysis The induced longitudinal strain in the pipe is:
Case study
∂u ( x, t ) ωu  x 
Extra slides
ε= − 0 cos  ω (t − ) 
=
∂x c  c 
CIE 5260
Earthquakes An upper bound estimation of the maximum longitudinal strain is:
Lecture 19
ω u0 PGV Sv (T = 0, ξ )
ε max
= = =
c c c
16/ 59
Preliminary design of a pipeline on top
of a soil stratum
List of contents:
Recollection of previous • Bending motion

knowledge
Modal Analysis
Assume the solution is a travelling harmonic wave:
Eigenvalue problem
 x 
Mode orthogonality , t ) u0 sin(ωt −=
u ( x= kx) u0 sin  ω (t − ) 
Forced vibrations
 c 
Modal damping
The induced bending strain in the pipe is:
Frequency domain Analysis ∂ 2 u ( x , t ) ω 2 u0  x 

κ=
− = sin  ω (t − )
Case study ∂x 2
c 2
 c 
Extra slides
An upper bound estimation of the maximum bending strain is:

CIE 5260
Earthquakes
ω 2 u0 PGA S a (T = 0, ξ )
Lecture 19
κ max
= = =
c2 c2 c2
17/ 59
Basic design of pipelines in EC 8
• Direct application of a displacement pattern as described

List of contents:
previously provides an upper bound estimate of strains and
Recollection of previous stresses (SSI is neglected)
knowledge
Modal Analysis • For pipes supported by frames, more details of the support
Eigenvalue problem locations are needed to carry out a proper seismic analysis.
Mode orthogonality
Forced vibrations • Different wave types (body waves and surface waves) should
Modal damping be applied based on geophysical considerations.
Case study
Design criteria Eurocode 8:
• Pipelines should avoid crossing active faults.
Extra slides
CIE 5260
• Allowable tensile strain in welded pipelines should be limited to
Earthquakes
a maximum value of 3%.
Lecture 19
• Allowable compressive strain equal to min{0.01;0.02t/r}, in

which “t” is the thickness and “r” is the radius of the pipe.
18/ 59

• Case study
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 19
19/ 59
List of contents: EoM in terms of relative m otion :
∂2  ∂ 2u ( x, t )  ∂ 2u ( x, t ) d 2ug (t )
knowledge + m( x ) =
− m( x )
∂x 2  ∂x 2 
EI ( x )
Modal Analysis
∂t 2  dt 2
force caused by ground motion
Eigenvalue problem
Mode orthogonality BCs at x=0:

Forced vibrations
Modal damping
u(0, t) = 0
∂u(x, t)
ϕ (0, t) =
− x =0 =
0
Frequency domain Analysis ∂x
Case study
Extra slides
BCs at x=L:
A fixed-based tower subjected M=

( L, t ) V=
( L, t ) 0
CIE 5260
to seismic excitation
Structural Response to ∂ 2u ( x, t ) ∂ 3u( x, t )
Earthquakes ⇒
= =
L= =0
∂x 2 ∂x 3
Lecture 19 x x L
• Can we apply modal analysis?

20/ 59
List of contents: EoM in terms of total m otion :
∂2  ∂ 2u t ( x, t )  ∂ 2u t ( x, t )
knowledge + m( x ) =
∂x 2  ∂x 2 
EI ( x ) 0
Modal Analysis
∂t 2
Eigenvalue problem
Mode orthogonality BCs at x=0:

Forced vibrations
Modal damping u t (0, t ) = u g (t ) (translational motion)

Response Spectrum Analysis ϕ t (0, t ) = 0 (no rocking motion)
Case study
BCs at x=L:
Extra slides
A fixed-based tower subjected
to seismic excitation M=
( L, t ) V=
( L, t ) 0
CIE 5260
Structural Response to ∂ 2u t ( x, t ) ∂ 3u t ( x, t )
Earthquakes ⇒
= =
L= =0
∂x 2 ∂x 3
x x L
Lecture 19
• Can we apply modal analysis?

21/ 59
Eigenvalue problem of a beam
List of contents: Equation of motion for free vibrations (no force!):
∂2  ∂ 2u ( x, t )  ∂ 2u ( x, t )
knowledge
2 
EI ( x )  + m( x ) =
0
Modal Analysis ∂x  ∂x 2
 ∂t 2
Eigenvalue problem
Mode orthogonality We assume a solution in the form of (separation of variables method):

Forced vibrations
Modal damping
u ( x, t ) = Φ ( x) Q(t )
Case study
We substitute the assumed solution into the EoM:
Extra slides
∂2 ∂2  ∂ 2 ( Φ ( x) Q(t ) ) 
m( x) 2 ( Φ ( x) Q(t ) ) + 2  EI ( x)  =
0
CIE 5260
∂t ∂x  ∂x 2

Earthquakes
Lecture 19
d 2Q(t) d2  d 2 Φ ( x) 
⇒ Φ ( x ) m( x ) 2
+ Q(t ) 2  EI ( x) 2  =0
dt dx  dx 
22/ 59
(t ) + Q(t ) ( EI ( x)Φ′′( x) )′′ =

m( x)Φ ( x)Q 0
List of contents:
1/ (m( x)Φ ( x) Q(t ))
knowledge
Modal Analysis
Eigenvalue problem (t ) ( EI ( x )Φ′′( x ) )′′

Q
Mode orthogonality
+ =
0
Q (t ) Φ ( x )m( x )
Forced vibrations
Modal damping
Frequency domain Analysis ( EI ( x)Φ′′( x) )′′ =

−
(t )
Q
ω2
=
Case study Φ ( x ) m( x ) Q(t )
Extra slides
CIE 5260
 EI ( x)Φ′′( x) ′′ − ω 2 Φ ( x)m( x) = Start solving
( )
Earthquakes 0 the space-
Lecture 19
 dependent part!

 
Q (t ) + ω 2
Q(t ) =
0
23/ 59
List of contents: ( EI ( x)Φ′′( x) )′′ − ω 2 m( x)Φ( x) =

0
knowledge
Boundary conditions of a cantilever beam:
Modal Analysis
Eigenvalue problem
BCs at x=L:
Mode orthogonality
∂ 2 u ( x, t )
Forced vibrations
M ( L, t ) = 0 ⇒ ′′
x = L = 0 ⇒ Φ ( L) = 0
Modal damping ∂x 2
Response Spectrum Analysis ∂ 3u ( x, t )
V ( L, t ) = 0 ⇒ x=L = 0 ⇒ Φ′′′( L) = 0
Frequency domain Analysis ∂x 3
Case study
Extra slides
BCs at x=0:
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 19
u (0, t ) = 0 ⇒ Φ (0) = 0
∂u ( x, t )
ϕ (0, t )= 0 ⇒ − x =0 = 0 ⇒ Φ′(0) = 0
∂x
24/ 59
Eigenvalues and eigenfunctions of a cantilever beam of

List of contents:
constant cross-section:
knowledge
Modal Analysis
EI ( Φ′′( x) )′′ − mω 2 Φ ( x) =
0
Eigenvalue problem Φ′(0) =
Φ (0) = Φ′′( L) =
Φ′′′( L) =
0
Mode orthogonality
Forced vibrations
Modal damping

λn
EI 4 ωn2 m
=ωn = ; βn = ; λ1 3.52;= λ2 22.03;= λ3 61.70; = λ4 120
L2 m EI
Case study cosh( β n L) + cos( β n L)
Φ= (x) cosh( β x ) − cos( β x ) − ( sinh( β n x) − sin( β n x) )
sinh( β n L) + sin( β n L)
n n n
Extra slides
n = 1, 2,3...
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 19
25/ 59
List of contents: ( EI ( x)Φ′′( x) )′′ − ω 2 m( x)Φ( x) =

0
knowledge Boundary conditions of a simply-supported beam:
Modal Analysis
Eigenvalue problem
Mode orthogonality
Forced vibrations
Modal damping

BCs at x=0: BCs at x=L:
Case study
Extra slides u (0, t ) = 0 ⇒ Φ (0) = 0 u ( L, t ) = 0 ⇒ Φ ( L ) = 0

∂ 2 u ( x, t ) M ( L, t ) = 0 ⇒ Φ′′( L) = 0
CIE 5260 M (0, t )= 0 ⇒ x =0 =0
Earthquakes
∂x 2
Lecture 19
⇒ Φ′′(0) = 0
26/ 59
Eigenvalues and eigenfunctions of a simply-supported

List of contents:
beam of constant cross-section:
EI ( Φ′′( x) )′′ − mω 2 Φ ( x) =
knowledge
0
Modal Analysis
Eigenvalue problem
Φ′′(0) =
Φ (0) = Φ′′( L) =
Φ ( L) = 0
Mode orthogonality
Forced vibrations
Modal damping

n 2π 2 EI
ωn = 2
L m
Case study
 nπ x 
Extra slides =
Φ n ( x) sin  =  , n 1, 2,3...
 L 
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 19
27/ 59
Eigenvalue problem: general approach
for a beam of uniform cross-section
List of contents: 4
Φ ( x )= ∑ A ⋅ eλ
n =1
n
nx
knowledge
Modal Analysis EI ( Φ′′( x) )′′ − mω 2 Φ ( x) =

0
Eigenvalue problem
Mode orthogonality
Forced vibrations λn4 − β 4 =

0
Modal damping

Φ ( x ) = A1 ⋅ eiβ x + A2 ⋅ e − iβ x + A3 ⋅ e β x + A4 ⋅ e − β x
Case study
Extra slides
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Substitution into the 4 BCs to solve for the
Lecture 19 eigenfrequencies and eigenmodes
28/ 59
Critical thinking
List of contents:
Recollection of previous • Does the separation of variables method work for

knowledge all types of boundary conditions?
Modal Analysis
Eigenvalue problem • Do you know how to derive the characteristic

