Biofuels

ISSN: 1759-7269 (Print) 1759-7277 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tbfu20

Investigation of performance and emissions of

diesel engine run on biodiesel produced from
karanja oil in a single-step transesterification
process using heterogeneous catalyst (lithium-
impregnated calcium oxide)

Rupesh L. Patel & Chandresh D. Sankhavara

To cite this article: Rupesh L. Patel & Chandresh D. Sankhavara (2017): Investigation of
performance and emissions of diesel engine run on biodiesel produced from karanja oil in a single-
step transesterification process using heterogeneous catalyst (lithium-impregnated calcium oxide),
Biofuels, DOI: 10.1080/17597269.2017.1370883

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17597269.2017.1370883

Published online: 14 Sep 2017.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 16

View related articles

View Crossmark data

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=tbfu20

Download by: [Southern Cross University] Date: 02 November 2017, At: 17:47
 BIOFUELS, 2017
https://doi.org/10.1080/17597269.2017.1370883

Investigation of performance and emissions of diesel engine run on biodiesel

produced from karanja oil in a single-step transesterification process using
heterogeneous catalyst (lithium-impregnated calcium oxide)
Rupesh L. Patela and Chandresh D. Sankhavarab
a
Government Engineering College & R K University, Rajkot-360005, Gujarat, India; bMechanical Dept, R. K. University, Rajkot, 360005, India

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Biodiesel (karanja oil methyl ester, KOME) was produced from karanja oil using heterogeneous Received 22 March 2017
catalyst (lithium impregnated calcium oxide, Li-CaO) in a single-step process. A performance Accepted 4 August 2017
and emission analysis of a diesel engine was carried out by blending 10, 20, 30 and 50% KOME KEYWORDS
with diesel, as well as with pure KOME, and comparing the results with diesel fuel. Calcium Biodiesel; karanja oil; Li-CaO
oxide was produced from calcium carbonate and used to prepare Li-CaO. Reaction parameters
Downloaded by [Southern Cross University] at 17:47 02 November 2017

such as molar ratio of methanol to oil, concentration of Li-CaO and reaction temperature were
varied to obtain the optimized reaction condition. For the entire process, reaction time was
kept constant (2 h). A 100% yield was obtained using 5 wt.% of Li-CaO with a 12:1 molar ratio of
methanol to oil at 65  C. The ester content of KOME was 98.37% as measured by the gas
chromatography method (GCM) technique. Important properties of KOME were measured
which meet the biodiesel standard. At higher loads, BD10 showed an improvement in brake
thermal efficiency as compared to diesel. The emissions of CO and smoke were reduced for
blended fuels while emissions of NOx were increased for almost all loading conditions, as
compared with diesel. A blend of up to 20% KOME with diesel shows satisfactory engine
performance.

Introduction renewable, non-toxic, biodegradable and eco-friendly

substitute for use in diesel engines [3]. The inventor of
The demand for fossil fuels is increasing in the world.
the diesel engine, Rudolf Diesel, tested peanut oil in a
Diesel engines are widely used in transportation and
diesel engine in 1900. But later on, low-cost diesel fuel
agricultural fields as compared to petrol engines due
was easily available, which has prevented the use of
to their higher efficiency and low running cost. Petrol
vegetable oil in diesel engines [4]. However, the direct
fuel comprises chains of nine carbon atoms while die-
use of vegetable oils in diesel engines is not recom-
sel has 14 carbon atoms. Petrol has only hydrogen, car-
mended by researchers. The higher viscosity of vegeta-
bon and a few atoms of nitrogen. The longer carbon
ble oils causes problems in the fuel-injection system
chain of the diesel is responsible for higher energy
[5]. So, it is necessary to reduce the viscosity of vegeta-
packs for the same volume of petrol fuel. A diesel
ble oils. Biodiesel is produced from vegetable oils
engine gives more power and mileage than a petrol
(both edible and non-edible) and animal fats. Biodiesel
engine, but the longer the carbon chain, the higher
is produced by a transesterification process, in which
the probability of finding other elements such as sulfur
vegetable oil is reacted with alcohol in the presence of
and nitrogen attached to it. Diesel engines emit more
an acid or base catalyst to obtain ester and glycerol [6].
smoke and NOx as compared to petrol engines. Emis-
It is less complex to produce biodiesel from edible oils
sions from diesel vehicles, especially of smoke, are a
due to their lower free fatty acid (FFA) content as com-
major contributor to air pollution [1]. The limited
pared to non-edible oils. But edible oils are not a sus-
resources of crude oil are another issue for the sustain-
tainable fuel resource as they are used as a food for
ability of diesel fuel for compression ignition (CI)
humans. So, non-edible oils such as karanja, neem,
engines. So, it is necessary to search for an alternative
mahua and jatropha are preferable feedstocks for bio-
fuel for diesel engines which emits lower amounts of
diesel production [7]. Among them, karanja is an
harmful gases and is produced from renewable and
attractive feedstock for the production of biodiesel.
sustainable resources. Biodiesel from vegetable oils is
Karanja is a medium-sized tree. Its seeds contain
an attractive alternative fuel for conventional diesel
enough oil (25 to 39%) oil.. Due to toxic components
engines [2]. Biodiesel burning cause less emission of
present in karanja oil (KO), it cannot be used as food
CO, hydro carbon (HC) and particulate matter. It is a
for humans. So, it is a non-edible oil. This oil is used for

