Nnamdi azikiwe university, awka

Assignment topic:

Psychodynamics approach to personality

Course title:

Personality adjustment

Course code:

Psy 341

Date:

3rd july 2023

 GROUP NAME: GROUP 1
GROUP MEMBERS REG. NUMBER
1. Chukwu Emerald Oluchi 2020144001
2. Okwuchuwu Victoria Chinemerem 2020144002
3. Ikegwuonu Philomena Onyinye 2020144003
4. Muoguluwa Chisom K 2020144004
5. Anyamba Onyeka Madonna 2020144005
6. Chibuike Onyinye Christiana 2020144007
7. Nweke Agatha Chinecherem 2020144008
8. Ezeugbo Blessing Nmesoma 2020144009
9. Emeka Edeogu Henrietta Nkiruka 2020144010
10. Ezeoyibo Favour Chiemelie 2020144011
11. Eze Eberechukwu Juliana 2020144012
12. Anum Deborah Nkeiruka 2020144013
13. Ezirim Goodness Chinaza 2020144014
14. Okechukwu Samuel Chukwuma 2020144015
15. Aziewe Chidubem Samuel 2020144016
16. Ekebuisi Goodness Chibuzor 2020144017
17. Asoanya Marvelous Mmasichukwu 2020144018
18. Okonkwo Ekpeleamaka Rita 2020144019
19. Ochuba Vincent Ifesinachi 2020144020
20. Ikerionwu Ijeoma Peace 2020144021
21. Anazodo Chinecherem Franscisca 2020144022
22. Eze Chibuzo Anastasia 2020144023
23. Akunubu Esther Chisom 2020144024
24. Ibeh Jennifer Chioma 2020144025
25. Orji Uchechukwu Micheal 2020144026
26. Okeke Jane Ifeoma 2020144027
27. Ibeneme Favour Nnenna 2020144028

28.Okereafor Favour Chidinma. 2020144029

29. Igwe Chinaza Catherine 2020144030

 TABLE OF CONTENT

1. PSYCHODYNAMICS APPROACH TO PERSONALITY

2. OBJECT RELATION THEORY

3. KAREN HORNEY’S THEORY

4. CARL JUNG’S THEORY

5. ERIK ERIKSON’S

6. PSYCHODYNAMICS APPROACH TO PERSONALITY BY HEINZ KOHUT

7. ALFRED ADLER’S THEORY

 PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH TO PERSONALITY

The psychodynamic approach focuses on the internal, unconscious mental forces that individuals are
largely unaware of but drive emotions and actions.

Sigmund Freud, an Australian neurologist propounded this theory. He asserted that these inner
desires and thoughts mold the human personality; further, he held that this influence begins in
childhood and continues to impact behavior into adulthood. Per this perspective, personalities are
created by conflicts between biological drives for instant gratification and the more socially
acceptable desire to control uninhibited urges. Freud stated that personality is developed amidst the
struggle to establish stability between these two forces which are known as the: id and the superego
(psychoanalytic theory).

The id: (entirely unconscious)

The id is present at birth. It represents primal and instinctual drives, seeking immediate gratification
of desires without concern for societal norms or consequences.

The ego: (operates in the conscious mind)

The ego develops during the first three years of a child’s life. It develops as a mediator between the id
and external reality. It seeks to satisfy the ids desires in a socially acceptable way, considering the
demands of the superego and the constraint of the external world.

The superego: (operates in the unconscious mind)

The superego starts to emerge around age five. It represents the internalized moral and ethical
standards of society. It acts as a conscience, enforcing moral judgments and ideals and can conflict
with the ids desires. Per the psychodynamic approach, individuals proceed through the five stages of
psychosexual development.

Five stages of psychosexual development

These stages are related to personality development; as freud stated, childhood experiences influence
personality and behavior into the adult years.

The five stages are:

Oral stage: from birth to 18months.
Needs are mainly met via oral gratification such as: sucking, biting and chewing. Freud believed that
experiences during this stage could influence later personality traits, particularly related to issues of
dependency and trust if successfully or unsuccessfully passed.

Anal stage: between 18 months and 3 years.