Mode orthogonality
equation (eigenvalue problem) when several one-
Forced vibrations
dimensional continua are coupled together?
Modal damping
Case study
Extra slides
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 19
29/ 59
Orthogonality of eigenmodes
List of contents:
The following orthogonality relations hold (check extra slides
Recollection of previous for the mathematical proof of the orthogonality of modes):
knowledge
Modal Analysis
L
∫ m( x ) ⋅ Φ
Eigenvalue problem
n ( x) ⋅ Φ r ( x)dx = M n δ rn
M ode orthogonality
0
Forced vibrations
Modal damping
L
( )′′ dx K= Mn
∫ n
0
Φ ( x ) ⋅ EI ( x ) ⋅ Φ ′′
r ( x ) = δ
n rn 2
δ rn
ωn
Case study
Extra slides
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 19
30/ 59
Forced vibrations
List of contents: Forced vibration in terms of modes:

∞
Recollection of previous u ( x, t ) =∑ Φ n ( x) ⋅ qn (t )
knowledge n =1
Modal Analysis
Eigenvalue problem Substitute solution into EoM (written in terms of relative beam
Mode orthogonality displacements with respect to the ground):
Forced vibrations
∞ ∞
Modal damping
n n ∑ m ( x )Φ ( x ) q (t ) + ∑ [ EI ( x )Φ′′n ( x )]′′ qn (t ) =
−m( x )ug (t )
=
Response Spectrum Analysis n 1 = n 1

Pre-multiply by Φ r ( x ) and integrate from x=0 to x=L:
Case study
∞ L ∞ L
∑ q (t ) ⋅ ∫ m( x)Φ ( x)Φ ∑ q (t ) ⋅ ∫ Φ ( x) [ EI ( x)Φ′′ ( x)]′′ dx

Extra slides
n r n ( x)dx + n r n
n 1=
CIE 5260
0

n 1

0


Structural Response to M nδ rn K nδ rn
Earthquakes
L
Lecture 19
−ug (t ) ∫ Φ r ( x)m( x)dx
=

0
 
Lr
31/ 59
Forced vibrations
List of contents:
The total equation can be re-written as:
knowledge ∞ ∞
Modal Analysis
=
n
n 0=
∑ q (t ) ⋅ M
n rn
n 0
⋅ δ + ∑ qn (t ) ⋅ K n ⋅ δ rn =
pe ,r (t )
Eigenvalue problem
Mode orthogonality L L
∫ m( x)Φ r ( x)Φ n ( x)d=x δ rn M n with M=n ∫ m ( x ) ( Φ n ( x ) ) dx

2
Forced vibrations 
Modal damping 0 0
L L
∫ Φ ( x) ( EI (x)Φ′′ ( x) )′′dx = ∫ Φ ( x) ( EI (x)Φ′′ ( x) )′′dx

δ K with K =
 r n rn n n n n
Frequency domain Analysis 0 0
L
Case study
ug (t ) ∫ Φ r ( x)m( x)dx =⋅
 pe ,r = ug (t ) Lr
Extra slides
0
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 19
32/ 59
Forced vibrations
List of contents:
∞ ∞
knowledge =
n
n 0=
n rn
n 0
∑ q (t ) ⋅ M ⋅ δ + ∑ qn (t ) ⋅ K n ⋅ δ rn =
pe ,r (t )
Modal Analysis
Eigenvalue problem
Mode orthogonality
Forced vibrations
qn (t ) + ωn2 qn (t ) = −Γ n ⋅ ug (t )
Modal damping
L L
∫ Φ n ( x) ( EI (x)Φ′′n ( x) )′′dx ∫ m( x )Φ
n ( x)dx
Frequency domain Analysis k Ln
 ωn2= n = 0
L
; Γ n= = L
0
Case study mn Mn
∫ m ( x ) ( Φ n ( x ) ) dx ∫ m ( x ) ( Φ n ( x ) ) dx
2 2
Extra slides
0 0
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 19
33/ 59
Complete solution
If we recall the basic SDoF equation:
List of contents:  (t ) + ω 2 D (t ) =
D −ug (t )
n n n
Recollection of previous → Dn (t ) can be found given the initial conditions and ug (t )
knowledge
Modal Analysis
Eigenvalue problem
We note that the solution at each modal coordinate reads:
Mode orthogonality qn (t ) =Γ n ⋅ Dn (t )
Forced vibrations
Modal damping The response in the real coordinates yields:

∞ ∞
Frequency domain Analysis u ( x, t ) =∑ Φ n ( x) ⋅ qn (t ) =∑ Φ n ( x) ⋅ Γ n ⋅ Dn (t )
Case study = n 1= n 1
∞ ∞
Extra slides
=
=
M ( x, t )
n
n 1= n 1
∑ M=
( x, t ) ∑ EI ( x) ⋅ Φ′′ ( x) ⋅ Γ
n n ⋅ Dn (t )
CIE 5260
 ∞ 
∂  ∑ M n ( x, t ) 
Earthquakes
∞
 n =1 = 
∑ ( EI ( x) ⋅ Φ′′ ( x) )′ ⋅ Γ
Lecture 19
=
V ( x, t ) ⋅ Dn (t )
∂x
n n
n =1
34/ 59
Modal damping
List of contents:
qn (t ) + 2ξ nωn qn (t ) + ωn2 qn (t ) = −Γ n ⋅ ug (t )
knowledge
L
Modal Analysis
Eigenvalue problem Ln ∫ m ( x )Φ n ( x )dx

Γ=
n = L
0
Mode orthogonality Mn
∫ m( x ) ( Φ n ( x ) ) dx
2
Forced vibrations
0
M odal dam ping
Response Spectrum Analysis L
Frequency domain Analysis ∫Φ n ( x ) ( EI (x)Φ′′n ( x ) )′′dx

kn
Case study
ω=
2
n = 0
L
mn
∫ m( x ) ( Φ n ( x ) ) dx
2
Extra slides
0
CIE 5260
Structural Response to ξ n [%] × critical damping per mode
=
Earthquakes
Lecture 19
35/ 59
List of contents:
Recollection of previous There is a one-to-one correspondence between discrete and

knowledge continuum model equations in the Modal Domain:
Modal Analysis
Eigenvalue problem qn (t ) + 2ξ nωn qn (t ) + ωn2 qn (t ) = −Γ n ⋅ ug (t )

Mode orthogonality
Forced vibrations
M odal dam ping
Case study
Extra slides
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 19
36/ 59
Base shear and overturning moment
List of contents:
The total base shear and overturning moment at x=0 can
be evaluated in terms of the effective modal mass in full
Recollection of previous correspondence with the discrete MDoF system:
knowledge
Modal Analysis
∗ 
Eigenvalue problem =Vb∗,n M
= D
n n (t ) ω 2
n M ∗
n Dn (t )
Mode orthogonality
Forced vibrations
M odal dam ping

M b∗,n h=
= ∗ ∗
nVb , n hn∗ωn2 M n∗ Dn (t )

The modal participation mass: The effective modal height:
Case study
2
Extra slides  L
 L
∫ m ( x ) Φ n ( x )d x  θ ∫ xm( x )Φ n ( x )dx
M n∗ = 0
Γ n Ln =  ∗ Ln
CIE 5260
Structural Response to L h=
n = 0
L
Ln
∫ ( )
Earthquakes
Φ ∫ m ( x )Φ
2
Lecture 19 m ( x ) n ( x ) dx n ( x )dx
0 0
37/ 59

• Case study
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 19
38/ 59
Response Spectrum Method
We start by the fundamental SDoF equation of motion:

List of contents:
 (t ) + 2ξ ω D (t ) + ω 2 D (t ) =
D −ug (t )
n n n n n n
knowledge
Modal Analysis The collection of maximum responses the equation above for
Eigenvalue problem each combination of ( ξ n , ω n ) yields the so-called displacement
Mode orthogonality response spectrum:
Forced vibrations
Sd ( Tn , ξ n ) = max Dn (t) (ξ
n ,ωn )
Modal damping
Response Spectrum
Analysis The modal equation we need to solve (slide 28) reads:
qn (t ) + 2ξ nωn qn (t ) + ωn2 qn (t ) = −Γ n ug (t )
Case study
Γ n S d (Tn , ξ n )
Extra slides
→ qn ,max (Tn , ξ n ) =
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 19
The maximum amplitude response at each mode reads:
max ( un ( x, t ) ) =
Φ n ( x) ⋅ qn ,max (Tn , ξ n ) =
Φ n ( x) ⋅ Γ n ⋅ S d (Tn , ξ n )
39/ 59
Pseudo-spectral acceleration when ξ n = 0 :

List of contents:
knowledge Sα ( Tn , ξ n )
Sd ( Tn , ξ n ) =
Modal Analysis
ωn2
Eigenvalue problem
Mode orthogonality
Forced vibrations
Sα ( Tn , ξ n )
Modal damping
max ( un ( x, t ) ) = un ,max ( x ) = Φ n ( x ) ⋅ Γ n ⋅
Response Spectrum ωn2
Analysis
Case study
Bending moments and shear forces from elementary theory:
Extra slides
CIE 5260
Γ n EI ( x) Φ′′n ( x) S d (Tn , ζ n )
M n ,max ( x) =
Earthquakes
Lecture 19
Γ n ( EI ( x) Φ′′n ( x) )′ S d (Tn , ζ n )
Vn ,max ( x) =
40/ 59
Combination rules:
List of contents:
1) ABSSUM-rule
Recollection of previous ∞ N
knowledge =
rmax (x)
=
n
n 1=
∑ r (x) ≈ ∑ r (x) n
Modal Analysis n 1
Eigenvalue problem
Mode orthogonality 2) SRSS-rule

