1.1 | iy OSS FUNCTIONS OVERVIEW Functions are fundamental tothe study of calculus. In this chapter we review ‘what functions are and how they are pictured as graphs, how they are combined and trans- formed, and ways they can be classified. We review the trigonometric functions, and we discuss mistepresentations that can occur when using calculators and computers to obtain a function's graph. The real number system, Cartesian coordinates, straight lines, parabo- las, and circles are reviewed in the Appendices. We treat inverse, exponential, and logarith- rie functions in Chapter 7. |_Functions and Their Graphs I Functions are a tool for describing the real world in mathematical terms. A function can be represented by an equation, a graph, a numeric ‘of a verbal description; we will use all four representations throughout this book. This section reviews these function ideas. Functions; Domain and Range The temperature at which water boils depends on the elevation above sea level (the boiling point drops as you ascend). The interest paid om a cash investment depends on the length ‘of time the investment is held. The area ofa circle depends on the radius of the circle. The distance an object travels at constant speed along a straight-line path depends on the elapsed time, In each case, the value of one variable quantity, say y. depends on the value of another le quantity. which we might call x. We say that “yi a fimetion of x" and write this symbolically as v= fo) Cyequals f of x") In this notation, the symbol f represents the function, the letter. is the independent vari- able representing the input value of f, and is the dependent variable or output value of fatx. DEFINITION A function f froma set D toa set Yisa rule that assigns a unique (single) element f(x) € ¥ to each element xe D. ‘The set D ofall possible input values is called the domain of the function. The set of all values of f(x) as x varies throughout D is called the range of the function, The range ray not include every element in the set ¥. The domain and range of a function can be any sets of objects, but often in calculus they are sets of real numbers interpreted as points of a coordinate line. (In Chapters 13-16, we will encounter funetions for which the elements of the sets are points in the coordinate plane or in space.)2 Chapter 3: Functions F lola tput val Often a funtion is given bya formula that dseribes how 19 cate eee : rom variable. For instance, the equation A = 71 postive ac oars ams nase angen nye oii i formule). When we define a function y = f(x) with a formula ine Me Cone nat stated explicit or restrict by content, the domain i assumed tobe the pest of ea ‘sale ft which the formula gives elas the so-called matoral domain, we ‘want to ett the domain in some way, ve mast sy 0, The domain oF sen tie set of real numbers, To restrict the domain of the Function to, ay, ‘we would write “y = x4,x > 0." pees Dap The range of y = x? is [0, 00). The range of y = x°,x = 2, is the set of oa ‘tation (see Appendix 1), the (onsiny cone tained by squaring numbers greater than or equal to 2. In set notation (see Appendix 1), range is {x!|x = 2} ot {yly = 4) of 4,2). ‘on FIGURE 1.1 A diagram showing a When the range of a function is a set of real numbers, the fuer " ee function asa kindof machine. valued, The domains and ranges of many real-valued functions of areal tals ombistions of tras, The intervals may be open else oral open, and may be finite or infinite. The range of a function is not always easy to find. — ‘A fintion fs ike machine tat produces an ouput wale fin its ange whenever \we feed itan input value. from its domain (Figure 1.1). The function keys on a calculator give oN an example of a function as a machine. For instance, the Vx key on a calculator aivesan i a ~f(3) put value (the square root) whenever you enter a nonnegative number x and press the Vx key, A function can also be pictured as an arrow diagram (Figure 1.2). Each arrow associ- Dm dominset Ye etemlti"s _atesan element ofthe domain D wit a unique or single element in the set Y. In Figure 12, the a arrows indicate that f(a) is associated with a, f(x) is associated with x, and so on. Notice that FIGURE 1.2 A function froma set Dtoa a function ean have the same value at two different input elements in the domain (as occurs set Yassigns a unique clement of Ytocach with f(a) in Figure 1.2), but each input element xis assigned a single output value f(x). element in D. EXAMPLE 1 Let's verify the natural domains and associated ranges of some simple functions. The domains in each case are the values of x for which the formula makes sense. Function Domain (x) Range () (00, 00) (0, 00) (-00,0)U(0,00) (00,0) U(0, 