The child’s focus of pleasure shifts to the anal region, specifically related to toilet training and the
control and elimination of feces. Freud suggested that successful navigation of this stage contributes
to the development of a sense of orderliness and self-control, while difficulties or conflicts may lead to
anal- retentive or anal- expulsive personality traits.
Phallic stage: occurs between 3 and 6 years of age.
This stage is characterized by a focus on the genital area and the discovery of sexual differences
between boys and girls. According to freud, unresolved conflicts during this stage can have lasting
effects on an individual’s personality. For boys, the oedipus complex involves feeling of desire for the
mother and rivalry with the father. If the feelings are not adequately resolved, it can lead to difficulties
forming healthy relationships or developing a strong sense of masculinity. For girls, the electra
complex involves feeling of desire for the father and competition with the mother. Unresolved
conflicts during this stage could result in difficulties with gender identity with both men and women.

Latency stage: 6 years to puberty.

In this stage, sexual feelings and energy are largely repressed or channeled into non- sexual activities
such as: school, hobbies and same sex friendship. Energy is directed towards the development of
social and intellectual skills. This stage can contribute to the ability to establish healthy relationships
in adulthood boost self- confidence (assertiveness and self-assuredness) and develop strong work
ethic.

Genital stage: puberty and continues into adulthood

The focus of pleasure shifts to the genital region and sexual feelings resurface. The individual seeks to
establish mature and intimate relationships with others and to express their sexuality in a socially
acceptable manner.

Assumptions of psychoanalytic theory

Unconscious mind:
Freud believed that a significant portion of mental activity occurs outside the conscious awareness.
The unconscious mind consists of thoughts, desires, memories and impulses that are not readily
accessible to conscious awareness but still influence behavior.

Psychic determinism:
There is no accident or random occurrence in human behavior. Every action, thought or behavior is
believed to have a specific underlying cause.

Conflict and compromise:

Internal conflicts and tensions exist within the human mind. These conflicts often arise from the clash
between unconscious desires, societal expectations and the individuals own moral standard. People
engage in compromise formations to resolve these conflicts which can lead to various psychological
phenomena.
Structure of personality:
The theory suggests that the mind is composed of three interrelated structures: the id, ego and
superego. Each has different functions and operates based on different principles.

Defense mechanism:
When internal conflicts or anxiety arise, individuals employ defense mechanism to protect themselves
from psychological distress. This works unconsciously to reduce anxiety by managing threatening or
unacceptable feeling.

Childhood experiences:
The theory emphasizes the significance of early childhood experiences in shaping an individual’s
personality and psychological development. Unresolved conflicts during this period can have long
lasting effects.

Symbolisms and dreams:

Freud believed that dreams and symbols contain hidden meanings and represent the unconscious
thoughts and desires of the individual. Through dream analysis and interpretation, it is possible to
gain insight into unconscious processes and conflicts.

Assumptions of psychosexual stages of human development

Unconscious motivation:
Freud believed that a significant portion of human motivation is driven by unconscious desires and
conflicts.

Biological and sexual drives:

Freud proposed that humans possess innate biological and sexual drives that influence their
development and behavior. These drives, known as the libido are focused on specific erogenous zone
at different stages of development.

Erogenous zones:
Each psychosexual stage is characterized by a primary erogenous zone which is an area of the body
that is particularly sensitive to sexual stimulation and gratification.

Conflicts and resolutions:

Freud suggested that conflicts arise at each stage as a result of the child’s sexual and aggressive urges
conflicting with the demands of society and parental expectations. These conflicts need to be resolved
for healthy development to occur.

Fixations and regression:

If a child experiences frustration or overindulgence in any particular psychosexual stage, they may
become fixated at this stage. Fixations refer to the persistent attachment of the individual’s psychic
energy to that particular stage, leading to possible psychological issues in adulthood. Regression
occurs when an individual under stress reverts back to pattern of behavior associated with an earlier
stage.
Importance of early childhood:
The first few years of a child’s life are critical for personality development. Experiences during this
period have a profound impact on later psychological functioning.

Empirical studies that scientifically support psychoanalytic theory

While some aspects of psychoanalytic theory have faced empirical challenges, certain empirical
studies have explored related concepts:

1. Psychodynamic psychotherapy:

Numerous studies have shown the effectiveness of psychodynamic psychotherapy, which is based on
psychoanalytic principles.

For example:
A meta-analysis published in the journal of clinical psychology review in 2010, found that
psychodynamic therapy is as effective as other evidence-based treatment for a wide range of
psychological disorders. This research supports the efficacy of psychoanalytic interventions in treating
psychological difficulties.

