— 0102 Arenuey ‘naar aulqa y's, je NOs HULYY, “LORIN 033400 ssawaleiooua asoum peuuaiey eee eee V'W ‘9q8un8o “o'g ‘ueny equioysay Aepung eye ca ‘ede Aulssaatug gay qe sanBeayjoo Aw jo suormarnwos ayy arersaidde yng ouued | “yY00q ay ySnoztp 08 03 awry 400d OYm ‘uIZO[T Jo ArrssaAtup “Youadg Jo ueunzedag ayy Jo telly ofapelg smut, ug ‘anBeajoo pue puatay Aut jo oa ayy ayersaadde ways spun adejarn Aur 40 saead ayy Bulinp paataras y wonesrdsuy ay} 10) (9661-7661) BeIIUN Jo asouy pue (gg6t-pe6T) aiI-aI1 A'V'O Ye aU ySNey OYm ssaanddV] aya [je xUeN | ‘AqTeUTY ‘sxauseay auoydeizuy aya 10} 1009 si ailam 02 sn apeut yoIyM snoz tiod exrouuDsg DT pure ayjateyasag noaanoy ayy wosy 103 am uonesdsuy ay) 10} Laney afyesqy] oy Saf osje apmness ang -yooq ay: uJ auy|3n0 sjoquis sareuoyd ayy Suisn s0j ‘youstg wt STIS wonvsunwUuos Guydoyaaaq Jo oyane aun ‘a[eqosy AypoUst, 0850)0%4 uonnginucs ayy pue sfooq siqy ur pasn saBesse snBoyerp ay Jo autos jo voneadepe au 0) affe4e3th Savpy pue ryorsnay eapues ‘yates ssoursng ryjuy, jo saoyane ati? aEpaymowpe or oH! PIC quawdpapmowpVy2 fF Introduction Tue fact that Nigeria is a plural polit aap sues ane hil POY as lng. en notless than three hundred and seventy-five ethnic nationalities with diverse socio-cultural and political backgrounds, allof which were wielded together to form modern Nigeria by the British colonialists. Equally true is the fact that these ethnic nationalists were variously interacting long before the advent of Pax Britannica. The complexity of the country in terms of its genetic affiliations with imperialism, the nature of its socio-cultural and demographic composition and the implications of this on the dynamics of group contacts and interactions as well as the intrajectory of its constitutional, political and administrative development, etc. have continued to be important variables inthe understanding of the challenges of multiculturalism which today confronts the country and its leaders. Since 1960,a sore point in Nigeria's plural composition is the problems associated with the people's lack of understanding of this diversity and their consequences on national integration and the nation building process. Indeed, the stage in civil disturbances, contestations and identity-based conflicts and violence across the country in recent yearsisdirectly linked to thisand moreso to the African situation. Conflict is a social problem in which two or more persons, families, districts, communities, states or nations are at war with each other, Other words used for conflict are disagreement characterized by quarrel, fighting, severe anger, aggression, violence and bloodshed. Conflict charges the people with tensions, threats, fears, anxieties and uncertainties. In a fight against one another, militiamen or soldiers shoot, cut, hack or club one another to death. The death toll rises as casualties also increase. Combatants use all manner of dangerous weapons depending on whether or not the war is a local war or an international conflict. In the contemporary world, human anger and cruelty are extremely bad to the extent that militiamen and Shee 5us weapons to fj youth use sophisticated and eee life and ce district wars. In this context, confli y eth aac and management of conflict jot any on Sema sreat deal of love, compassion; kindness, empathy and sympa, for the poor masses whose lives, properties, amenitis infrastructures, environment, economy and governance are to}, all destroyed by a local or an international war. Prevention any management of conflict demand also, self criticism on the part, the parties to the conflictin order to build and sustain peace. In this book, we have borne in mind students and merchan brokers who are concerned about studies in local ant international conflict in Nigeriaand several region of Africa, Som Programmes such as the basic concepts of peace studies a conflict resolution peace as vehicle for unity management of conflict prevention acti Perspectives; the role of international ol keeping and conflict resolution in Africa ‘useful information in this book. Then ther conflicts in the Middle Belt and finally a continuous assessmentand examination q 'y and development Wities and security rganizations in peac will find relevant ani an explanation o conclusion and some uestions, re is“ty CONTENTS nda Dedication md ‘Acknowledgements oa Foreword ae Introduction and Contents tof chapterone: Basic Concepts in Peace Studies and Conflict Resolution = Peace = Peace Making ~ Peacekeeping Operation - Mediation + Conflict = Perceptions of Conflict - Nature and Foundations of Conflict = Stages of Conflict - Armed Conflict - Intractable Conflict - Conflict Prevention - Conflict Resolution or Dispute Resolution - Adjudication + Identity Conflict + Violence + Violenc2 Conflict - Typesand Causes of Violence - Stakeholders - Tolerance/Intolerance - Ethnicity + “Indigene, Settler” /Stranger Phenomenon ~ National Integration Notes and ReferencesChapter THe aflict, types of Coa and Peace ,. ies nt. Taniele for Unity and Developme! t structural Theories (Factors) of Conflic Realist Theory + Biological Factors + Classical Theorists = Physiological Theories = Economic Theories = Psycho-Cultural Theory - Human needs Theory - Leadership Theory - Globalizational Factors - Types of Conflicts in Nigeria: Some Peculiar Factors + Ethnicity and the Tactic of Divide and Rule + Struggle for the Minorities ~ Multinational Corporations and Land Pressure + Poverty Situation in Nigeria + Good Governance and Issues of Corruption ~ Peace as Vehicle for Unity and Development, The Haunting Factors since 1963, ~ Difficulties of Unity Suggested Strategies Forwards Vehicle for Unity and Development Construction of the National State Development chemise retons athe Sue i - Causes of Conflicts in Nigeria ee ‘onsequences of Con Rightoot Niger comics in Nigeria a i i Notes and References Speltout in the 1999 Constitution achieving Peacehe aS Chapter Three: Management of Conflict Prevention Activities and Elements of Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR). = Management of Conflict Preventi i : Me agemer pet onic Prevention Activities in Nigeria 2 Economicand Political Insecurity Nigerian Security in the Future = The Roles and Characteristics of a Good Mediator = Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) = Arbitration - Binding + Body Language - Brainstorm = Caucus - Cénciliation - Consensus - F iitation - Mediation + Neutral Evaluation j - Ombudsman/Person be = Problems of Conflict Resolution a Notes and References : Chapter Four: International Organizations Peacekeeping Operations and Mediation in Conflict Resolution in Africa. - Introduction - Reasons why International organization’ involves in Peacekeeping and Mediations Operation in Africa. - Causes of International Conflict - Problems and Challenges of Peacekeeping Operations in Africa,a Afra, Managing inter-state Conflicts Conflict Transfer Factors responsi@!e Notes and Refer Conflict Transformation chapter Five: Achieving a more Real: Conflict in Contemporary ic Management Resolution , igeria. = Noteson Authors = Bibliography 10 - Basic ( Basic Concep are intimatel not hard to selection an¢ also determ observe duri Itistherefor establish th matter befo This, it has research’ a interpretati someareab people out general ide Other conc describe a phenomeni to explain c resolution. and consec large. Peace The conce derivingit levels of h internatiotion of Chaptef one Basic Concepts in Peace Studies and Conflict Resolution Basic Concepts, theoretical explanation and techniques of inquiry are intimately interwoven with each other. The reasons for this are not hard to find. In addition to the fact that they determine the selection and arrangement of fact and our evaluation of them they also determine what the researcher either observes or fails to observe during the process of gathering and interpretation of data Itistherefore, of utmost importance for any researcher to first ofall establish the central concepts or theories regarding his subject matter before plunging into the shifting sands of interpretation. This, it has been observed is the ultimate wisdom in empirical research’ and for our purpose in this review, especially in interpretative social history. There are different types of concepts; someare abstracts and are therefore, not easily comprehendible by people outside of the field of study because they are based on general ideas and they do not necessarily have a physical reality. Other concepts are concrete, in which case they explain rather than describe an existing reality, and are used to explain a social phenomenon contextually. Concrete concepts are used by scholars toexplain conflict situation in the field of peace studies and conflict resolution. Concepts are vital to the understanding of the causes and consequences of conflict particularly in Nigeria and in Africaat large. Peace The concept of peace is a value loaded and multifaceted* and deriving its origin from the Greek word Pax can be seen at different of human social interaction and at the level of state actors in international system. Therefore the concept of peace can be seen ok aise Ey 1:jofinternational political interac, equrtevels SUC comturle hel eat 1, 1 eattl s individualleve r a Fee concert ofmeal nS (Compac S 3. bis wel. mi 3 peaceatgrouP le one international politics: de atthe level of Inte ewe, peat ea Bhuchongkul, Francis, Jolari, Adigwe, ante Ramm suggest