CONTACT Rupesh L. Patel rlp131277@gmail.com

© 2017 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
 2 R. L. PATEL AND C. D. SANKHAVARA

making soap and lubricant. It is also used as a fuel for
burning in household oil lamps. Its oil contains polyun-
saturated acid [8]. Mostly, the acid value of KO is more
than 4 mg of KOH/g. Therefore, it cannot be transes-
terified by a homogeneous base catalyst (NaOH and
KOH) in a single-step process. Researchers have pro-
duced biodiesel from KO by a two-step process using a
homogeneous catalyst. In the two-step process, H2SO4
is used for the esterification process and alkali base cat-
alysts (NaOH and KOH) are used for the transesterifica-
tion process [9,10]. Sharma et al. [11] produced
biodiesel from KO having an acid value of 5.06 mg of
KOH/g by a two-step process using a homogeneous
catalyst. The maximum yield of 89.5% was obtained
using a mechanical stirrer, and 82.5% yield was
obtained using a magnetic stirrer. Table 1 shows the
yields of karanja oil methyl ester (KOME) reported by
researchers using a homogeneous catalyst by a two-
Downloaded by [Southern Cross University] at 17:47 02 November 2017
The process was carried out at 60  C with a 9:1 M/O
ratio for 2 h, which reduced the acid value to 1.3 mg of
KOH/g. Transesterification was carried out at 60  C using
1% KOH and a 6:1 M/O ratio for 2 h, which gave a 95%
yield. Karmee et al. [21] tested solid catalyst for transes-
terification of KO. ZnO gives 83%, Hb zeolite gives 47%,
and montmorillonite K-10 gives 59% yield at 120  C
with a 10:1 methanol to oil molar ratio in 24 h.
A variety of heterogeneous catalysts such as CaO,
KF/CaO, KNO3/CaO, CaO/ZnO, CaO/Al2O3, Li/MgO,
dolomite, CaMgO and CaZnO, sodium silicates, CaO/
mesoporous silica, etc. have been used by researchers
for biodiesel production from various feedstocks [16].
Calcium oxide is widely used as a base catalyst for bio-
diesel production. CaO is a cheap, nontoxic and effec-
tive catalyst for transesterification of oils having low
acid value. Calcium oxide can be prepared from cal-
cium carbonate, calcium nitrate, calcium acetate, cal-

step process. The maximum yield thus obtained from
KO was 97%.
Chauhan et al. [15] produced KOME by a two-step
process using a homogeneous catalyst, and tested it in
a diesel engine. But it is difficult to remove homoge-
neous catalysts from biodiesel. Homogeneous catalysts
cannot be recycled and reused; the neutralization and
purification steps are complex and time consuming, so
the process cost is increased [16]. Heterogeneous cata-
lysts are suitable for the production of biodiesel from
non-edible oil in a single-step process. It is easy to
remove heterogeneous catalysts from the reaction
product. They are recyclable and have low sensitivity
toward moisture content and FFA [17,18]. Also, fewer
water-washing steps are required in the final stage of
biodiesel production, which saves time and water in the
process. Therefore, biodiesel production cost can be
reduced. These advantages of heterogeneous catalysts
attract researchers to use them for the production of
biodiesel from various feedstocks. Recently, Sharma
et al. [19] used barium zirconate as a heterogeneous
catalyst for the production of biodiesel from KO (acid
value 5.6 mg of KOH/g). The esterification was carried
out using H2SO4 as a homogeneous catalyst, which
reduced the acid value to 0.52 mg of KOH/g. The yield
obtained using 1 wt.% of barium zirconate at 65  C for
a 27:1 molar ratio of methanol to oil was 98.79 § 0.5%.
Thiruvengadaravi et al. [20] tested sulfated zirconia (1%)
for esterification of KO (acid value 12.27 mg of KOH/g).
cium oxalate, calcium hydroxide, limestone, dolomite,
oyster shells, eggshells, etc. [22]. Calcium carbonate is
widely used for the production of CaO due to low cost.
Granados et al. [23] produced CaO from CaCO3 (800  C
calcination temperature) and used it for the production
of biodiesel from sunflower oil. They obtained a yield
of 90% at 60  C using a 14:1 molar ratio of M/O for 5 h
process time. However, for high-acid-value oils, soap
formation problems occur with CaO catalyst. A yield of
18% was obtained from jatropha oil with much soap
formation using CaO catalyst, while the same catalyst
has given complete conversion of rapeseed oil for 3 h
of process time in the same reaction conditions [17].
The catalytic activity of CaO can be improved by load-
ing alkali metals (Li, K, Na) on CaO [24]. Amjad et al.
[25] obtained complete conversion of cotton seed oil
(FFA 6 wt.%, moisture 15 wt.%) using 5 wt.% of Li-CaO
catalyst at 65  C with a 12:1 molar ratio of M/O in 2.5 h.
Abeb et al. [17] obtained biodiesel (100% yield) from
jatropha oil (FFA 9%) in a single-step process using a
mixture of heterogeneous catalysts (CaO + Fe2(SO4)3,
Li-CaO + Fe2(SO4)3) at 60  C, 5 wt.% of catalyst and a
6:1 molar ratio of M/O, in 3 h. Anjana et al. [26] used
4 wt.% KI/CaO for transesterification of pre-esterified
KO (acid value 12.34 mg of KOH/g). A KOME yield of
95.7% was obtained at 65  C and a 12:1 molar ratio of
methanol oil for 2 h of process time.
The main issue which prevents commercialization of
biodiesel is its production cost, which can be reduced