00) [0, 00) [0, 00) (00,4) (0,00) Pil (0,1) a Be re Solution The formula y = x? gives areal y-value for any real number x, so the domain is (—00, 00), The range of y = x? is [0, 00) because the square of any real number is nonnegative and every nonnegative number y is the square of its own square root, v= (Vs) fory = 0. ‘The formula y = 1/x gives areal yvalue for every x except x = 0. For consistency in the rules of arithmetic, we cannot divide any number by zero, The range of y — Ix, the Set of reciprocals ofall nonzero real numbers isthe set ofall nonzero real numbers, ince Fog MU). That is, for y x 0 the number x = 1/y is the input assigned to the output value y The formula y = Vx gives a real y-value only if x = 0. The range of y = Vx is (0, 20) because every nonnegative number is some number's square root (namely, itis the ‘Square root of its own square), In y = V4—x, the quantity 4 — x cannot be negative. That is, 4 — x = 0, or 2.5 4. The formula gives real y-values forall x= 4, The range of Vig (0, 20), the set of all nonnegative numbers. neGraph of the function in 4.1. Functions and Their Graphs 3 ‘The formula y = Vi = gives a real y-value for every x in the closed i terval from I to 1, Outside this domain, 1 ~ x? is negative and its square root is not a real number. The values of 1 — x? vary from 0 to Lon the given domain, and the square roots of these values do the same, The range of V1 — x? is 0,1] . Graphs of Functions If isa function with domain D, its graph consists of the points in the Cartesian plane ‘whose coordinates are the input-output paits for J. In set notation, the graph is {(x, f@) |xeD}. “The graph of the funetion f(x) = x + 2s the set of points with coordinates (x,y) for which y =x + 2. Its graph is the straight line sketched in Figure 1.3. “The graph of a function fis a useful picture ofits behavior. If (xy) is @ point on the graph, then y= f(x) isthe height ofthe graph above the point x. The height may be posi- tive or negative, depending on the sign of f(x) (Figure 1.4), y FIGURE 1.3 The graphof f(x) =x +2 FIGURE 1.4 If(x,) les on the graph of is the set of points (x, ) for which y has “frthen the value y = f(x) is the height of the value x + 2. the graph above the point x (or below x if f(3) is negative). EXAMPLE 2 Graph the function y = x? over the interval [2,2]. Solution Make a table of xy-pairs that satisfy the equation y = x?, Plot the points (x, y) ‘whose coordinates appear in the table, and draw a smooth curve (labeled with its equation. through the plotted points (see Figure 1.5). ' How do we know that the graph of y’ = x? doesn't look like one of these curves? y4 Chapter 1: Functions Zi find out, we could plat more points. But how would we then connet fier n basic question sill remains: How do we know for sure what the graph * Facer the points wo pot? Caleulus answers this question, as we will ee in Chapter Meanwhile we will have to settle for plotting points and connecting them as bey, we can, Representing a Function Numerically We have seen how a function may be represented algebraically by a formula (the aeg funetion) and visually by a graph (Example 2). Another way to represent a function jg ‘numerically though a table of values. Numerical representations are often used by eng neers and scientists. From an appropriate table of values, a graph of the function can be obtained using the method illustrated in Example 2, possibly with the aid of a computer, The graph consisting of only the points in the table is called a seatterplot. EXAMPLE 3 Musical notes are pressure waves in the air. The data in Table 1.1 give recorded pressure displacement versus tite in seconds of a musical note produced by a tuning fork. The table provides a representation of the pressure function over time, If we first make a scatterplot and then connect approximately the data points (t, p) from the table, we obtain the graph shown in Figure 1.6. pressure) p TABLE 141 Tuning fork data Time Pressure Time Pressure 0.00091 0.080 0.00362 0.217 0.00108 0.200 0.00379 0.480 0.00125 0.480 0.00398 0.681 0.00144 0.693 0.00416 0.810 0.00162 0816 0.00435 0.827 0.00180 0844 0.00453 0.749 FIGURE 1.6 A smooth curve through the plotted points 0.00198 0771 0.00471 0.581 sives a graph ofthe pressure function represented by 0.00216 0.603 0.00489 0346 Table 1.1 (Example 3), 0.00234 0.368 0.00507 0.077 0.00253 0.099 0.00525 0.164 0.00271 0.141 0.00543 0320 0.00289 0.309 0.00562 0354 0.00307 0348 0.00579 0.248 0.00325 0.248 0.00598 0.035 0.00344 0.041 The Vertical Line Test for a Function Not every curve in the coord have only one value f(x) fore ofa function more than once, the upper semicircle defined by the function f(x) = VI 3? and the lower semicircle defined by the function g(x) = ~Vi = ¥ Figures 1.7b and 1.76),324 FIGURE 1.8 The absolute value function has domain (—00, 00) ‘and range [0, C0). FIGURE 1.9 To graph the function y = f(x) shown here, ‘we apply different formulas 10 different parts ofits domain (Example 4). FIGURE 1.10 The graph ofthe greatest integer function y = [x] lies on or below the line y = x, 50 itprovides an integer floor for (Examples). 