that the centre feature of the may nite tate the absence of any Tenor SY a srotjon or discord that, could create disharmony : ‘enong individuals, groups oF nations leading to soe ay, violent confrontation, violence Or war = Foaee, they also agreed can be een.as anabsence of hi violence, war, dissension, animosit ‘or discord’. . P Peace a the individual level is essentially a state of in mind. It arises from individual perception of the vi presence or absence of psychological control of a oe 's ee or environment. Environment here is i ‘atan inean human adaptation to and control of ¥ es eral stimuli. As Rummel and 2 woted, “peace is then conceptually ‘opposed to nonviolent, antac- y ‘ Caen ee onistic conflict such as ' quitletteey =o accusations, hostile | 3, Stmonstaton ycotts and riotous I Peace from the s 1 social cont from the origin and sustonsnee oreae) is seen through ustenance of conauBh @ social contract to. wh state by men : sented to live in which they and all Fre cocke and Jean ja deduc remost expor tensio ne thus becomes a o0! thesocial Ldn commonoraes,.2, situation whi war", tonordivergent ‘it entail Materialisti ch p ic cultural, relip; i withe Accor‘or colour resolve to live together in tolerance with ‘one another, and therefore in peace as one of the underlying factor. Based on this understanding, peace can be seen as the absence of any hostile or Antagonistic relationship or incompactability that may degenerate into a state of distorting a harmonious existence that could lead to war. It is, this kind of peace that is stil eluding most plural societies such as Rwanda, Sudan, Nigeria, Liberia and host of other nation-states created by the European colonialists in Africa. In Nigeria, the history of settler, indigene/native and unequal power relations among the different ethnic groups in the country have engendered various crises and violent conflicts ince 1960°. 4, Peaceat the group leveliis seen fromthe macro-level or interaction between two or more mutually unique groups. Such as the Arewa group, Odua Peoples’ Congress, Idilgbo Member, Moverent for the survival of the Ogoni People etc. These groups ‘compete either for recognition, power, resources tend to be in conflict with one another and the larger societies because the stakes involved are highly valued by the competing group’. Thus Modus Operandi of getting their demands through force, riotsand armed struggle poses threat to peace. From the above definitions, the central feature that can be deduced is that, peane, meansthe absence uf any real orimaginary tension or discord that rnuld eotso disharwwny wenong individuals, groups or nations leading to instability, confrontation, violence or war’, Peace is both a state of affairs and continuous process. It entails a sustainable process of calmness without friction stability without bickering and tranquility without heart wobbling” - According to Rabie, Rosemary, Orwell and Otite, “peace, therefore, mo 13he absence Of War any =e es tome vale andy ma Bua BeBe Beng cence ae ee ese qieently based on sper see ane simples that 1, enn egy 2 Ty ation or ether Peace attainment 080 Frou ents occu ue ble but when is not achievat ae ut silymanaged for peace tobereinstalled disagreement shouldbe easily Fea iy term referred tothe process of negotiating the aoa nat atictbetween peopl, groupsor states. deals wih the issues tat caused a conflict aimed at reconciliation ang normalization of relations between the various groups in the communities. It is all a process which recognizes that certain concrete effort and processes are required by individuals, groups and the state at large for conflict to be reduced toa minimum level, and for a peaceable society to be achieved’. It thrives on justice fairness to all, equity, trust, friendship, mutual respect, communication, encouragement of others, aggregated aspirations and similar elements. Justlike the term “peace” its added title does ‘not make any difference, it begins at the level of the individual and hishouse hold, madeup ofa man, his wife or wives, his children and other relatives. The underlying principle is that a man who is free tepeeaeemuidomesticconfctsisablenotonlytobehave in aless inerbutalsoabuilderand maker of peace” Peacebuilding Peacebuldngor sow relations bet we differences, Peace" isa process of restoring normal tween peo} People. It requires the reconciliation of offering apology .e Yorub Elders for South Afr the dehun ofpeaceb Peacek ‘The pea efforts t ‘through membet involve: The partie the ne usuall intert peace ECON 7 of pe Enfo BuilFountries w or group 0 om 10 help flict situation s, ea eFie canter analysis © or before mort pire must have the experi Pe Jecision for the dispute is consultation, eff