Forced vibrations
1/2 1/2
 ∞ 2  N 2
rSRSS (x)  ∑ ( rn (x) )  ≈  ∑ ( rn (x) ) 
Modal damping
Response Spectrum
=
Analysis
=  n 1=  n 1 
Case study
Extra slides The total base shear and overturning moment:

CIE 5260
Earthquakes M b∗,n =hn∗ ⋅ M n∗ ⋅ Sα (Tn , ξ n )
Lecture 19
n ⋅ Sα (Tn , ξ n )
∗ ∗
V=
b ,n M
41/ 59

• Case study
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 19
42/ 59
Case study: Modal analysis of a fixed-base tower
subjected to horizontal ground excitation
List of contents:
knowledge
Modal Analysis
Eigenvalue problem
Mode orthogonality
Forced vibrations
Modal damping
Case study
Extra slides
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 19
• Classical modal analysis Maple file here

• Response spectrum analysis Maple file here
43/ 59
List of contents:

knowledge • One-dimensional continua
Modal Analysis
Eigenvalue problem
Mode orthogonality • Response Spectrum method of analysis

Forced vibrations
Modal damping
Response Spectrum Analysis • Case study

Frequency domain
Analysis
Case study
Extra slides
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 19
44/ 59
Frequency domain analysis
List of contents:
When do we need to apply the frequency domain
analysis ?
knowledge
Modal Analysis Fourier transform pair:

Eigenvalue problem +∞
Mode orthogonality f (ω ) = ∫ f (t )e − iωt dt
Forced vibrations −∞
Modal damping
+∞
1
f (t ) = ∫ f (ω )eiωt dω
Frequency domain 2π −∞
Analysis
Case study Simplification of IFT:

Extra slides
CIE 5260 ω+ ω+
1 2
∫ Re( f (ω )e ∫ Im( f (ω ))
iω t
Earthquakes f (t ) = )dω = − sin(ωt ) dω
Lecture 19 π 0
π 0
45/ 59
Simply-supported beam in multi-support excitation:

List of contents:
knowledge
Modal Analysis
Eigenvalue problem
Mode orthogonality
Forced vibrations
Modal damping
 ′′
′′
 EI ( x ) ( u ( x, ω ) )  − ω m( x )u ( x, ω ) =
t 2 t
Response Spectrum Analysis 0
 
Frequency domain
1
Analysis
= u t
( x , ω ) x 0== − a ( x, ω ) x 0 = u g (0, ω ) What changes in the
ω 2 g
Case study
BCs if we need to
Extra slides
M ( x , ω ) x 0= = t ′′
0 ⇒ ( u ( x, ω ) ) x 0 = 0 consider the rocking
=
CIE 5260
motion at the support
Earthquakes
= u ( x, ω ) x L=
t
= − 2 a g ( x, ω ) x L = u g ( L, ω ) locations?
Lecture 19
ω
=
t
x L= x L M ( x, ω ) 0 ⇒ ( u ( x, ω ) )′′
= =
0
46/ 59
Two ways to solve the ODEs for u ( x, ω ) :

t
List of contents:
• Direct solution by an ODE-solver (preferred choice!);
knowledge
Modal Analysis
Eigenvalue problem
• Assume the following solution (valid only for systems
Mode orthogonality
of constant cross section):
Forced vibrations
Modal damping
u t ( x, ω ) = A ⋅ cos( β x ) + B ⋅ sin( β x ) + C ⋅ cosh( β x ) + D ⋅ sinh( β x )
1/4
Response Spectrum Analysis  ω 2m 
Frequency domain
β = 
Analysis
 EI 
Case study
and solve for the unknown coefficients A – D per frequency
using the 4 given BCs.
Extra slides
CIE 5260
Time domain solution:
Earthquakes
Lecture 19 ω+ ω+
1 2
∫ ∫
iωt
u ( x, t ) = Re(u ( x, ω )e )dω = −
t
Im(u t ( x, ω )) sin(ωt )dω
π 0
π 0
47/ 59
Consideration of SSI effects
(in-class ex ercise)
List of contents:
knowledge
Modal Analysis
Eigenvalue problem
Mode orthogonality
Forced vibrations
Modal damping
Mf Jf
Frequency domain
Analysis
Case study
Extra slides
CIE 5260
Earthquakes Figure: Telecommunication tower and its model representation.
Lecture 19
48/ 59
(in-class ex ercise)
List of contents:
Recollection of previous Questions:

knowledge
Modal Analysis
a) Describe the procedure to determine the soil-foundation
Eigenvalue problem
dynamic stiffness and please take into account both the
Mode orthogonality
translational and rotational inertia of the foundation
Forced vibrations
block.
Modal damping b) Formulate the governing equations that describe the
Response Spectrum Analysis linear dynamic response of the tower including dynamic
Frequency domain soil-structure interaction.
Analysis
Case study
Extra slides
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 19
49/ 59
(hom ew ork )
List of contents:
knowledge
Modal Analysis
Eigenvalue problem
Mode orthogonality
Forced vibrations
Modal damping
Mf Jf
Frequency domain
Analysis
Case study
Extra slides
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 19
Figure: An elevated water tank supported by a steel frame and its
model representation.
50/ 59
(hom ew ork )
List of contents:
Questions:
knowledge a) Derive the algebraic system of equations that needs to be
Modal Analysis solved to obtain the natural frequencies and modes of
Eigenvalue problem vibration of the system (in your derivation you may
Mode orthogonality neglect SSI effects and the presence of the foundation
Forced vibrations block).
Modal damping
b) Describe the procedure to determine the soil-foundation
dynamic stiffness and please take into account both the
Frequency domain
Analysis
translational and rotational inertia of the foundation
block.
Case study
Extra slides c) Formulate the governing equations that describe the

CIE 5260 linear dynamic response of the tower including dynamic
Earthquakes soil-structure interaction.
Lecture 19
51/ 59
Reading material
Essential reading:
o Lecture slides
o Lecture notes: Chapter 7 (p.217-250)
o Maple files
Optional reading:
o Lecture notes: Section 7.5 (p.244-248)
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 19
52/ 59

• Case study
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 19
53/ 59
List of contents:
Substitute mode Φ n ( x ) into the EoM:

knowledge
Modal Analysis ( EI ( x )Φ′′n ( x ) )′′ − ω 2Φ n ( x )m( x ) =

0
⇒ ( EI ( x )Φ′′n ( x ) )′′ =
Eigenvalue problem
Mode orthogonality
ω 2Φ n ( x )m( x )
Forced vibrations
Modal damping
Response Spectrum Analysis Multiply both sides by another mode Φ r ( x ) and integrate
Frequency domain Analysis over the length of the beam:
Case study
L L
( )′′ dx =
∫ Φ ⋅ ⋅ Φ ′′ ∫ Φ ⋅ ω m( x )Φ n ( x )dx
Extra slides 2
r ( x ) EI ( x ) n ( x ) r ( x ) n
0 0
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 19
54/ 59
List of contents: Integration by parts of the left side:

Recollection of previous L
∫ Φ r ( x ) ⋅ ( EI ( x ) ⋅ Φ′′n ( x ) )′′ dx = Φ r ( x ) ⋅ ( EI ( x ) ⋅ Φ′′n ( x ) )′

L
knowledge
0
0
Modal Analysis
L L
−Φ′r ( x ) ⋅ EI ( x ) ⋅ Φ′′n ( x ) + ∫ EI ( x )Φ′′r ( x ) ⋅ Φ′′n ( x )dx
Eigenvalue problem
Mode orthogonality 0
0
Forced vibrations
Modal damping

∫ Φ ( x) ⋅ ( EI ( x) ⋅ Φ′′ ( x) )′′ dx =
0
r n
Case study
Extra slides = Φ r ( L) ⋅ ( EI ( L) ⋅ Φ′′n ( L) )′ − Φ r (0) ⋅ ( EI (0) ⋅ Φ′′n (0) )′

Boundary conditions
CIE 5260
− Φ′r ( L) ⋅ EI ( L) ⋅ Φ′′n ( L) + Φ′r (0) ⋅ EI (0) ⋅ Φ′′n (0)
Structural Response to L
Earthquakes
Lecture 19 + ∫ EI ( x)Φ′′r ( x) ⋅ Φ′′n ( x)dx
0
55/ 59
Substituting the BCs:

List of contents:
• For simply-supported beam:
knowledge
Φ r (0) = Φ r ( L) =
0 zero displacements
Modal Analysis
′′n (0) EI ( L) ⋅ Φ=
EI (0) ⋅ Φ= ′′n ( L) 0 zero moments
Eigenvalue problem
Mode orthogonality
• For cantilever beam:
Forced vibrations
Modal damping ( EI ( L)Φ′′n ( L) )′ =

0 shear force at x=L is zero
Response Spectrum Analysis EI ( L)Φ′′n ( L) =0 moment at x=L is zero
Φ r (0) = Φ′r (0) = 0 zero slope and dis. at x=0
Case study
Extra slides • For clamped-clamped beam:
CIE 5260 Φ′r (0) =

Φ r (0) = 0 zero slope and dis. at x=0
Earthquakes
Lecture 19
Φ′r ( L) =
Φ r (L) = 0 zero slope and dis. at x=L
56/ 59
In all these three cases:

List of contents:
L L
)′′ dx
∫ Φ r ( x ) ⋅ ( EI ( x ) ⋅ Φ′′n ( x )= ∫ EI ( x )Φ′′( x ) ⋅ Φ′′ ( x )dx
r n
knowledge 0 0
Modal Analysis Thus:

Eigenvalue problem L L
( )′′ dx =
∫ Φ ⋅ ⋅ Φ ′′ ∫ Φ ⋅ ω m( x )Φ n ( x )dx
2
Mode orthogonality r ( x ) EI ( x ) n ( x ) r ( x ) n
0 0
Forced vibrations
Modal damping L L
Response Spectrum Analysis ⇒ ∫ EI ( x )Φ′′r ( x ) ⋅ Φ

= ′′n ( x )dx ω 2
n ∫ m ( x )Φ ( x ) ⋅ Φ
r n ( x )dx (I)
0 0
Case study
Following the same procedure but starting with mode “r”:
Extra slides L L
∫ EI ( x )Φ′′ ( x ) ⋅ Φ=
n
′′( x )dx
r ω 2
r ∫ m ( x )Φ n ( x ) ⋅ Φ r ( x )dx (II)
CIE 5260 0 0
Earthquakes
Lecture 19 L
(I) – (II) (ωn2 − ωr2 ) ∫ m( x )Φ n ( x ) ⋅ Φ r ( x )dx = 0
0
57/ 59
List of contents: (ω − ω ) ∫ m( x )Φ n ( x ) ⋅ Φ r ( x )dx = 0

2
n
2
r
0
knowledge
Assuming two distinct modes, namely ωn ≠ ωr , then we have:
Modal Analysis
Eigenvalue problem
L
Mode orthogonality
Forced vibrations
∫ m ( x )Φ
0
n ( x ) ⋅ Φ r ( x )dx = 0
Modal damping Orthogonality relations
( )′′ dx = 0
Frequency domain Analysis ∫
0
Φ n ( x ) ⋅ EI ( x ) ⋅ Φ ′′
r ( x )
Case study
Extra slides
When one and the same mode is considered:
CIE 5260
Structural Response to L L
Earthquakes
Lecture 19 ∫ m( x ) ⋅ Φ n ( x) ⋅ Φ n ( x)dx = M n ∫Φ n ( x) ⋅ ( EI ( x) ⋅ Φ′′n ( x) )′′ dx = K n
0 0
58/ 59
Choice of modes when system rests on Winkler foundation:

List of contents:
Governing equation of a beam on elastic foundation:
knowledge
Modal Analysis
EI ( x )Φ′′( x ) − ω 2mΦ ( x ) + k Φ ( x ) =0
Eigenvalue problem
Mode orthogonality
Forced vibrations ∞ L ∞
=
Modal damping
n 1=
r n∑ ∫ k ( x )Φ ( x )Φ
n 1
∑ K rn
( x )dx = Choose modes of beam without foundation;
Modes are coupled through the Winkler
0
foundation term in the EoM.
Case study
Extra slides ∞ L ∞
Choose modes of beam inlc. foundation;
=n 1= n 1
∑ ∫ k ( x )Φ r ( x )Φ n ( x )dx =
∑ K rnδ rn Modes are fully decoupled!
0
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 19
Prefered option for modal analysis
59/ 59
CIE 5260

Tel.: 015 27 89225, Room 3.44
Lecture 20
CIE 5260
Delft, 2019
1/ 36
List of contents:
Seismic analysis of liquid storage tanks
Problem statement
• Introduction and statement of the problem
Formulation of governing
equations in the 2-D case • Tank-liquid equations in 2-D space
Methods of solution of the
• Methods of solution of the FSI problem
FSI problem
Impulsive & convective • Impulsive and convective mass of the liquid

mass of the liquid
• Seismic methods of analysis according to EN1998-4
for cylindrical tanks
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 20
2/ 36
List of contents:
Problem statement
FSI problem

mass of the liquid
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 20
3/ 36
FSI in Earthquake Engineering
List of contents:
Problem statement
equations in the 2-D case

FSI problem
Impulsive & convective

mass of the liquid
CIE 5260
Structural Response to Figure: Typical
Earthquakes engineering structures
Lecture 20
for which Fluid-
Structure Interaction
(FSI) is relevant.
4/ 36
Liquid storage tanks
List of contents:
Problem statement

FSI problem

mass of the liquid
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 20
5/ 36
z
x
List of contents:
Wall of the tank
Problem statement
Methods of solution of the Liquid

FSI problem
Impulsive & convective Plate (base) of

mass of the liquid the tank
CIE 5260
Structural Response to Representation of the
Earthquakes
Lecture 20 soil-foundation system Free-field seismic
(Lectures 17-18) motion (input)
6/ 36
List of contents:
Problem statement
Formulation of
governing equations in • Tank-liquid equations in 2-D space
the 2-D case
FSI problem • Impulsive and convective mass of the liquid
mass of the liquid
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 20
7/ 36
Governing equations of the tank-liquid
system
Governing equations shall include:
List of contents:
• Equations of motion of the tank structure:
Problem statement
+ liquid pressure exerted at the walls and slab of the tank
Formulation of
governing equations in + earthquake ground excitation
the 2-D case
• Equation of motion of the stored liquid
FSI problem • Boundary (BC) and interface (IC) conditions between the
Impulsive & convective structural elements
mass of the liquid
• Interface conditions at the tank-liquid interfaces
CIE 5260
Earthquakes Order of the coupled system of equations = number of
Lecture 20
boundary and interface conditions
8/ 36
Wall of the tank

List of contents: represented by
beam 1 and
Problem statement Liquid beam 2.
Formulation of
governing equations in
the 2-D case
Methods of solution of the z
FSI problem
x Plate (base) of
Impulsive & convective the tank
mass of the liquid
uv (t ) represented by
Representation of the uh (t )
beam 3
soil-foundation system
by distributed springs
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 20
In chapter 9 of the reader CIE5260 we describe in detail how to tackle this problem
in an analytical way. Here we give an overview of the governing equations alone and
the steps to obtain the solution to the problem in a semi-analytical manner.
9/ 36
Equations of motion of the tank
The equations of motion of the beams incl. the pressure exerted by

the fluid as a forcing term at the right hand-side and the seismic
List of contents:
excitation read:
Problem statement • For the wall on the left (beam #1) we have:
Formulation of
governing equations in ∂ 4u1 ( z , t ) ∂ 2u1 ( z , t )
EI w + mw = − pliq ( x = 0, z , t )
the 2-D case
∂z 4
∂t 2
 
liquid pressure exerted
Methods of solution of the at the inner side of the wall
FSI problem

• For the wall on the right (beam #2) we have:
mass of the liquid
∂ 4 u2 ( z , t ) ∂ 2 u2 ( z , t )
EI w + mw =
pliq ( x = L, z , t )
∂z 4
∂t 2
CIE 5260
• For the plate at the bottom side (beam #3) we can write down:
Earthquakes
Lecture 20 ∂ 4u3 ( x, t ) ∂ 2u3 ( x, t )
EI p + mp + kd ( u3 ( x, t ) − uv (t ) ) =
− pliq ( x, z = 0, t )
∂x 4 ∂t 2   
earthquake loading
10/ 36
Equation of motion of the liquid
We assume the liquid to be incompressible. The equation of motion

List of contents:
of an incompressible liquid can be expressed in terms of a scalar
velocity potential (Laplace equation):
Problem statement
Formulation of ∂ 2φ ( x, z , t ) ∂ 2φ ( x, z , t )
+ =
0
∂x 2 ∂z 2
the 2-D case

FSI problem
• The velocity potential can be related to the fluid velocity by:
∂ ∂
v f ( x, z , t ) = ∇φ ( x, z , t ), with: ∇ =
mass of the liquid
xˆ + zˆ
∂x ∂z
• The pressure of the fluid can be written as:

CIE 5260
∂φ ( x, z , t )
Earthquakes
Lecture 20 pliq ( x, z , t ) = − ρliq
∂t
11/ 36
Order of tank-liquid system of equations
The equations of motion are listed below:
List of contents:
∂ 4u1 ( z , t ) ∂ 2u1 ( z , t )
EI w + mw = − pliq ( x = 0, z , t ) ( A)
Problem statement
∂z 4 ∂t 2
Formulation of
∂ 4 u2 ( z , t ) ∂ 2 u2 ( z , t )
governing equations in EI w + mw == pliq ( x L, z , t ) ( B)
the 2-D case ∂z 4
∂t 2
∂ 4u3 ( x, t ) ∂ 2u3 ( x, t )
+ kd ( u3 ( x, t ) − uv (t ) )= pliq ( x, z= 0, t )
EI p + mp (C )
FSI problem
∂x 4 ∂t 2
∂ 2φ ( x, z , t ) ∂ 2φ ( x, z , t )
mass of the liquid + = 0 ( D)
∂x 2 ∂z 2
What is the order of the system of coupled differential equations:

CIE 5260
Structural Response to • with respect to spatial variables “x” and “z” ?
Earthquakes
Lecture 20
• with respect to time variable “t” ?
12/ 36
BCs and ICs between the structural
elements
∂ 2u1 ( z , t ) ∂ 2 u2 ( z , t )
List of contents: M1 ( H , t ) =
0⇒ =
0 =0
∂z 2 z = H ∂z 2 z=H
Problem statement
∂ 3u1 ( z , t ) ∂ 3u2 ( z , t )
Formulation of V1 ( H , t ) =
0⇒ =
0 =0
governing equations in ∂z 3
z=H
∂z 3
z=H
the 2-D case

FSI problem

mass of the liquid
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 20
z
13/ 36
elements
List of contents:
Problem statement
Formulation of
the 2-D case