Table 1. Biodiesel yield from karanja oil (KO).

Esterification using methanol Transesterification using methanol
M/R Catalyst (wt.%) Temp. ( C) Time (min) IAV FAV M/R Catalyst (wt.%) Temp. ( C) Time (min) Yield (%) Ref.
10:1 H2SO4 (0.5) mag. stirrer 45 30 5.06 1.9 9:1 NaOH (0.68) 45 30 85 [11]
10:1 H2SO4 (0.5) mag. stirrer 45 30 5.06 1.9 9:1 KOH (0.68) 45 30 82.5 [11]
8:1 H2SO4 (0.5) mech. stirrer 45 30 5.06 1.9 9:1 NaOH (0.5) 45 30 89.5 [11]
8:1 H2SO4 (0.5) mech. stirrer 45 30 5.06 1.9 9:1 KOH (0.5) 45 30 89.5 [11]
6:1 H2SO4 (0.5) 65 60 41.9 3.9 6:1 KOH (1) 65 – 97 [12]
9:1 H2SO4 (0.5) 50 10 36 2 9:1 KOH (0.5) 50 120 80 [13]
13% H2SO4 (2) 55–60 60 – – 6:1 KOH 60 150 97 [14]
IAV: initial acid value (mg of KOH/g); FAV: final acid value (mg of KOH/g) after esterification; M/R: molar ratio of methanol to oil.

by using low-cost non-edible feedstock like karanja.
The complexity and cost of the process can be reduced
by using a proper heterogeneous catalyst. In the pres-
ent study, an attempt has been made to produce bio-
diesel from KO having an acid value of more than 4 mg
KOH/g, in a single-step process using a heterogeneous
catalyst (Li-CaO). Reaction parameters such as the
molar ratio of methanol to oil, concentration of Li-CaO
and reaction temperature were varied to obtain the
optimized reaction conditions. For all processes, the
reaction time was kept constant (2 h). This biodiesel
was tested in a single-cylinder diesel engine by blend-
ing 10, 20, 30 and 50% of it with diesel, as well as in
pure form. Performance and emissions data were com-
pared with diesel data.
Materials and methods
Downloaded by [Southern Cross University] at 17:47 02 November 2017
Materials
KO was obtained from K C Pharmaceuticals, Bhavnagar
(India). Lithium nitrate, calcium carbonate (both AR
grade) and methanol (99.8%) were obtained from
Modern Chemical, Bhavnagar (India). The acid value of
the KO was found to be 5.6 mg of KOH/g.
Catalyst preparation and characterization
Calcium oxide was produced from calcium carbonate
by decomposing at 750  C for 4.5 h. Lithium-impreg-
nated calcium oxide was prepared by a wet impregna-
tion method. Two grams of lithium nitrate was
dissolved in 10 mL of water. This solution was mixed
into a solution of 10 g of calcium oxide with 40 mL of
water and the mixture was stirred for 2 h by magnetic
stirrer. Then it was dried in an oven at 110  C for 24 h.
The X-ray diffraction pattern of Li-CaO is shown in
Figure 1. The sample was scanned in the range of 2u =
10–80 . The intense peaks at 2u » 30.566, 52.65,
62.113 and 77.68 correspond to d-values of 2.924,
1.738, 1.494 and 1.229, respectively, as shown in
Figure 1. The intense peak at 2u » 36.549
Figure 1. X-ray diffraction of Li-CaO.
BIOFUELS 3
corresponding to a d-value of 2.458 confirms the pres-
ence of Li and CaO in Li-CaO. The particle grain size of
the catalyst was determined by the Debye Scherrer
method [27]. The particle grain size of prepared CaO
and Li-CaO was found to be 20.23 nm and 37.98 nm,
respectively.
Transesterification of KO
One hundred milliliters of KO was taken, into which
methanol (12:1 molar ratio of MeOH/oil) and 5 wt.% of
catalyst (catalyst/oil) were added in a two-necked, flat-
bottomed glass reactor flask. A hot plate magnetic stir-
rer was used for the transesterification reaction. The
mixture was heated to 65  C and stirred for 2 h. Reac-
tion parameters such as molar ratio of methanol to oil,
reaction temperature and amount of catalyst were var-
ied and studied to establish the optimized reaction
condition.
Experimental setup
The performance and emissions analyses were carried
out using a single-cylinder four-stroke water-cooled
constant-speed diesel engine. Engines of this type are
widely used in the agricultural sector and in power
generation for civil engineering works. The schematic
layout and actual experimental set-up are shown in
Figures 2 and 3, respectively. An eddy current dyna-
mometer was coupled to the engine through the pro-
peller shaft. Torque was measured with a torque
sensor attached to the dynamometer casing. Engine
load was controlled by regulating the current in the
electromagnets. Torque measured by the load cell was
displayed on the indicator, and the desired value of
torque to be maintained can be set using the keypad
on the controller. A differential pressure transducer
was provided to measure the pressure difference
between ambient air and the air inside the air box. ‘K’
type thermocouples were used for the measurement
of gas and water temperatures at different points. An
RTD PT-100 sensor was used to measure the ambient
temperature. An AVL 437C smoke meter was used for
measurement of smoke. A TESTO 350 gas analyzer was
used for measurement of exhaust gas emissions. First,
the engine was run for 30 min under no-load condition
using diesel. The engine was run at no load and 25%,
50%, 75% and 100% load. Performance and emissions
analyses of pure biodiesel (BD100) and various blends
of biodiesel with diesel (10% biodiesel and 90% diesel:
BD10; 20% biodiesel and 80% diesel: BD20; 30% bio-
diesel and 70% diesel: BD30; 50% biodiesel and 50%
diesel: BD50) were carried out and the results were
compared with baseline results for pure diesel fuel
(D100). Detailed engine specifications are given in
Table 2.
 4 R. L. PATEL AND C. D. SANKHAVARA