aisputants arguments of hell mediator wi he oth pied Pvalites t intelligence jroups, che jairnesstoal coe J phenomenon. It is not a preserve of py Conflict is @ universal p jon or race. Such celebrated cases are ty seen nang in Rwanda by the Hutu against the Tuts, Dai Jeansing in Rwanda by Ne gin cea Ysovoinfarmer Yugosaviaythe enocidees fratricde ofthe Democratic Republic ofthe Congo, the Tv/Azm conflict, Tiv/Jukun conflict, Bachama/Hausa conflict, Jos (20 2004, 2008, 2010), the Ife/Modakeke conflic Kafanchan/Kagoro conflict etc, Conflict is defined simply ax struggle over values and claims to scarce status, power a resources in which the alm of the opponents are to neutral injure or eliminate their rivals". Scholarsaccording to Otite have viewed conflict from varier perspectives. Machiavelli and Clausewitz are important writ ane western tradition of conflict analysis. Adam Smith andi token Pettivey offered competition and class analysisasot fe understanding the phenomenon”. In classical Chines Confethas mare @ Sentral writer, as in Kantlya in in many meaning in everyday life, To some, it ree pe a 16ior action. According to Mai beh patible goals by different, groups 1 incomateon of incompatsie eres 2 juces antagonistic or hostile behaviow Mfouns- The behaviour may be verbal and grog damaging, oF frustrating the othe re defined from the tendency of hum Sntagonstic particularly when they ref anpposing views”. Itis in this sense that Janowitz ce crema ese soe tnt nt coe personal and social”. March and Simon define conflict se 5 breakdown in standard mechanism of decision making". Ae far as Forsyth and Nwolise are concerned, conflict occurs when the actions of beliefS of one or more member of a group are unacceptable to and hence are resisted by one or more groups ot members. That it is a state of clash, confrontation, battles or struggle toachieve a goal" From the various definitions given above, the student should be informed thatall points to the fact that, ifa situation whereand when an incompatible interaction between groups or individual members exists, the demand term is conflict. Conflict from time immemorial is part of our human experience and to keep our sanity we should know how to relate withit creatively. ‘There are two major end results or expectations of conflict, positive and negative. A conflict is said to be positive ifit leads to positive change and development/empowerment. In this case, the differences between the disputants enable them to discover new ways of doing things and relating with each other. The end result of the conflict makes them to have better respect for each other. On the other hand, a conflict is said to be negative if it promotes or produces more rancour, hatred, disunity of members, physical harm, death of agitators, destruction of property, and so on’. A negative conflict is otherwise known asa destructive conflict whereas the positive one Is also known as constructive or productive conflict. ‘According to Umar, one ae neers 17 neans the pursu nay also be epardca or perception tha « between people ot Vor physica aed "3. For Chaplin onfice, ‘an beings to become iced with irreconcilablea! vonemis SumreAard ay uo ‘OU0D9-0190S “{eantod ag feu 3] “SaqeYS uor Ee — oe TaeUO ‘ue dyou ues yoy pur dhe we avenaaund yorum sootious vy ‘ountuerBo1g Suyuresy Bumpying-aseag Me Buidaay-aoeay ueralg teuoneusarul (26 ‘eayun pue jrydjay ayy jo awos ase Bu past sorgtaa ays Zurajos 03 sKojdua {olyiuoa e santaaiod uossad 8Y/ays yoeoadde ay aouany * eas ayy “pesodsip 0s p dayy pue Busou sso wy 2 - eidxo iqeqosd sty", Aseaues 20 papumey ®euoseas suoum 0 3813 24 pInoe sudo PS ‘308j aansalqo o1 pasoddo se sjeo3 nodes! gr @>uatoraworssyd Nanbay soy aa1yuo? 24p's eategory ofcontet ch omolut aracteristics may be gre Cane Is & complex multidimensions ooo encompassing different aspects of individual and grey behaviours. dividual and group ‘There must be at least two issues or views or mot ia paso rt et inecncay Gee The views and interests of parties in a confi Te fenpelaried ae Both parties to a conflict usually have articulate leaders who are primarily responsible for fostering the developmentand maintenance ofthe conflict. Attempts are occasionally made to resolve conflicts when followers ofleaders to the parties press fora resolution as a result of the negative impart of the conflict on them (followers) ‘The resolution of conflict sometimes requires a third party. The third party would be effective in the conflict resolution exercise ifthe party is respected and perceived to beneutral by the feuding parties. ‘Aconflict can be resolved partially or totally ‘The resolution of a conflict may be temporary or enduring (Omoluabi). ‘There are no too individuals