4.1. Functions and Their Graphs 5 y y x (I. + | ata i 7] a a * eater wy-Vie8 oy-Vi-# FIGURE 1.7. (The cele isnotthe graph ofa funtion ils the vert lines 6) The wppEr semicieesthe rapt ota fanetion f=) = Vi = (6) Te lover seme the graph of function g(x) = — V1 = x7, Piecewise-Defined Functions Sometimes a function is described by using different formulas on different parts of its domain. One example isthe absolute value function a =) ax <0, whose graph is given in Figure 1.8, The right-hand side of the equation means that the function equals x if x = 0, and equals —x if x < 0, Here are some other examples. nl EXAMPLE 4 — The function oxy <0 f@y=4 2, osxst xed is defined on the entire real line but has values given by different formulas depending on the position of x. The values of f are given by y= —x when x <0, y x? when 0 = x= 1, and y = I when x > 1. The function, however, is just one function whose domain isthe entire set of real numbers (Figure 1.9). . EXAMPLE 5 The function whose value at any number x is the greatest integer less than or equal to x is called the greatest integer funetion or the integer floor function. It is denoted | x J. Figure 1.10 shows the graph. Observe that [24 U9} [2]=2 [02] =0, [0] =0, [+12 [-03]=-1 [-2] EXAMPLE 6 The function whose value at any number x i the smallest integer great than or egual to xis called the least integer funtion or the integer ceiling function. It denoted |x], Figure 1.11 shows the graph. For positive values of x, this function mig represent, for example, the cost of parking x hours in a parking lot which charges $1 each hour or part of an hour.6 Chapter 1: Functions FIGURE 1.11 The graph ofthe least integer function y = [x] lies on or above the line » = x, 0 it provides an integer ceiling forx (Example 6) URE 1.12 (a) The raph of y even function) is symmetric about the is. (6) The graph of y = x? fan odd sin) is symmetric about the origin, Increasing and Decreasing Functions I'he graph of function climbs or rises as ¥ ™ function is inoreasing. If the graph descends of falls a yor funetion is decreasing. us move from Tf 10 right We say tat te or fal rove from left to right, he DEFINITIONS Let fbea function defined on an interval and let x1 and x2 be any two points in 7 vreasing on /. is said to be inet 1. It flra) > fle) whenever sy < x2, then fi said 10 : 2. IF fl) < fer) whenever x, < xo, then fs suid to be decreasing on /. easing and decreasing functions It is important to realize that the definitions of incre rst be satisfied fr every’ pair of points xi and 2 in J with x1 < 22- Because we se the inequality < to compare the function values, instead of =, itis sometimes fis swictly increasing or decreasing on J. The interval ! may be finite (also called bounded) or infinite (unbounded) and by definition never consists ofa single point (Appendix 1). EXAMPLE 7 The function graphed in Figure 1.9 is decreasing on (—00, 0] and in. creasing on [0, 1). The function is neither increasing nor decreasing on the interval {1, co) because of the strict inequalities used to compare the funetion values in the definitions. Even Functions and Odd Functions: Symmetry The graphs of even and odd functions have characteristic symmetry properties. DEFINITIONS A funetion y = f(x) isan even funetion of x if f(—x) = f(x), odd funetion ofx if f(—x) = —f(x), for every x in the function's domain, ‘The names even and odd come from powers of x. If y is an even power of x, asin y =x ory = x4, itis an even function of x because (=x)? = x? and (-x)* = x4. Ifyis an odd power of x, as in y = x or y = x°, it is an odd function of x because (—x)! = =x and (=x)’ = =x The graph of an even function is symmetric about the y-axis, Since f(—x) = flx),a Point (x,y) lies on the graph if and only if the point (—x, y) lies on the graph (Figure 1.122). A reflection across the y-axis leaves the graph unchanged, The graph of an odd function is symmetric about the origin. Since f(—x) = —f(x),2 point (x,y) lies onthe graph ifand only ifthe point (—x, ~y) lies on the graph (Figure 1.126). Equivalently, a graph is symmetric about the origin if a rotation of 180° about the origin leaves the graph unchanged. Notice that the definitions imply that both x and —x must be in the domain of EXAMPLE 8 Sle Se) =x? +1 Even