Figure 2. Schematic diagram of experimental set-up.

Downloaded by [Southern Cross University] at 17:47 02 November 2017

Figure 3. Actual experimental set-up of single-cylinder diesel engine.

Results and discussion Effect of molar ratio of methanol to oil

Effect of catalyst concentration The effect of the molar ratio of methanol to oil on the
yield of KOME at 65  C with 5 wt.% of catalyst in 2 h
The effect of the amount of catalyst on the yield of
reaction time is shown in Figure 5. Theoretically, a 3:1
KOME at 65  C and a 12:1 molar ratio of methanol to
molar ratio of methanol to oil is required for the trans-
oil in 2 h of reaction time is shown in Figure 4. The con-
esterification process, but in actual practice, this ratio is
centration of Li-CaO was varied from 2.5 to 7%. With an
always kept higher for better yield in less reaction
increase in loading of the catalyst, the yield of KOME
was increased. A 100% yield of KOME was obtained
with 5 wt.% of catalyst, while 2.5 wt.% of catalyst gave
110
an 82% yield. So, 5 wt.% concentration of Li-CaO was
used for further analysis. 100

90
Yield (%)

80
Table 2. Specifications of the diesel engine.
No. of cylinders 1 70
Power output (kW) 4
Bore (mm) 87.5 60
Stroke (mm) 110 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Compression ratio 17.5:1 (standard engine), 10:1
to 18:1 (modified engine) Catalyst loading wt. %
Lubrication system SAE 4, forced feed
Starting system Battery-assisted electric starting Figure 4. Effect of amount of catalyst on the yield of karanja oil
Capacity (cc) 660 methyl ester (KOME) at 65 C temperature and 12:1 molar ratio
Rated speed (rpm) 1500
of methanol to oil in 2 h of reaction time.
 BIOFUELS 5

120

100

80
Yield (%)
60

40

20

0
03:01 06:01 09:01 12:01
Molar rao of methanol to oil

Figure 5. Effect of molar ratio of methanol to oil on the yield of

karanja oil methyl ester (KOME) at 5 wt.% loading of catalyst
and 65 C temperature in 2 h of reaction time. Figure 7. Separation of karanja oil methyl ester (KOME), cata-
lyst and glycerol.

time. Molar ratios of 3:1 to 12:1 were examined for the 60 min. The acid value of KO was reduced to 2.4 mg
Downloaded by [Southern Cross University] at 17:47 02 November 2017