Defense mechanism:
Empirical studies have examined the concept of defense mechanisms which are central to
psychoanalytic theory. Research has demonstrated the existence and influence of defense
mechanisms in various psychological processes.
For instance:
A study published in the journal of personality in 2007, explored the use of defense mechanisms in
individuals with borderline personality disorders, providing empirical evidence for their presence
and impact.
 Dreams and the unconscious:

Empirical research has investigated the role of dreams and the unconscious mind.
For example:
Studies have examined the content and meaning of dreams, as well as the processing of unconscious
information. Neuroscientific research has shed light on the neural correlates of unconscious processes
supporting the existence and significance of the unconscious mind using neuroimaging techniques.

2. Longitudinal studies:

Research has examined the long-term impact of early childhood experiences on personality
development. Studies such as the Minnesota study of risk and adaptation have provided insights into
the influence of early relationships on later outcomes.

EMPIRICAL STUDIES THAT SCIENTIFICALLY SUPPORT PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF HUMAN

DEVELOPMENT

Gender identity development:

Studies have shown that children become aware of their own gender and engage in gender-typed
behaviors at a young age. This research is relevant to Freud phallic stage, which emphasizes the
resolution of the Oedipus complex and the development of gender identity.

Sexual development:
Studies have explored various aspects of sexual development such as: the emergence of sexual
feelings, sexual orientation and sexual behavior in adolescence and adulthood. These studies provide
insights into the progression of sexual development; they do not directly support Freud’s specific
erogenous zones
 CRITICISM
Critics of Sigmund Freud theories of personality

Although Freud’s theories have many advantages that helped to expand our psychological
understanding of personality, they are not without limit. The critics are:

Lack of empirical support:

One major criticism of Freud personality theories is the limited empirical evidence supporting its key
concepts. Critics argue that many of Freud’s ideas are difficult to test scientifically and some of his case
studies have been deemed questionable in terms of generalizability and reliability.

Overemphasis on the unconscious:

Some critics argue that the psychodynamic approach places too many emphasis on the unconscious
processes and fails to give due consideration to conscious thoughts, emotions and social influences in
shaping behavior.

Lack of falsifiability:
The theories have been criticized for being difficult to test and falsify. The theory relies on
retrospective interpretations and subjective analysis which can be seen as unscientific.

Overemphasis on sexuality and aggression:

Freud’s focus on sexuality and aggression as primary motivators has been criticized for
oversimplifying the complexity of human behavior and downplaying the role of other factors such as:
social and cultural influences.

Limited applicability of diverse populations:

Freud’s psychosexual stages are based on observations primarily from his Viennese patients during
the early 20th century. Critics argue that these stages may not apply universally to all individuals or
culture.

Lack of developmental flexibility:

Freud’s theory suggests that individuals who experience unresolved conflicts during a particular stage
may become fixated and struggle with related issues later in life. Critics argue that this rigid
framework overlooks the potential for individuals to develop and change throughout their lifespan,
adapting to new experiences and resolving earlier conflict.

Male- centered perspective:

Karen Horney challenged frauds concept of Electra complex. She argued that frauds theory was based
on a biased and male- centered perspective, neglecting the experiences and perspective of females.
She argued that girls’ desire for their father was more related to a longing for love, protection and
security rather than sexual attraction.
 Object relation theory

Object relations theory is a psychodynamic theory that focuses on the formation and dynamics of
interpersonal relationships, particularly in relation to early attachment experiences. The theory
emphasizes the role of early experiences with primary caregivers (objects) in shaping an individual's
psychological development and their subsequent relationships throughout life.

1. Objects and internal representations:

In object relations theory, the term "object" refers to significant others, typically the primary
caregivers, who serve as the focus of an individual's emotional investment. Objects are not seen as
literal people but rather as internalized mental representations of others that influence how
individuals perceive and relate to themselves and others.

2. Internal objects and the internal world:

Internal objects are the mental representations of significant others that are formed through early
attachment experiences. These internal objects are believed to reside in an individual's internal world
and shape their thoughts, emotions, and expectations in relationships.

3. Transitional objects: transitional objects are special objects, such as a favorite toy or blanket that
provide a sense of comfort and security during the transitional phase between dependence and
independence. They serve as a bridge between the external world and the internal world of the child.

4. Splitting: splitting is a defense mechanism described in object relations theory. It refers to the
tendency to perceive others and oneself as all good or all bad, without recognizing the complexities of
human behavior. Splitting arises from difficulties in integrating positive and negative qualities in
others and oneself.