function: (Figure 1.13a). i Even function: (—x)? = x? forall x; symmetry about y-axis, (xP + 1 =x? + 1 forall x; symmetry about yeaxis fle) Oda function: (~x) = —x forall x; symmetry about the origin, Ae)=x+ 1 Notodd: f(-x) = —x + 1, but - f(x) = -x — a , Ax) = =x ~ 1. The two are not Noteven:(-x) + 1 # x + 1 forallx # 0 (Figure 1.136), '’ _ lll41.1 Funetions and Their Graphs © FIGURE 1.13 (2) When we add the constant term It the function = 2 the resulting function y = x? + | isstill even and ts graph is Still symmetric about the y-axis. (b) When we add the constant term 1 10 the funetion y = x, the resulting funtion y = x + 1 isno longer odd. The symmetry about the origin is lost (Example 8). Common Functions A variety of important types of functions are frequently encountered in calculus. We i tify and briefly describe them here. Linear Functions A function of the form f(x) = mx + b, for constants m and b, is called a linear function, Figure I.14a shows an array of lines f(x) = mx where b = 0, 0 these lines pass through the origin. The function f(x) = x where m = 1 and 6 = 0 is called the identity function. Constant functions result when the slope m = 0 (Figure 1.146). A linear function with positive slope whose graph passes through the origin is, called a proportionality relationship = @ FIGURE 1.14 (a) Lines through the origin with slope m. (b) A constant function with slope m = 0. DEFINITION Two variables » and.x are proportional (to one anothet) if one is always a constant multiple of the other; that is, if y = kx for some nonzero constant k. If the variable y’is proportional to the reciprocal 1/x, then sometimes it is said that y is inversely proportional to.x (because 1/x is the multiplicative inverse of x). Power Functions A function f(x) = x*, where a is a constant, is called a power func- tion. There are several important cases to consider.(Chapter 1: Functions (a) a= n, apositive imeger. " layed in Figure 1.15. These func. The graphs of f(x) = x", form = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, are displaye : tion are defined forall real ylues of x. Notice that as the power m ets lange. the aun tend to fatten toward the axis onthe interval (~1y 1), and also Fis mons epi for [x] > 1. Each curve passes through the point (1, 1) and through the oni a a Sof functions with even powers are symmetric about the y-axis; those powers are symmetric about the origin, The even-powered functions are decreasing on the interval (00, 0] and increasing on [0, C0); the odd-powered functions are inereasing over the entre real line (—00, 00), FIGURE 1.15 Graphs of fix) = x°, = 1,2,3,4,5, defined for —00 0 @ o FIGURE 1.16 Grophs ofthe power functions /(x) = 1° forpart (a) a and for part (b) The functions f(x) = Veeand g(x) = x" = WG are th x ‘are the square root and cube root functions, respectively. The domain of the square root function is [0, 96) bac he cube root function is defined forall real x. Their graphs are displayed in Figure 117 along with the graphs of y= x3? and y = x Stn lay NEE Tih Be grb of y= 27 and (Recall that x3? = (y!2)> and Polynomials A function p is a polynomial if Pa) = age + aga os hare + ay Where n is a nonnegative integer and the numbers ap. a, ay, (called the coefficient ofthe polynomial), All polynomials have de Soest domain (~90, 00), Ifthe1.1. functions and Ther Graphs 9 y x x yee fre 20 , yep : a ot * . . W Domitin: 0 <2 Demin: ~2 0, then m is called the degree of the polynomial, Linear functions with m # 0 are polynomials of degree |. Polynomials of degree 2, usually written as p(x) = ax? + hy + c, are called quadratic functions. Likewise, cubie funetions are polynomials p(x) = ax* + by? + ex + d of degree 3. Figure 1.18 shows the graphs of three polynomials. Techniques to graph polynomials are studied in Chapter 4. ye 2 Da D ye rt= Me 98 4 I= @ © © FIGURE 1.18 Graphs of three polynomial functions. Rational Functions A rational function is a quotient or ratio f(x) = p(2)/a(x), where p and q are polynomials. The domain of a rational function is the set of all real x for which g(x) # 0. The graphs of several rational functions are shown in Figure 1.19. 