that are the same even identical twins exhibit some differences in terms of behaviour and mannerism. Our differences ‘and interests in ideas, beliefs, systems, structures and cultures can be sources of conflict but at Pannen stime used for mutual benefit and improvement. AS We earlier mentioned, since diversity can open windows in our minds and provide us with positive alternatives, some Confics Fans and revit bad, they may be creative and enerBining oT 19— jon and even in larificati KS 5 tothe cael times it Madreng car phi A oe ed and thus damage esi national roups oF or ict | or 8 than sudden stagesofconll er personal Pes rather ly its whet id throug Confers Ay unfold. tarOUBh stages | ing, most severe: ciliation stages: jentified. They are ty, fn be Meescalcting and th, cos) 0 ie _ = | in — i——~_ | \\ | ee” Tarra \\ Leer] ‘econtists | \| (eee | Pen and Conte of Confit Resolution | a Emerging Stage ‘A this stage, signs and signals of all kinds are being given closeness between two fiends, for example, is gradually giving eau sOohess and dsinterestedness Frequent visitations are wlan erably. Emotional ex, : and fay soy 2 RON expressions of warmth elements of “eetl*eed by coldness and some Indifferey " {(€00r) open for yaryn®: Again there are often more options (or varig etn ring, tective intervention. Theres Snviclentinterventigne™ artis ge frame can be very ment ne’ Conflict are quite in the relationship. >some ations ere is point of no return wamely, the most severe Severe Stage [At the most severe stage, nothing is sa hospitals churches mosques commnttyproperendse ny be destroyed. Any human person could be stated ad taken including those that are not members ofthe conflicting parties When the conflicting parties are now tired or there is no external intervention the fourth stage of conflict begins to show its face. Thisisthe De-escalating stage De-escalating Stage At this level, the disputants now involve their elders, leaders, religious functionaries’ popular persons in the environment to mediate or intervene and suggest the way forward in the conflict. ‘The intervention of these invited peace maker if well handled, brings the desired objectives of a cease-fire, dropping of arms or suspension of the struggle and amendment of request. This leads to the rebuildingand reconciliation stage. Rebuilding and recon: This stage is concerned with repairing relationships, institutions and social facilities and putting in place schemes that can help the disputing communities or individuals to be united once again. Without these tasks, there could bea relapse into destructive conflictin the society. In other words peace building is aimed at putting in place the necessary social, economic, political and environmental mechanisms necessary for making lasting peace possible. For example the Amnesty programme of President Musa Yar'adua granted the militants in Niger Delta region is a unique example in Africa”. 2 21.individuals, states or ey si a cot en OT ee of force and arms in gt Are alt OCH Hye egal USE Oe Teinvolves the use, A 207 tees an oa ne dos Basu ae tha CaM Ca ed contfct inclu fee against unary ese ricide, Tape 7" ies and Tratricid civilians. i resolved whe ea ;rreconcilable, unreso! mt cot omes intractable, Yi use in most C4SeS, the config Conflict bec = he Middle East, The Sudanese Question, th, Israeli conflicts in the Saat ameerneere je etc. are good examples of Somali od struggle etc. are & : Somaliland ar amo ra fats before the United Nations and some o intractable conflicts th international organizations (last lingers and has defied several incatableconftand the people involved in conflict are partes to this process. Conflict management is about maintaining peace and security The term is used to describe “the ability to contrl an impending conflicts while the forces of peaceful settlements ae strengthened, According to Imobighe conflict management involves three ranges of actvities-conflict prevention, conflict control and conflict resolution”. The sole aim of conflict prevent omea8t9 control disagreement that could lead to wart The Uni tS2nd dispute situations that could, plode into war African U tly inte i Malor conflicts in Aftice ervene and mediate in ‘ica with situations that could ra 53, VieW to effectively m con put pla el pa thvention ‘Ozuma, conflict prevention is a term coined by {ecparsin order to denote the relevant mechasisms Peace Resear tne reoccurrence of conic. parca 8 putin ee canfiets or war occtred”, The term i also used £0 mee irene css intervention ers made fo recone £0 ailgroups involvedin dispute or war, Ozuma agrees tha Pare anerontion becomes important inthe aftermath of armed confit igen the parties involved agree to a ceasefire, and in