transesterification process. A yield of 35% was
obtained for a 3:1 molar ratio and 100% yield was
obtained for a 12:1 molar ratio of methanol to oil.
Hence, further analysis was carried out at a 12:1 molar
ratio of M/O.
Effect of reaction temperature
The effect of reaction temperature on the yield of
KOME with a 12:1 molar ratio of methanol to oil
and5 wt.% of catalyst in 2 h reaction time is shown in
Figure 6. The effects of four reaction temperatures (35,
45, 55 and 65  C) were studied for transesterification of
KO. With an increase in temperature, the yield was
increased. A 43% yield was obtained at 35  C, and a
100% yield was obtained at 65  C. From this analysis, it
was concluded that a 12:1 molar ratio of methanol to
oil, 5 wt.% of Li-CaO and 65  C were the most optimal
reaction parameters for biodiesel production from KO
in 2 h of reaction time.
Biodiesel from KO was also produced using homo-
geneous catalyst, by a two-step process. The esterifica-
tion process was carried out using 0.6 vol.% of H2SO4
with a 6:1 molar ratio of methanol to oil at 45  C for
120
100
Yield(%)
KOH/g. Transesterification was carried out at 55  C
using KOH (1 vol.% of oil) with a 6:1 molar ratio of
methanol to oil, for 90 min. A yield of 90% was
obtained by this method.
The two-step process using a homogeneous cata-
lyst is complex and required more time for biodiesel
production. Also, a lower yield was obtained from
KO for homogeneous catalyst as compared to the
single-step process with heterogeneous catalyst.
Therefore, finally, BD was produced from KO by the
single-step process using a heterogeneous catalyst.
Figure 7 shows the separation of KOME, catalyst
and glycerol. The ester content of KOME was mea-
sured by gas chromatography as shown in Figure 8.
The methyl ester content of the biodiesel was found
to be 98.37%, which indicates an almost complete
conversion of triglycerides to methyl ester. The
important properties of KO and KOME are shown in
Table 3. Density and calorific values of test fuels are
shown in Table 4.
Engine performance characteristics
The variation of brake thermal efficiency (BTE) with
respect to load is shown in Figure 9. For all fuels, with
an increase in load BTE also increased. For blended
fuels, the highest BTE was observed for BD10 (30.31%)
at the full-load condition. The efficiency of BD20, BD30,

80
60
BD50 and BD100 was lower than that of diesel for
most loading conditions. At full load, the BTE of BD10
40
was 30.31%, and for BD20, BD30, BD50 and BD100 it
20
was 27.89, 27.99, 27.34 and 26.54%, which was 7.98,
0
7.65, 9.8 and 12.44% lower than for BD10, while for die-
30 40 50 60 70
sel fuel it was 29.03%. The calorific value of KOME was
Temperature °C lower than that of diesel; therefore, with an increase in
Figure 6. Effect of temperature on the yield of karanja oil proportion of BD, BTE was reduced. The viscosity and
methyl ester (KOME) at 5 wt.% loading of catalyst and 12:1 density of BD were higher than those of diesel; there-
molar ratio of methanol to oil in 2 h of reaction time. fore, inadequate mixing of fuel and air occurred which
 6 R. L. PATEL AND C. D. SANKHAVARA

Figure 8. Gas chromatography analysis of karanja oil methyl ester (KOME).

was responsible for lower engine efficiency at higher load, BSFC was found to decrease. The BSFC values of
Downloaded by [Southern Cross University] at 17:47 02 November 2017

BD blend [28]. The higher BTE of BD10 could be due to biodiesel blended fuels were higher than that of diesel
the presence of oxygen in the biodiesel molecular fuel. The BSFC of BD10, BD20, BD30, BD50, BD100 and
structure, which improves combustion efficiency [15]. D100 was 0.2821, 0.3106, 0.3137, 0.3301, 0.3655 and
The variation of brake specific fuel consumption 0.2907 kg/kWh, respectively, at full load. This result
(BSFC) with load is shown in Figure 10. With increase in shows that with increase in blending of KOME with die-
sel, BSFC is increased. The reason for this higher BSFC is
the higher viscosity and density of KOME as compared
Table 3. Properties of karanja oil and karanja oil methyl ester. to diesel. Also, the calorific value of biodiesel is lower
Properties Karanja Karanja oil methyl European
oil ester standards than that of diesel; therefore, with an increase in load,
Ester content (%) – 98.37 > 96.5 a greater amount of fuel is required to develop the
Density (g/cm3) 0.93 0.88 0.86–0.90 same power [29].
Viscosity(mm2/s) 41.76 4.8 1.9–5.0
Calorific value (kJ/ 34000 37100 – The variation of exhaust gas temperature with load
kg) is shown in Figure 11. Exhaust gas temperature indi-
Acid value (mg of 5.6 0.48 0.5 max
KOH/g)
cates the status of combustion and the amount of
Moisture (mg/kg) 0.075 0.034 0.5 waste heat carried out by exhaust gases. For all fuels,
Flash point ( C) 230 160 >101 with an increase in load exhaust gas temperature also
increased. The higher exhaust gas temperature is due
Table 4. Density and calorific value of test fuels. to a delay in ignition and an increase in the quantity of
Test fuel Density (g/cm3) Lower Heating Value (LHV) (MJ/kg) fuel injected. The exhaust gas temperature of all bio-
Diesel 0.830 42.65 diesel fuels is lower than that of diesel, except at higher
BD10 0.833 42.09
BD20 0.836 41.54 loads for BD 50. The viscosity of biodiesel is higher than
BD30 0.839 40.98 that of diesel, which causes poor atomization and com-
BD50 0.848 39.87
BD100 0.880 37.10 bustion; therefore, exhaust gas temperature is lower
for biodiesel blends and BD100.