FSI problem
Impulsive & convective z

mass of the liquid
x
CIE 5260
 u1 (0, t=
) u2 (0, t=
) 0 → vertical excitation (dynamic, option 1)
Earthquakes
Lecture 20  u1=
(0, t ) u2 =
(0, t ) uh (t ) → horizontal excitation (kinematic, option 2)
 ϕ
=1 (0, t ) ϕ3 (0, t ) → continuity of slopes
ϕ2 (0, t ) ϕ3 ( L, t ) → continuity of slopes
 =
14/ 36
elements
List of contents:
Problem statement
Formulation of
the 2-D case

FSI problem
z
mass of the liquid x
∂ 2u1 ( z , t ) ∂ 2u3 ( x, t )
CIE 5260  M 1 (0, t ) + M 3 (0, t ) =
0 ⇒ EI w + EI p =
0
Earthquakes
∂z 2
z =0
∂x 2
x =0
Lecture 20
∂ 2 u2 ( z , t ) ∂ 2u3 ( x, t )
 M 2 (0, t ) − M 3 ( L, t ) =
0 ⇒ EI w − EI p =
0
∂z 2 z =0
∂x 2
x=L
15/ 36
elements
List of contents:
Problem statement
Formulation of
the 2-D case

FSI problem
z
mass of the liquid x
∂ 2u3 ( x, t ) ∂ 2u3 ( x, t ) ∂ 3u3 ( x, t )

CIE 5260  mw H =
V3 (0, t ) ⇒ mw H =
− EI p
Earthquakes =
∂t 2
x 0 =
∂t 2
x 0=
∂x 3
x 0
Lecture 20
∂ 2u3 ( x, t ) ∂ 2u3 ( x, t ) ∂ 3u3 ( x, t )
 mw H =
−V3 ( L, t ) ⇒ mw H =
EI p
=
∂t 2 x L =
∂t 2 x L=
∂x 3 x L
16/ 36
Summary of BCs and ICs for the
structural elements
∂ 2u1 ( z , t ) ∂ 3u1 ( z , t )
= = 0 (Eq.1; 2)
∂z 2
=z H=z H
∂z 3
List of contents:
∂ 2 u2 ( z , t ) ∂ 3u 2 ( z , t )
= =0 (Eq.3; 4)
Problem statement
=z
∂z 2 H=z
∂z 3 H
Formulation of
u=
1 (0, t ) u=
2 (0, t ) 0 (Eq.5a;6a)
the 2-D case
u=
1 (0, t ) u=
2 (0, t ) uh (t ) (Eq.5b;6b)
ϕ1 (0, t ) = ϕ3 (0, t ) (Eq.7)
FSI problem ϕ2 (0, t ) = ϕ3 ( L, t ) (Eq.8)
Impulsive & convective ∂ 2u1 ( z , t ) ∂ 2u3 ( x, t )
mass of the liquid
EI w = − EI p (Eq.9)
∂z 2 z =0 ∂x 2 x =0
∂ 2 u2 ( z , t ) ∂ 2u3 ( x, t )
EI w = EI p (Eq.10)
∂z 2 z =0
∂x 2 x=L
∂ 2u3 ( x, t ) ∂ 3u3 ( x, t )
CIE 5260
mw H = − EI p (Eq.11)
Earthquakes =
∂t 2
x 0=
∂x 3 x 0
Lecture 20
∂ 2u3 ( x, t ) ∂ 3u3 ( x, t )
mw H = EI p (Eq.12)
=
∂t 2 x L=
∂x 3 x L
17/ 36
Tank-liquid interface conditions
The tank-liquid dynamics are fully coupled:

List of contents:
• Dynamic interaction: through the pressure exerted by the
Problem statement liquid on the inner side of the beams:
Formulation of
the 2-D case ∂ 4u1 ( z , t ) ∂ 2u1 ( z , t )
EI w + mw = − pliq ( x = 0, z , t )
Methods of solution of the ∂z 4
∂t 2
 
liquid pressure exerted
FSI problem at the inner side of the wall

mass of the liquid
∂φ ( x, z , t )
pliq ( x, z , t ) = − ρliq
∂t
CIE 5260
Earthquakes • Kinematic interaction: by setting beam-liquid displacements
Lecture 20
(or velocities) equal at the common interface
18/ 36
Tank-liquid interface conditions
List of contents:
1 2
Problem statement
Formulation of 2
the 2-D case v f , x ( x =L, z , t ) − u2 ( z , t ) =0
3
∂φ ( x, z , t ) ∂u ( z , t )
FSI problem z
→ − 2 =
0
Impulsive & convective ∂x x=L
∂t
x
mass of the liquid
v f , x ( x =0, z , t ) − u1 ( z , t ) =0 v f , z ( x, z =
0, t ) − u3 ( x, t ) =
0
∂φ ( x, z , t ) ∂u ( z , t ) ∂φ ( x, z , t ) ∂u ( x, t )
CIE 5260 → − 1 =
0 → − 3 =
0
Structural Response to ∂x x =0
∂t ∂ z z =0
∂t
Earthquakes
Lecture 20
1 3
19/ 36
Liquid free-surface BC
pliq (= , t ) ρliq g η ( x, z , t ) →
x, z H=
List of contents: ∂ 2η ( x , z ,t ) ∂v f , z ( x , z ,t )
 1 ∂ 2φ ( x, z , t ) ∂φ ( x, z , t ) 
=
→ 
∂t 2 ∂t
+  =0
Problem statement
 g ∂ t 2
∂ z  z=H
Formulation of
the 2-D case

FSI problem

mass of the liquid
CIE 5260
Structural Response to z
Earthquakes
Lecture 20
x
20/ 36
Summary of liquid-tank kinematic
relations
List of contents:
∂φ ( x, z , t ) ∂u1 ( z , t )
Problem statement = (Eq.13)
∂x x =0
∂t
Formulation of
∂φ ( x, z , t ) ∂u2 ( z , t )
the 2-D case = (Eq.14)
∂x x=L
∂t
FSI problem
∂φ ( x, z , t ) ∂u ( x, t )
= 3 (Eq.15)
∂z z =0
∂t
mass of the liquid
 1 ∂ 2φ ( x, z , t ) ∂φ ( x, z , t ) 
 +  =0 (Eq.16)
 g ∂ t 2
∂ z  z=H
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 20
21/ 36
Total number of BCs and ICs
We note that in total we have:
List of contents:
• 12 (BCs + ICs) formulated for the structural elements;
Problem statement
• 3 ICs formulated at the tank-liquid interfaces;
Formulation of • 1 BC allowing for the generation of waves at the free-
surface of the stored liquid.
the 2-D case

FSI problem

mass of the liquid
Order of the system in (x+z)-coordinates
= number of BCs and ICs formulated
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 20
Problem is well-posed and solvable!
22/ 36
Critical thinking
List of contents:
• What will change in the derivation procedure if we
Problem statement include shear springs representing the horizontal
Formulation of dynamic reaction of the soil below the tank and we
governing equations in treat the slab as a rigid body in translational
the 2-D case
motion?
FSI problem

• What will change if we would like to assume the
mass of the liquid base slab to be flexible also in-plane (axial motion)?
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 20
23/ 36
List of contents:
Problem statement
Methods of solution of
the FSI problem

mass of the liquid
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 20
24/ 36
Methods of solution of the coupled
system of equations
List of contents:
There are in principle two ways to solve the problem:
Problem statement
Formulation of governing I. Numerical methods, i.e. Finite Elements (FE) or

Finite Differences (FD), which discretise the
domain (FE) or substitute the differentials with
the FSI problem
finite differences.
mass of the liquid
II. Semi-analytical methods based on liquid modes

(and structural modes)
CIE 5260
Design codes are using this second group
Earthquakes
Lecture 20
of methods
25/ 36
Semi-analytical methods
Semi-analytical methods are based on the following principles:

List of contents:
• The structural response can be expressed in terms of modes;
Problem statement
• The liquid response can be expressed in terms of liquid modes;
equations in the 2-D case • The problem is linear  frequency domain solution is adopted.
the FSI problem

mass of the liquid
The problem cannot be solved at a single step because the
liquid couples modes in all directions
CIE 5260
Earthquakes Several potential functions are introduced for the liquid each satisfying
Lecture 20
a subset of the ICs at the tank-liquid interfaces  the superposition of
all potentials shall satisfy all ICs.
26/ 36
Steps of the semi-analytical method
• Write down the governing equations of motion in the time domain.

Step 1
List of contents:
Problem statement • Transform the governing equations in the frequency domain.