3 Te+4 4 2 4 2 4 2 NorroscaLe 7 6 | @ © FIGURE 1.19 Graphs of thre rational functions. The straight red lines ae called asymprotes and are not patt of the graph.10 Chapter 1: Functions constructed ftom polynomials using algebraic oper, and taking roots) lies within the clayg Algebraic Functions Any funct tions (addition, subtraction, multiplication, div ‘of algebraic functions, All rational functions are algebraic, but also included are more complicated functions (such as those satisfying an equation like y° ~ Oxy = 2° studied in Section 3.7). Figure 1.20 displays the graphs of three algebraic Functions. FIGURE 1.20 Graphs ofthroe algebraic functions. Trigonometric Functions The six basic The graphs of the sine and c G0) = sins FIGURE 1.21 Graphs ofthe sine and cosine functions * where the base @ Exponential Functions Functions of the form f(x) positive constant and a = 1, are called exponential functions. All exponestial f hhave domain (20, 00) and range (0, 6°), so an exponential function never asst value 0, We study exponential functions in Section 7.3. The graphs ot functions are shown in Figure 1 FIGURE 1.22 Graphs of exponential funct1.1 Functions and Their Graphs 41. Logarithmic Functions These are the functions f(x) = loge, where the base a # 1 is 4 positive constant. They are the inverse functions of the exponential functions, and the calculus ofthese functions is studied in Chapter 7. Figure 1.23 shows the graphs of four logarithmic functions with various bases. In each case the domain is (0, 00) and the range is (—00, 00), y lorsox FIGURE 1.23 Graphs of foor logarithmic FIGURE 1.24 Graph of acatenary or functions. hanging cable. (The Latin word catena means “chain”) Transcendental Functions These are functions that are not algebraic. They include the trigonometric, inverse trigonometric, exponential, and logarithmic functions, and many other functions as well. A particular example of a transcendental function is a eatenary. Its graph has the shape of a cable, lke a telephone Tine or electric cable, strung from one support to another and hanging freely under its own weight (Figure 1.24). The function defining the graph is discussed in Section 7.7, Exercises 1.1 Functions Bay b. In Exercises 1-6, find the domain and range of each function. 2, fix) =1- Vx 4. In Exercises 7 and 8, which of the graphs are graphs of functions of x, 0 7 are not? Give reasons for your answers. Finding Formulas for Functions y by 9. Express the area and perimeter of an equilateral triangle as function ofthe triangles side length x. 10, Express the side length of a square as a function ofthe length d the square’s diagonal, Then express the area as a function of t siagonal length 11. Express the edge length ofa cube as a function of the cube's dia : fe ‘onal length d. Then express the surface area and volume of t ° 0 cube asa function of the diagonal length.12 12. A point P in the first quadrant lies on the gtaph of the finetion Maw , & + Sls) = Vix. Express the coontinates of Pas functions of the enn fan FS slope of the line joining to the origin, ‘p 2r + dy = $, Let J be the distance from the point (¥,3) to the origin (0, 0). Write asa function ot x. 14, Consider the point ¢x,») lying on the graph of y= Vx - ‘be the distance between the points (x, andl (4, 0), Wr 0 faery Abet Functions and Graphs Find the domain and graph the functions in Exercises 15-20. 18, fos 16 fs) === i 17, g(x) = Vix} 18 g(x) = Vox Bw 19. F() = s/t] 20, Git) = Ile) 21, Find the domain of y = —**.3 . 4- Ve The Greatest and Least Integer Functions 2 AK Fort vals of is 22, Find terangeofy = 2-4 3 tlsor wisdom 23. Graph the following equations and explain why they are not Se sa a aeaag! va ° ” graphs of functions of 38, Does [=x] = = [x] for all realx? Give reasons for your answer, aes te 36, Graph the ins 24, Graph the following equations and explain why they are not _ fle) a felt b= b [x ty 7) hrebl l Why is (0) called the integer part of Piecewise-Defined Functions Graph the functions in Exercises 25-28 Increasing and Decreasing Functions ph the fanetions in Exercises 37-46, What symmetries, if any, do rs have? Specify the intervals ever which the function isin 25. fla) = ce e the x 1 : creasing and the intervals where it is decreasing. aoe xsl i () : 40 = wore i afi x<0 eV 28. G(x) = te ape wre Find a formula for each funtion graphed in Exercises 29-32, 46. =a 2 boy » ; Even and Odd Functions ay in Exercises 47-58, say whether the function seven, odor nthe ! Give reasons for your answer. 47. fir) =3 48. flv) D 2 so 9 fier tt 50, fl) 82. g(r) = 3a Y b : S4 gi) 2K ap wad 2 56. M0) = 10] 7 3 57. A) = 241 58. h(e) Theory and Examples 59, The variable + is proportional to 1, and Determine # when s = 60, when f= 75- ae -®@ (Pe ce Ceili | den Ln Tone BS a Auk Wh aitinn cod Demerd of sau’ uniy cena af sua 8 ant“ibs danke by * \ AASB H 2 Rong. Ss Combs Warton BV Cor Doran Dovain Th en Dowain Wud cevngl as. \ alice Daain owl arg wv expel Moe Ms Audion ~ call Iain ol ada f oe @A Jado is vl Ys a weehiva awd iwpeh oh Q cy oukpal Q au is calles Domain sl To Al od pais calle Nowy a Awe: | | Dewoiw: d Some 4 dod Paws is calle nein ; ond eon Ms dondoy x ‘ows sl ned of oval Desc iS calles! 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