Figure 9. Variation of brake thermal efficiency (BTE) with load for different fuels.
 BIOFUELS 7

Figure 10. Variation of brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) with load for different fuels.
Downloaded by [Southern Cross University] at 17:47 02 November 2017

Figure 11. Variation of exhaust gas temperature with load for different fuels.

Engine emission characteristics [31]. The smoke emissions increased with an increase
in load. At higher loads, more fuel is injected and
The variation of smoke opacity with load is shown in
hence incomplete combustion of fuel occurs; there-
Figure 12. Smoke opacity indicates the number of
fore, smoke opacity increased.
larger diameter particles in the exhaust gas. At full
The variation of NOx emission with load is shown in
load, the smoke opacity of D100, BD10, BD20, BD30,
Figure 13. With an increase in the proportion of karanja
BD50 and BD100 is 47.5, 23.5, 22.6, 26, 24.4 and 20%,
biodiesel, NOx emission also increased. NOx emission
respectively. The smoke opacity of biodiesel blended
depends on the oxygen concentration of the fuel. Bio-
fuels is lower than that of diesel. This indicates that for
diesel contains oxygen which is responsible for the
blended fuels, major fuel molecules were converted
higher amount of NOx emission [32]. At full load, the
into CO or CO2 [30]. As the biodiesel contains oxygen
emission of NOx for BD10, BD20, BD30, BD50 and
in its structure, the combustion process is improved
BD100 was 1.6, 3, 5.4, 7.2 and 10.2% higher than that
with an increase in the proportion of biodiesel which
of pure diesel. For all fuels, with an increase in load,
causes a reduction in smoke opacity for blended fuels

Figure 12. Variation of smoke opacity with load for different fuels.
 8 R. L. PATEL AND C. D. SANKHAVARA
Figure 13. Variation of NOx with load for different fuels.
Downloaded by [Southern Cross University] at 17:47 02 November 2017
Figure 14. Variation of CO with load for different fuels.
NOx emissions also increased. With the increase in load,
exhaust gas temperature is increased, and as NOx emis-
sion is a temperature-dependent phenomenon, at
higher loads, NOx emission is higher. The emissions of
NOx are reported to be both higher and lower for bio-
diesel blended fuels as compared with diesel, in the lit-
erature. The emission of NOx was reported to be lower
for sunflower, soybean and rapeseed biodiesel
blended fuel as compared to diesel by one source [33],
while for the same fuels, NOx emissions were reported
to be higher by other authors [34–36].
The variation of CO emission with load is shown in
Figure 14. For all fuels, with an increase in load CO emis-
sions also increased. With an increase in load, the fuel
and air mixture becomes rich which causes incomplete
Figure 15. Variation of CO2 with load for different fuels.
combustion of fuel; therefore, CO emissions increased.
Up to 50% load, CO emissions were more or less equal
for diesel and various blends of biodiesel. But at higher
loads, emissions of CO for all blends were lower than
for diesel. At full load, the emissions of CO for BD10,
BD20, BD30, BD50 and BD100 were 1200, 1110, 1160,
1000 and 772 ppm, respectively, which are 11.12, 17.78,
14.07, 25.92 and 42.81% lower than mineral diesel. The
lower emissions of CO for biodiesel blended fuels are
due to the presence of oxygen in biodiesel molecules,
which causes complete combustion of fuels and there-
fore a reduction in emission of CO [37,38].
The variation of emissions of CO2 with load is shown
in Figure 15. For all fuels, with an increase in load, the
CO2 emission also increased. Also, for most loading