Step 2
Methods of solution of • Solve the eigenvalue problem of the structure alone (without the presence of
the FSI problem Step 3 the liquid). Derive the orthogonality condition of the modes.
mass of the liquid
• Find the modes of the liquid for each subset of potentials introduced. Derive
Step 4 the orthogonality of the modes for each potential function.
• Substitute the structural and liquid modes into the tank-liquid ICs and into
Step 5 the forced equations of motion of the structure.
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 20 • Find the unknown modal amplitudes by applying the orthogonality conditions
Step 6 of the structural modes and the fluid modes in the equations of step 5.
27/ 36
Governing equations in the frequency
domain
List of contents: Transformation of EoMs in the frequency domain:

d 4u1 ( z , ω )
Problem statement
EI w − ω 2
mwu1 ( z , ω ) = − p liq ( x = 0, z , ω ) (A)
Formulation of governing dz 4
equations in the 2-D case d 4u2 ( z , ω )
EI w 4
− ω 2 mwu2 ( z , ω ) = p liq ( x = L, z , ω ) ( B)
Methods of solution of dz
the FSI problem
 
Impulsive & convective d u3 ( z , ω )
4
 (ω )  u ( z , ω ) + av (ω )  =
EI p − ω 2
m 
u ( z , ω ) + k  3  p liq ( x, z = 0, ω ) (C )
mass of the liquid dz 4
p 3 d
 ω
 
2
 input motion 
∂ 2φ ( x, z , ω ) ∂ 2φ ( x, z , ω )
+ = 0 ( D)
∂x 2 ∂z 2
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 20
28/ 36
domain
d 2u1 ( z , ω ) d 3u1 ( z , ω )
= 2
= 3
0 (Eq.1; 2)
List of contents: dz
=z H=z H
dz
d 2u2 ( z , ω ) d 3u2 ( z , ω )
Problem statement = =0 (Eq.3; 4)
=z
dz 2 H=z
dz 3 H
equations in the 2-D case 1 (0, ω )
u= 2 (0, ω )
u= 0 (Eq.5a;6a)
ah (ω )
Methods of solution of u1 (0, ω ) = u2 (0, ω ) = − (Eq.5b;6b)
the FSI problem ω2
ϕ1 (0, ω ) = ϕ3 (0, ω ) (Eq.7)
mass of the liquid ϕ2 (0, ω ) = ϕ3 ( L, ω ) (Eq.8)
d 2u1 ( z , ω ) d 2u3 ( x, ω )
EI w = − EI p (Eq.9)
dz 2 z =0
dx 2 x =0
d 2u2 ( z , ω ) d 2u3 ( x, ω )
EI w = EI p (Eq.10)
dz 2 z =0
dx 2 x=L
CIE 5260
Structural Response to d 3u3 ( x, ω )
Earthquakes ω mw H u3 (0, ω ) = EI p
2
(Eq.11)
Lecture 20 dx3 x =0
d 3u3 ( x, ω )
−ω mw H u3 ( L, ω ) =
2
EI p (Eq.12)
dx3 x=L
29/ 36
domain
List of contents:
∂φ ( x, z , ω )
Problem statement = iωu1 ( z , ω ) (Eq.13)
∂x x =0
equations in the 2-D case ∂φ ( x, z , ω )
= iωu2 ( z , ω ) (Eq.14)
∂x x=L
the FSI problem
Impulsive & convective ∂φ ( x, z , ω )

mass of the liquid
= iωu3 ( x, ω ) (Eq.15)
∂z z =0
 ω2 ∂φ ( x, z , ω ) 
 − φ ( x, z , ω ) +  =
0 (Eq.16)
 g ∂z  z = H
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 20
30/ 36
Eigenvalue problem for the tank
List of contents:
• The eigenvalue problem of the tank (modelled here
Problem statement as 3 beams connected monolithically to each other)
Formulation of governing is obtained on the basis of the theory discussed in
Lecture 19.
the FSI problem
Impulsive & convective Recall how to obtain the eigenvalue solution when
mass of the liquid several 1-D continua are connected to each other…
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 20
31/ 36
List of contents:
Problem statement
FSI problem

mass of the liquid
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 20
32/ 36
Separation of the liquid potential
List of contents:
Problem statement

FSI problem

mass of the liquid
φ ( x, z , ω ) = φ1 ( x, z , ω ) + φ2 ( x, z, ω ) + φ3 ( x, z , ω )
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 20
33/ 36
Separation of the liquid potential
 
functions of z-coordinate only!

∂φ2 ( x, z , ω )
List of contents: = iωu1 ( z , ω ) (Eq.13)
∂x x =0
Problem statement

functions of z-coordinate only! 
∂φ2 ( x, z , ω )
= iωu2 ( z , ω )
(Eq.14)
Methods of solution of the ∂x x=L
FSI problem

functions of x-coordinate only!
∂φ1 ( x, z , ω )
= iωu3 ( x, ω )
mass of the liquid
(Eq.15)
∂z z =0
 ω2 ∂φ ( x, z , ω ) 
 − φ ( x, z , ω ) +
  =
0 (Eq.16)
 g ∂z  z = H
CIE 5260
 
Structural Response to φ ( x , z ,ω ) =φ1 ( x , z ,ω )+φ2 ( x , z ,ω ) +φ3 ( x , z ,ω )
Earthquakes
Lecture 20
We have managed to separate the variables also at

the interfaces  problem solved!
34/ 36
Eigenfields of the fluid potentials
φ1 ( x, z , ω ) = Φ1x ( x ) Φ1z ( z ) 

Boundaries in x-direction are homogeneous
→
∞
Φ ( x ) A sin ( k ( z ) + Bm cos ( k1z ,m z ) )
List of contents:
φ ( x, z , ω ) =
1 ∑
m =1
1x , m m 1z , m
Problem statement
φ2 ( x, z , ω ) = Φ 2 x ( x ) Φ 2 z ( z ) 
Boundaries in z-direction are homogeneous
→
∞
FSI problem
φ2 ( x, z , ω=
) ∑ Φ ( z ) (C
q =1
2 x ,q q sin ( k2 x ,q x ) + Dq cos ( k2 x ,q x ) )
mass of the liquid
φ3 ( x, z , ω ) = Φ 3 x ( x ) Φ 3 z ( z ) 
Boundaries in x-direction are homogeneous
→
∞
Φ ( x ) F sin ( k
φ ( x, z , ω ) =
1 ∑
p =1
3x, p ( p 3z, p z ) + G p cos ( k3 z , p z ) )
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 20 Using orthogonality conditions of the fluid modes and
the structural modes the unknown set of coefficients
can be found.
35/ 36
Reading material

Problem statement o Lecture slides
o Lecture notes: Sections 9.2, 9.2.1-9.2.4 (p. 309-325)

FSI problem
Impulsive & convective Optional reading:

mass of the liquid
o Lecture notes: Chapter 9 (p. 291-346)
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 20
36/ 36
CIE 5260

Tel.: 015 27 89225, Room 3.44
Lecture 21
CIE 5260
Delft, 2019
1/ 44

List of contents: • Simplified method of analysis according to EN1998-4
Simplified methods for
cylindrical tanks
o Analysis in the time domain
Analysis in the time domain
Response spectrum analysis

o Response spectrum analysis (multi-modal)
Seismic verifications o Simplified response spectrum analysis
• Preliminary design verification of steel tanks subjected
to seismic loading
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 21
2/ 44
Simplified methods of analysis
Simplified methods of analysis of liquid storage tanks:

(applicable to both rigid tanks and flexible tanks)
List of contents:
Time history analysis Response Spectrum

Simplified methods for Analysis
cylindrical tanks
Response spectrum analysis Rigid tanks Simplified procedure for fixed-

Seismic verifications
(concrete) base cylindrical tanks
Flexible tanks
(steel)
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 21
Represent liquid with modal hydrodynamic pressures and
carry out either a quasi-static analysis (RSA) or a time
domain analysis (THA).
3/ 44

cylindrical tanks
Analysis in the tim e
dom ain o Response spectrum analysis (multi-modal)
o Simplified response spectrum analysis
• Preliminary design verification of steel tanks

subjected to seismic loading
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 21
4/ 44
Basic geometry of a cylindrical tank
List of contents:
H
cylindrical tanks

dom ain
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 21
5/ 44
(rigid tank s)
Basic considerations:
List of contents: • Cylindrical tanks with constant wall and plate thicknesses;
cylindrical tanks
• The tank can be either flexible (steel tank) or rigid (concrete
tank). We consider here rigid tanks alone.
dom ain
Response spectrum analysis • For symmetric structures the vertical ground motion needs to
Seismic verifications be considered together with one horizontal direction
• The procedure described in EN1998-4-Annex A is explained

 similar procedures are to be found in all modern
seismic design codes.
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 21
6/ 44
(rigid tank s)
• Calculation of rigid impulsive and convective masses of

the liquid and their associated pressure distributions due to
Step 1 horizontal ground motion.
List of contents:

cylindrical tanks • Calculation of rigid impulsive pressure and mass (if needed)
due to vertical ground motion.
dom ain
Step 2
Seismic verifications • Substitute the model with the one of a rigid tank in which the
masses above act at given heights to calculate the base shear
Step 3 force and base overturning moment.
CIE 5260
• Application of the resulting pressures to a FE model of the
Structural Response to structure and calculation of the exact distribution of
Earthquakes
Lecture 21 Step 4 stresses of the shell structure.
7/ 44
Rigid impulsive pressure
The spatio-temporal distribution of the rigid impulsive pressure

distribution is given as:
pi (ξ , ς , θ , t ) = Ci (ξ , ς ) ρ H cos (θ ) Ag ( t )
List of contents:
( −1)
n
∞
 Ci (ξ , ς ) = 2∑ cos ( vnς ) I1 ( vnξ / γ )
n =0 I1′ ( vn / γ ) v2
n
cylindrical tanks
2n + 1
dom ain
 vn = π
2
 γ H / R → height-to-radius ratio
=
 ξ =r/R → dimensionless radial coordinate
 ς =z/H → dimensionless axial coordinate
 I1 ( ⋅) and I1′ ( ⋅) denote the modified Bessel function of
CIE 5260 order 1 and its derivative
Earthquakes
Lecture 21  Ag ( t ) denotes the time-history of the ground acceleration
Note: An elementary introduction to the Bessel functions can be found here.
8/ 44
Rigid impulsive pressure
List of contents:
H/R
cylindrical tanks
H/R
dom ain
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 21
Source: Figure reproduced from EN1998-4:2007 – Annex A
9/ 44
Rigid impulsive mass and base shear
The base shear force due to the rigid impulsive pressure is

given as:
List of contents:
Qi ( t ) = mi Ag ( t )
cylindrical tanks
∞
I1 ( vn / γ )
Analysis in the tim e  mi = 2mγ ∑
n = 0 I1′ ( vn / γ ) vn
3
dom ain

→ mi denotes the mass of the contained liquid that moves
together with the walls of the tank.
 m = ρπ R 2 H is the total mass of the contained liquid.

CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 21
10/ 44
Overturning moments due to rigid
impulsive mass
The total moment is calculated at two critical positions:

List of contents:
• M i′ ( t ) immediately below the tank bottom, including pressure

contributions from the walls and the slab of the tank
cylindrical tanks
 needed for evaluation of foundation elements.
dom ain
Response spectrum analysis • M i ( t ) immediately above the tank bottom, including pressure
contributions only from the walls of the tank
 needed for evaluation of the wall of the tank.
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 21
11/ 44
Overturning moments due to rigid
impulsive mass
The total moment due to the rigid impulsive pressure
immediately below the tank bottom is given as:
List of contents:
Simplified methods for M i′ ( t ) = mi hi′ Ag ( t ) with:

cylindrical tanks

dom ain
Seismic verifications The total moment due to the rigid impulsive pressure
immediately above the tank bottom is given as:
CIE 5260
M i ( t ) = mi hi Ag ( t ) with:
Earthquakes
Lecture 21
12/ 44
Rigid impulsive mass and height
H/R mi/m
?
List of contents:

cylindrical tanks

dom ain
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 21
13/ 44
Convective pressure distribution
The spatio-temporal distribution of the convective pressure

distribution is given as:
∞
pc (ξ , ς , θ , t ) = ρ ∑ψ n cosh ( λnγς ) J1 ( λnξ ) cos (θ ) Acn ( t )
List of contents: n =1
2R
 ψn =
(λ − 1) J1 ( λn ) cosh ( λnγ )
2
cylindrical tanks n
dom ain
 J1 ( ⋅) denotes the Bessel function of the first order
Response spectrum analysis  λ1 1.841,
= = λ2 5.331,
= λ3 8.536
Acn ( t ) denotes the time-history of the response of a SDoF to the input

free-field ground motion Ag ( t ) . The SDoF has the following properties:
CIE 5260 λn
Structural Response to ωcn = g tanh ( λnγ ) and a damping ratio of 0.5%.
Earthquakes R
Lecture 21
Note: An elementary introduction to the Bessel functions can be found here.
14/ 44
Convective pressure distribution and
sloshing frequencies
List of contents:

cylindrical tanks

dom ain
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 21
15/ 44
Convective mass and base shear
The base shear force due to the convective pressure is

given as:
∞
List of contents: Qc ( t ) = ∑ mcn Acn ( t )
n =1
in which the n - th modal convective mass is:
cylindrical tanks
Analysis in the tim e 2 tanh ( λnγ )

 mcn = m
dom ain
λnγ ( λn2 − 1)
Seismic verifications  m = ρπ R 2 H is the total mass of the contained liquid.
Note:
CIE 5260 The convective component of the response may be obtained from
Earthquakes that of SDoF systems having masses mcn attached to the rigid tank
through springs having stiffnesses kn = ωcn mcn (one oscillator for
Lecture 21 2
each mode number “n”). The tank is subjected to the ground Ag ( t )

acceleration and the masses respond with acceleration Acn ( t ) .
16/ 44
Convective masses and heights
H/R mc/m
List of contents:

cylindrical tanks

dom ain
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 21

17/ 44
Overturning moments due to convective
mass
The total moment due to the convective pressure immediately
below the tank bottom is given as:
List of contents:
∞  2 − cosh ( λnγ ) 
(t )
M c′= ∑ (
mcn Acn ( t ) )hcn with:=
′ ′
hcn H 1 + 
cylindrical tanks
n =1
Q (t )
 λn γ sinh ( λn γ ) 
cn

dom ain
Seismic verifications The total moment due to the convective pressure immediately
above the tank bottom is given as:
∞  1 − cosh ( λnγ ) 
CIE 5260
Structural Response to (t )
M c= ∑ (
m A ( t ) )h
cn cn cn with:=
hcn H 1 +
λ γ sinh λ γ

( n )
Earthquakes
Lecture 21
n =1
Qcn ( t )
 n
18/ 44
Superposition of contributions
The time-history of the total pressure is the sum of the following two
time-histories:
• The impulsive one being driven by Ag(t) including the inertial of
the walls and the roof of the tank when relevant.
List of contents:
• The convective ones being driven by Acn(t) (usually the

consideration of the first mode suffices).
cylindrical tanks
Analysis in the tim e ∞

dom ain

Q(t ) = (mw + mr + mi ) Ag (t ) + ∑m
n =1
cn Acn (t )
M ′(t ) = M w+ r + M i′ ( t ) +M c′ ( t ) = ( mw hw + mr hr + mi hi′ ) Ag ( t )
∞
+ ∑ mcn Acn ( t ) hcn′
n =1

Qcn ( t )
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 21
M (t ) = M w+ r + M i ( t ) +M c ( t ) = ( mw hw + mr hr + mi hi′ ) Ag ( t )
∞
+ ∑ mcn Acn ( t ) hcn
n =1
19/ 44
Vertical component of the seismic action
The spatio-temporal distribution of the rigid impulsive

pressure distribution due to the vertical ground acceleration
List of contents: is given as:
pvr (=
ς , t ) ρ H (1 − ς ) Av ( t )
cylindrical tanks
Analysis in the tim e  Av ( t ) denotes the vertical motion of the ground.

dom ain

 ς =z/H → dimensionless axial coordinate
Being axisymmetric this hydrodynamic pressure does not

produce any shear force or moment resultant at any
horizontal level of the tank.
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 21
20/ 44
Sloshing height
The sloshing height caused by the convective motion of the liquid

can be estimated by the following formula:
d max = 0.84 RSe (Tc1 ) / g

List of contents:

cylindrical tanks
Analysis in the tim e where Se (Tc1 ) is the elastic response spectral acceleration
dom ain
at the 1st convective mode of the liquid with a damping value
appropriate for the sloshing response (usually assumed 0.5%).
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 21
21/ 44
Consideration of SSI (simple procedure)
The impulsive pressure component of the response may be obtained
from that of SDoF system having mass mi attached to the rigid tank
through springs. The tank is subjected to the ground acceleration Ag ( t )
and the impulsive mass responds with acceleration Ai ( t ) obtained
by solving the response of a SDoF system of period T ( t ) and ξ s .
i
List of contents:
Horizontal motion: Vertical motion:
cylindrical tanks

dom ain
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 21
22/ 44

cylindrical tanks
Response spectrum
analysis

CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 21
23/ 44
Benefits of using the simplified RSA method:
• The ground motion is usually provided in terms of response spectra for

List of contents:
the region of interest rather than detailed ground motion histories.
Simplified methods for • The use of ground motion time-histories requires multiple simulations
cylindrical tanks to accommodate the inherent statistical uncertainty associated with
Analysis in the time domain the stochastic nature of a seismic event.
Response spectrum
analysis • Research has shown that at least for the case of rigid tanks supported
directly on stiff ground the simplified RSA method is conservative.
Limitations of the method:
CIE 5260
• The method cannot be used when SSI effects are important.
Earthquakes
Lecture 21
24/ 44
Response spectrum analysis with
multiple modes
In the case of a rigid tank structure, the rigid impulsive and

convective liquid pressures and masses can be calculated as
List of contents:
described previously.
Simplified methods for In order to obtain the total base shear force (upper bound estimation):
cylindrical tanks
Analysis in the time domain • the rigid impulsive mass is multiplied by the peak ground
Response spectrum acceleration including wall and roof mass (when relevant);
analysis
• each convective mass is multiplied by the response spectral
ordinate at the frequency corresponding to the relevant
eigenfrequency of the SDoF system representing the
convective mode of the liquid
∞
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Qmax = (mw + mr + mi ) Se (T = 0, ξi ) + ∑m
n =1
cn Se (Tcn , ξ cn )
Lecture 21
Elastic spectrum for Elastic spectrum for

5% critical damping 0.5% critical damping
25/ 44
Response spectrum analysis with
multiple modes
The total overturning moment immediately below the tank bottom is

given by:
List of contents:
∞
cylindrical tanks
M max, w = (m h
w w + mr hr + mi hi′ ) Se (T= 0, ξi ) + ∑m cn hcn′ Se (Tcn , ξ cn )
n =1
Response spectrum
analysis
The total overturning moment immediately above the tank bottom is
given by:
∞
M max, p = (m h
w w + mr hr + mi hi ) Se (T = 0, ξi )+ ∑m cn hcn Se (Tcn , ξ cn )
n =1
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 21
26/ 44

cylindrical tanks
Response spectrum
analysis

CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 21
27/ 44
Simplified response spectrum analysis
Background of the method:
• Can be used for preliminary design stages and when the wall of the
tank is of constant thickness.
List of contents: • The basis of this analysis is a 2-DoF system which includes the tank
structure and the liquid motion separated into its impulsive and
convective modes.
cylindrical tanks

• The procedure described above provides conservative estimates of the
base shear force and overturning moments in the case of fixed to the
Response spectrum
analysis
base cylindrical tanks (both flexible and rigid!).
Seismic verifications • Applicable (also) to steel tanks with deformable walls but without SSI.
mc
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 21 mi
28/ 44
• Step 1: Calculation of the eigenperiods of the impulsive and

convective components of the liquid motion.
List of contents:
ρliq ⋅ H
Simplified methods for Ti = Ci
cylindrical tanks
s/R E
Analysis in the time domain Tc = Cc R
Response spectrum
analysis
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 21
29/ 44
• Step 2: Calculation of modal masses and modal heights
List of contents:

cylindrical tanks
Response spectrum
analysis
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 21
30/ 44
• Step 3: Evaluation of the total base shear force and the

overturning moment below and above the connection with
the plate of the tank
List of contents:
Qmax = (mw + mr + mi ) Se (Ti , ξi ) +mc Se (Tc , ξ c )
cylindrical tanks

