Problem A

A1: Irregular(Irr) ; A2: Lenticular(SO) ; A3: Intermediate Spiral(SAB) ; A4: Barred Spiral
B1: SA ; B2: Irr ; B3: SB ; B4: E
C1: NGC 300 ; C2: NGC 2337 ; C3: NGC 1365 ; C4: Messier 110

Problem B
Speed of light is 300,000km/s
Time taken = Distance / time
Time taken by sunlight to reach mars = 223 million km/ 300,000 = 13 minutes.
Time taken by light to reach jupiter = 777 million km/300,000 = 43 minutes.
Time taken by sunlight to reach there = 5906 million km / 300 = 90 minutes.
Hence, the time taken by sunlight to reach mars is 13 minutes, to reach jupiter is 43 minutes
and to reach pluto is 90 minutes.

Problem C
Explanation: (a) To calculate the eccentricity of P/2023 IAAC's orbit around the Sun, we can
use the formula for eccentricity: e = √(1 - (b/a)), where a is the semi-major axis and b is the
semi-minor axis. In this case, a = 16.5 AU and b = 8.3 AU, so:
e=√(1-(8.3/16.5))
= √(1-(69/274))
=√(205/274)
=√(5/14)
So the eccentricity of P/2023 IAAC's orbit around the Sun is √(5/14).
(b) The point on the orbit where the comet is closest to the Sun is called the perihelion, and
the point where it is farthest from the Sun is called the aphelion. Since the semi-minor axis is
the distance from the center of mass to the closest point of the orbit (perihelion) and the
semi-major axis is the distance from the center of mass to the farthest point of the orbit
(aphelion), we can say that P₂ is the perihelion and P, is the aphelion.

(c) To determine the comet's speed at the three points P1, P2, P₂, we can use the vis-viva
equation: v = √(µ(2/r - 1/a)), where µ = G(m, + m2), r is the distance between the comet and
the center of mass, and a is the semi- major axis. Since the comet's mass is negligible
compared to the Sun, we can assume m₂ = 0 and use the following values:
at P₁, r = 8.3 AU

at P₂, r = 8.3 AU

at P₂, r = 16.5 AU
Substituting these values into the vis-viva equation, we get:
v(P)=√(u(2/8.3-1/16.5))
v(P)=((2/8.3-1/16.5))
v(P)=√(µ(2/16.5-1/16.5))
The speed of the comet at perihelion and aphelion are same as the semi- minor axis is equal
to the distance between the closest point of the orbit and the center of mass.

Problem D
From the above question,
They have given:
Determining the distance to stars can be challenging. The parallax method is one way of
finding the distance to many stars around us. Your research team measures the parallax of
two stars that have a distance of 5 degrees from each other in the night sky: The first star
has a parallax of 0.11 arcsec, and the second has a parallax of 0.13 arcsec.
The parallax method involves measuring the angle formed by two positions of an object
relative to a distant background. In the case of stars, the two positions are observed from
opposite ends of the Earth's orbit around the Sun. The parallax angle is then used to
calculate the distance to the star using simple trigonometry.
However, finding the distance between two stars using the parallax method requires knowing
the distances to both stars independently. Measuring the parallax of two stars that are 5
degrees apart in the sky tells us the difference in their distances, but not their absolute
distances.
Therefore, without additional information or data, it is not possible to determine the distance
between the two stars using the parallax method.

Problem E
Dark Energy is a hypothetical form of energy that exerts a negative, repulsive pressure,
behaving like the opposite of gravity.
The existence of dark energy is supported by a number of observations. This includes
(i) the age of the Universe compared to the oldest stars,
(ii) supernovae observations,
(iii) Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB),
(iv) baryon acoustic oscillations (BAO), and
(v) large-scale structure (LSS).
• Dark energy can account for this discrepancy because its presence can make the cosmic
age longer.
• The first strong evidence for the acceleration of the Universe today came however by
measuring the luminosity distance of the type la supernovae (SN la).
• The CMB observations are also consistent with the presence of dark energy, although the
constraint coming from the CMB alone is not so strong.
• The measurements of BAO have provided another independent test for the existence of
dark energy.
• The power spectrum of matter distributions also favors a Universe with dark energy rather
than the CDM Universe.