conditions, the emissions of CO2 for blended fuels were
found to be higher than that of diesel. However, at full
load, the emissions of CO2 for blends of up to 30%
KOME with diesel were close to that of mineral diesel.
For BD50 and BD100, the emission of CO2 at full load
was 5.4 and 13% higher than that of mineral diesel. For
BD100, the emissions of CO2 from no-load to full-load
conditions were found to be 8, 10.5, 18, 17 and 13%
higher than those of mineral diesel for the same load-
ing conditions. The higher CO2 emission for biodiesel
blends is due to the greater amount of oxygen present
in biodiesel molecules. The higher oxygen level of
BD100 and its blend causes lower carbon content in
the same volume of fuel consumed. Therefore, CO2
emission increased [39,40].
Conclusions
Downloaded by [Southern Cross University] at 17:47 02 November 2017
For a homogeneous catalyst, a two-step process is
required to produced biodiesel from KO having an acid
valueof greater than 4 mg of KOH/g. A yield of 90%
was obtained using a homogeneous catalyst in the
two-step process. It is less complex to produce biodie-
sel from KO using a heterogeneous catalyst (Li-CaO) in
a single-step process. The conversion of 98.37% of kar-
anja oil into methyl ester was obtained using 5 wt.% of
Li-CaO at 65  C and a 12:1 molar ratio of methanol to
oil, in 2 h.
The brake thermal efficiency of BD10 was found to
be higher than that of diesel at higher load conditions.
For lower blends of KOME, BSFC was comparable to
diesel, but for higher blends, BSFC was increased.
The emission of CO is reduced by blending KOME
with diesel. The emissions of CO for pure KOME were
found to be quite a bit lower than those of diesel for all
loading conditions.
The smoke opacity of all blends of KOME with diesel
is found to be lower than that of mineral diesel. The
reduction percentage of smoke opacity was increased
with increasing blending of KOME with diesel.
The NOx emissions for all blends of KOME with die-
sel were found to be higher than those of mineral
diesel.
This study shows that biodiesel production from
karanja oil by a single-step process using Li-CaO is less
complex and gives greater yield as compared to a two-
step process using a homogeneous catalyst. Perfor-
mance and emissions analysis shows that a blend of
KOME of up to 20% with diesel can be utilized in a sin-
gle-cylinder diesel engine without any engine
modification.
Acknowledgements
The research fund provided by GUJCOST, GUJARAT, Sanction
order No. GUJCOST/MRP/14-15/1149. Dt-27/11/2014 for car-
rying out this research is gratefully acknowledged.
BIOFUELS 9
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Funding
The research fund provided by GUJCOST, GUJARAT, Sanction
order No- GUJCOST/MRP/14-15/1149 Dt-27/11/2014 for car-
rying out this research is gratefully acknowledged.
References
[1] Zbarcea O, Scarpete D, Vrabie V, et al., 2016 Environ-
mental pollutions by diesel engine. Part II : a literature
review regarding HC, CO, CO2 and soot emissions, Ter-
monetica, suppliment. 65–69.
[2] Balat M. Prospects for worldwide Biodiesel market
development. Energ Source Part B Econ Planning Policy.
2009;4:48–58.
[3] Barnwal BK, Sharma MP. Prospectus of biodiesel produc-
tion from vegetable oil in India. Renew Sustain Energy
Rev. 2005;9:363–378.
[4] Das D, Pathak V, Yadav AS, et al., 2016 Evaluation of per-
formance, emission and combustion characteristics of
diesel engine fueled with castor biodiesel. Biofuels,
7269, 1–9.
[5] Dharmadhikari HM, Kumar PR, Rao SS. Performance and
emissions of C. I. engine using blends of biodiesel and
diesel at different injection pressures. Int J Appl Res
Mech Eng. 2012, 2/2;1–6.
[6] Chokri B, Ridha E, Rachid S, et al. Experimental study of a
diesel engine performance running on waste vegetable
oil biodiesel blend. J Energy Resour Technol.
2012;134:032202.
[7] Bobade SN, Khyade VB. Detail study on the properties of
pongamia pinnata (Karanja) for the production of bio-
fuel. Res J Chem Sci. 2012;2:16–20.
[8] Dwivedi G, Sharma MP, 2014. Prospects of biodiesel
from Pongamia in India. Renew Sustain Energy Rev., 32,
114–122.
[9] Prakash N, Jose AA, Devanesan MG, et al. Optimization
of Karanja oil transesterification. Indian J Chem Technol.
2006;13:505–509.
[10] Khayoon MS, Olutoye MA, Hameed BH, 2012. Utilization
of crude karanj (Pongamia pinnata) oil as a potential
feedstock for the synthesis of fatty acid methyl esters.
Bioresour Technol., 111, 175–179.
[11] Sharma YC, Singh B. Development of biodiesel from Kar-
anja, a tree found in rural India. Fuel. 2008;87:1740–
1742.
[12] Naik M, Meher LC, Naik SN, et al. Production of biodiesel
from high free fatty acid Karanja (Pongamia Pinnata) oil.
Biomass and Bioenergy. 2008;32:354–357.
[13] Patil PD, Deng S. Optimization of biodiesel production
from edible and non-edible vegetable oils. Fuel.
2009;88:1302–1306.
[14] Gangil S, Mewar C, Singh RK, et al. Influence of acid cata-