M max, w = (m h
w w + mr hr + mi hi′ ) Se (Ti , ξi ) + mc hc′ Se (Tc , ξ c )
Response spectrum
analysis
M max, p = (m hw w + mr hr + mi hi ) Se (Ti , ξi )+ mc hc Se (Tc , ξ c )
mc
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 21
mi
31/ 44

cylindrical tanks

Seismic verifications o Simplified response spectrum analysis
• Preliminary design verification of steel tanks subjected
to seismic loading
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 21
32/ 44
Preliminary verification of steel tanks
in seismic loading
The evaluation of the seismic capacity of steel storage tanks is

based primarily on the following codes:
List of contents: • EN1998-1: 2005
Design of structures for earthquake resistance-
Part 1: General rules, seismic actions and rules for buildings
cylindrical tanks
Analysis in the time domain • EN1998-4: 2007 (Chapters 3 and 4, Annex A)

Response spectrum analysis Design of structures for earthquake resistance-
Part 4: Silos, tanks and pipelines
• EN1993-1-6: 2007
Design of steel structures- Part 1-6:Strength and stability
of Shell Structures
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 21
33/ 44
Preliminary verification of steel tanks
in seismic loading
The preliminary verifications that shall be considered in the

case of a steel tank-liquid system are:
List of contents: 1. Sliding of the tank due to exceedance of frictional forces at the
foundation-soil level and loss of stability due to overturning
Simplified methods for moment (unanchored tanks);
cylindrical tanks

2. Tensile forces in the anchoring system (anchored tanks);
Response spectrum analysis 3. Buckling of the wall of the tank:
a) Meridional buckling due to compression forces resulting from the
base overturning moment due to the lateral seismic excitation;
b) Circumferential buckling due to excessive hoop stress;
c) Shear buckling due to base shear and torsion.

CIE 5260
4. Overflow of the liquid from the top of the wall or collision with
Earthquakes the roof of the tank due to sloshing (maximum elevation of the
Lecture 21
free liquid surface).
34/ 44
Sliding of the tank
• The sliding of the tank with the foundation shall be

checked for the calculated total base shear due to the
seismic action.
List of contents:
• For the sliding resistance the vertical component of
the seismic action shall be considered acting in the
cylindrical tanks
most unfavourable direction.

Qmax ≤ Q R
 Qmax denotes the maximum base shear as calculated previously.
 QR denotes the sliding resistance given by:
QR = µWtot (1 − α Avg ;max )
⋅ µ → static friction coefficient
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
⋅ α → usually taken equal to 0.3 ÷ 0.4
Lecture 21
⋅ Avg ;max → PGA in the vertical direction in [g]
35/ 44
Meridional buckling of the steel wall
The seismic overturning moment is distributed at the two

opposite sides of the wall (using shell membrane theory) as
follows:
List of contents:

cylindrical tanks
CIE 5260
Figure: EN1993-1-6 (Annex A):
Earthquakes Membrane theory stresses in
Lecture 21
shells.
36/ 44
The total meridional compressive stress should include the

one resulting from the own weight of the tank when this is
relevant accounting also for the vertical component of the
seismic action acting in the most unfavourable direction.
List of contents:
1  M w WT (1 + α Agv ;max ) 
cylindrical tanks
Analysis in the time domain σ x ,max

=  + 
s  π R2 2π R 
Response spectrum analysis  
 M w denotes the maximum overturning moment immediately

above the plate.
 s denotes the equivalent uniform thickness of the wall.
CIE 5260  WT denotes the weight of the tank up to critical cross section.
Earthquakes
Lecture 21
 Avg ;max → PGA in the vertical direction in [g].
 α → usually taken equal to 0.3 ÷ 0.4.
37/ 44
The critical meridional buckling stress is evaluated with the following

formula:
s
σ x , Rcr = 0.60 ECx
List of contents: R
o Calculation of dimensionless length parameter: ω = l /

rs
cylindrical tanks

o Characterisation of the shell:
R
Seismic verifications a) Medium-length: 1.7 ≤ ω ≤ → Cx =
1.0
s
1.83 2.07
b) Short shells: ω ≤ 1.7 → Cx = 1.36 − +
ω ω2
R  0.2  s 
CIE 5260
c) Long shells: ω > 0.5 =
→ Cx max 0.60;1 +  1 − 2ω 
Earthquakes s  Cxb  R 
Lecture 21
Cxb = 3 (for clamped-pinned shells)
38/ 44
Buckling of the steel wall
σ x ,max ≤ σ x , Rcr
List of contents:  σ x ,max denotes the maximum axial stress immediately

Simplified methods for above the plate.
cylindrical tanks
 σ x , Rcr denotes the critical meridional buckling stress.
Seismic verifications Shells need not to be checked against meridional buckling if they satisfy:
R E
≤ 0.03
s f yk
with f yk denoting the characteristic yield strength of steel.
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 21
39/ 44
Shear buckling of the steel wall
The seismic shear stress at the base of the wall is calculated

(using shell membrane theory) as follows:
List of contents:

cylindrical tanks
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 21
Figure: EN1993-1-6 (Annex A):
Membrane theory stresses in shells.
40/ 44
The critical shear buckling stress is evaluated with the following

formula:
s
τ xθ , Rcr = 0.75ECτ ω −1
List of contents: R
o Calculation of dimensionless length parameter: ω = l / rs
cylindrical tanks

o Characterisation of the shell:
R
Seismic verifications a) Medium-length: 10 ≤ ω ≤ 8.7 → Cτ =
1.0
s
42
b) Short shells: ω ≤ 10 → Cτ = 1 +
ω3
CIE 5260
c) Long shells: R 1 s
Structural Response to ω > 8.7 → Cx = ω
Earthquakes s 3 R
Lecture 21
41/ 44
τ xθ ,max ≤ τ xθ , Rcr
List of contents:  τ xθ ,max denotes the maximum shear stress in the xθ -plane

immediately above the plate.
cylindrical tanks  τ xθ , Rcr denotes the critical shear buckling stress.

Shells need not to be checked against shear buckling if they satisfy:
0.67
R  E 
≤ 0.16  
s  f yk 
with f yk denoting the characteristic yield strength of steel.
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 21
42/ 44
Sloshing of the liquid free surface
The minimum free elevation height hmin should be given as:
List of contents: 0.84 RSe (Tc1 ) / g

hmin ≥ d max =

cylindrical tanks where Se (Tc1 ) is the elastic response spectral acceleration
at the 1st convective mode of the liquid with a damping value
appropriate for the sloshing response (usually assumed 0.5%).
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 21
43/ 44
Reading material
Essential reading:
o Lecture slides
List of contents:
o Lecture notes: Section 9.4 (p. 348-354)

cylindrical tanks
CIE 5260
Earthquakes
Lecture 21
44/ 44

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Structural Response to Earthquakes

Dynamics of Structures & Offshore Engineering

Introduction to Earthquake Engineering

Introduction to Earthquake Engineering

Learn how to analyse and design structures in

Recent earthquake events (USGS website):

Seismic response of linear SDoF systems (Lecture 7)

• Response of SDoF systems to base excitations

Seismic response of non-linear SDoF systems

Pushover method of analysis in generalized

Seismic response of linear MDoF systems

Seismic analysis of continuous systems (Lecture 17)

• Dynamic analysis of one-dimensional continua

SSI in earthquake engineering (Lectures 18-19)

• The influence of soil in the response of a structure

FSI in earthquake engineering (Lectures 20-21)

• Earthquake response of water gates and dams

Seismic control of structures (optional)

• The concept of seismic isolation

• EN 1998-1: General rules, seismic actions and rules for buildings

 Dynamics of Structures (CIE 4140)

All courses above are part of the annotation Dynamics of Structures.

 Essential reading material:

• Participation in assignments is mandatory to complete the course

Tentative schedule for assignments here.

Introduction to Earthquake Engineering

Earthquake engineering is an interdisciplinary branch of

Seismic Risk An earthquake engineer aims to construct structures that

1 Bozorgnia, Yousef; Bertero, Vitelmo V. (2004). Earthquake Engineering: From Engineering

Earthquakes are the one of the most devastating natural

Human death toll (x100.000)

Introduction to Earthquake Engineering

1 Robert A. Wiegel, Earthquake Engineering (1970), Prentice-Hall Inc., Chapter 2, p. 21-45.

Historical events & their significance

Seismic Risk • Sumatra (2004) & Japan (2011)

Seismicity in the Netherlands

• San Francisco, California (1906)

“The born of the elastic rebound theory

How long did the strong shaking last?

Why do we study With an average speed of rupture of

How large was the offset on the ground surface?

What was the magnitude?

The magnitude of 1906 has been re-determined in two recent

A Seismogram of the 1906 Earthquake

Below is a seismogram recorded in Gottingen, Germany, 9100

Course description Homeless

Among the most significant observations made after the 1906

Soil Type Greatly Influences Severity of Damage…

Reports showed that damage was greatest on artificially filled

• San Francisco, California (1906)

“Learning the significance of local site

The 1985 Mexico City earthquake1 struck in the early morning of

1 Bruce A. Bolt, Earthquakes 4th Edition (1999), p. 265-269.

Why do we study SCT

Seismic Risk CDA

Earthquake effects VIV

CIE 5260 UNAM

Seismic Risk The current knowledge in earthquake-resistant design of

Does the size of an earthquake really matter?

Nr. of deaths <1,000 ~316,000

*An increase by one in the magnitude scale results in an increase of

A large earthquake from a seismological point of view may not

Course description The destructive potential of an earthquake depends on many