lyst on two step transesterification of Karanja oil with
high free fatty acids. Biofuels [Internet]. 2015;6:377–381.
[15] Chauhan BS, Kumar N, Cho HM, et al. Astudy of perfor-
mance and emission of adiesel engine fueled with Kar-
anja biodiesel and its blends. Energy. 2013;56:1–7.
[16] Borges ME, D
ıaz L, 2012. Recent developments on het-
erogeneous catalysts for biodiesel production by oil
esterification and transesterification reactions: a review.
Renew Sustain Energy Rev., 16, 2839–2849.
 10 R. L. PATEL AND C. D. SANKHAVARA
[17] Endalew AK, Kiros Y, Zanzi R, 2011. Heterogeneous catal-
ysis for biodiesel production from Jatropha curcas oil
(JCO). Energy, 36, 5, 2693–2700.
[18] yoki. Heterogeneous catalysis for biodiesel production.
2010. 1–10. Available from: http://www.kth.se/polopo
ly_fs/1.187900!/Menu/general/column-content/attach
ment/15.pdf%5Cnpapers3://publication/uuid/
317FD5AF-CF30-46AE-B3C1-92F8D0AB9B60
[19] Singh V, Hameed BH, Sharma YC, 2016. Economically
viable production of biodiesel from a rural feedstock
from Eastern India, P. pinnata oil using a recyclable labo-
ratory synthesized heterogeneous catalyst. Energy
Convers Manag., 122, 52–62.
[20] Thiruvengadaravi K V., Nandagopal J, Baskaralingam P,
et al., 2012 Acid-catalyzed esterification of karanja (Pon-
gamia pinnata) oil with high free fatty acids for biodiesel
production. Fuel, 98, 1–4.
[21] Karmee S, Chadha A. Preparation of biodiesel from
crude oil of Pongamia Pinnata. BioResour Technol.
2005;96:1425–1429.
[22] Kouzu M, Hidaka J-S. Transesterification of vegetable oil
Downloaded by [Southern Cross University] at 17:47 02 November 2017
into BD catalyzed by CaO: a review. Fuel. 2012;93:1–12.
[23] Granados ML, Alonso DM, Alba-Rubio AC, et al. Transes-
terification of triglycerides by CaO: increase of the reac-
tion rate by biodiesel addition. Energy Fuels.
2009;23:2259–2263.
[24] Meher LC, Kulkarni MG, Dalai AK, et al. Transesterifica-
tion of Karanja (Pongamia Pinnata) oil by solid basic cat-
alysts. Eur J Lipis Sci Technol. 2006;108:389–397.
[25] Kumar D, Ali A. Nanocrystalline lithium ion impregnated
calcium oxide as heterogeneous catalyst for transesteri-
fication of high moisture containing cotton seed oil.
Energy Fuels. 2010;24:2091–2097.
[26] Anjana PA, Niju S, Begum KMMS, et al., 2016 Studies on
biodiesel production from Pongamia oil using heteroge-
neous catalyst and its effect on diesel engine performance
and emission characteristics. Biofuels, 7, 4, 377–387.
[27] Qadri SB, Skelton EF, Hsu D, et al. size induced transition
temperature reduction in nano particles of ZnSr. Phys
Rev. 1999;60:9191–9193.
[28] Sinha D, Murugavelh S. Biodiesel production from waste
cotton seed oil using low cost catalyst: engine perfor-
mance and emission characteristics. Perspect Sci [Inter-
net]. 2016;8:1–4.
[29] Panneerselvam N, Murugesan A, Porkodi KP, et al.
Computational engine performance and emission anal-
ysis using Ceiba pentandra biodiesel. Biofuels [Internet].
2016;7269:1–9.
[30] Dhar A, Kevin R, Agarwal AK, 2012. Production of biodie-
sel from high-FFA neem oil and its performance,
emission and combustion characterization in a single
cylinder DICI engine. Fuel Process Technol., 97, 118–129.
[31] Behçet R, 2011. Performance and emission study of
waste anchovy fish biodiesel in a diesel engine. Fuel
Process Technol, 92, 6, 1187–1194.
[32] Serin H, Akar NY. The performance and emissions of a
diesel engine fueled with tea seed (camellia sinensis)
oil biodiesel-diesel fuel blends. Int J Green Energy.
2014;11:292–301.
[33] Raheman H, Phadatare AG. Diesel engine emissions and
performance from blends of karanja methyl ester and
diesel. Biomass Bioenerg. 2004;27:393–397.
[34] Hira A, Das D. Performance and emission evaluation of
diesel engine fuelled with biodiesel produced from high
free fatty acid crude soyabean oil. 2016, Biofuel; 7269,
1–9.
[35] Taylor P, Aydin H, _Ilkiliç C, 2015. Energy Sources, Part A :
Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects Exhaust
Emissions of a CI Engine Operated with Biodiesel from
Rapeseed Oil Exhaust Emissions of a CI Engine Operated
with Biodiesel from Rapeseed Oil 37–41.
[36] Usta N. Combustion of biodiesel fuel produced from
hazelnut soapstock / waste sunflower oil mixture in a
Diesel engine, Energy conversion and Management.
2005;46:741–755.
[37] Wang WG. Emissions from nine heavy trucks fueled by
diesel and biodiesel blend without engine modification.
Environ Sci Technol. 2000;34:933–939.
[38] Schumacher LG. Heavy-duty engine exhaust emis- sion
tests using methyl ester soybean oil/diesel fuel blends.
Bioresour Technol. 1996;57:31–36.
[39] Xue J, Grift TE, Hansen AC. Effect of biodiesel on engine
performances and emissions. Renew Sust Energ Rev.
2011;15:1098–1116.
[40] Khan K, Kumar G, Sharma AK, et al. Performance and
emission characteristics of a diesel engine using com-
plementary blending of castor and karanja biodiesel.
Biofuels [Internet]. 2016;7269:1–8.