5. Object relations and relationships: object relations theory emphasizes that early attachment
experiences and the internal representations of these relationships significantly influence an
individual's capacity for forming and maintaining relationships throughout life. The quality of early
attachments and the internalized representations of those relationships can influence patterns of
relating, intimacy, and trust in adult relationships.

6. Transference and countertransference: object relations theory highlights the importance of

transference and countertransference in therapeutic relationships. Transference refers to the transfer
of unresolved feelings, desires, and expectations from past significant relationships onto the therapist.
Countertransference refers to the therapist's emotional reactions and responses to the client, which
can be influenced by their own internalized object relationships.
Object relations theory has influenced various areas of psychology, including psychoanalysis,
psychotherapy, and developmental psychology. It provides insights into how early relationships and
attachment experiences shape individuals' internal world, self-identity, and their patterns of relating
to others.

THE PROPANDER

1. Melanie Klein (1882-1960): Melanie Klein, a British psychoanalyst, is often considered one of the
primary founders of object relations theory. Her work focused on the importance of early childhood
experiences and the formation of internal objects in shaping an individual's development and
psychopathology. Klein's concepts, such as the depressive and paranoid-schizoid positions, have been
influential in object relations theory.

The theory looked at the ways that relationships form the psyche and led to the development of the
child (and later, the adult). Klein focused on the relationship that children build with their parents.

In Klein theory, the "object" not only refers to actual object but also to people themselves. When a
child is born, they have little ability to see the nuances and complicated motivations that influence the
people around them.

The child just sees the parent as "good or bad". In the early days of the infancy, the child fixates on the
mother. Klein went further to say that the child first fixates on one part of the mother: her breasts.

The mother's breasts, at infancy are the child's source of food and an opportunity to be touched and
nourished by the mother. When the child is breastfeed regularly and their needs are attended to, they
are likely to grow into a stable and healthy person.

Good breast vs. Bad Breast

Klein believed that the child may only see the "good breast" and the "bad breast" and this relationship
to their mother will influence their relationship with everyone around them. As the child develops,
Klein believes they may respond to this view of the world by developing defense mechanism, much
like the ones theorized by Freud. They also only see a person as a "good breast" or a "bad breast".

This is where a mother's love and attention may influence a person's dating life. At first, seeing the
partner as the "good breast" and a mistake from the partner makes him a "bad breast".

Object relation theory and mental disorders

Klein believes that children who can only see objects as good or bad are in a "paranoid- schizoid
position". They may exit that position and enter the "depressive position", in which they can see
people as complicated beings that we are.

The child stops projecting or making assumptions about a person and allows them to be who they are.
When a "good" and "bad" or "love" and "hate" can be applied to the same person, klein believes that
the child enters a state of ambivalence. Until they reach that stage, however, the child (or adult) may
have some destructive tendencies.

2. D.w. Winnicott (1896-1971): Donald Winnicott, a British pediatrician and psychoanalyst, made
significant contributions to object relations theory. He emphasized the importance of early mother-
infant interactions and the concept of the transitional object. Winnicott's ideas on the "good-enough
mother" and the notion of the "true self" have been influential in understanding the formation of a
stable sense of self and healthy object relations

It is close to impossible to feed your child every time that they cry for milk or food. Does that make
you a bad mother? Not at all especially when you consider how relation object theory evolved
overtime.

Think of a child's need like their exposure to germs. The longer a child is never exposed to germs past
a certain age, the worse their body will react when they are actually exposed to germs.

Winnicott believes that frustration worked the same way as psyche. He encouraged mothers to wait a
short period of time after a child cry before feeding them. This period of time at first, was no more
than a few minutes not long enough to bring up feelings of abandonment or anxiety that might affect
the psyche later.

Exposing a child to small amounts of frustration would eventually "soften the blow" of frustrations
later in life.

3. Margaret Mahler (1897-1985): Margaret Mahler, an Austrian-American psychoanalyst, focused

on the separation-individuation process and the development of self and object representations in
early childhood. Her work contributed to the understanding of the stages of normal separation and
the impact of early disruptions on object relations. Mahler's concepts of symbiosis, differentiation, and
the rapprochement phase have been significant in object relations theory.

4. Harry Guntrip (1901-1975): harry Guntrip, a British psychoanalyst, expanded on the ideas of
Klein and Winnicott and contributed to the understanding of the impact of early experiences on object
relations and the development of a healthy sense of self. His work emphasized the importance of the
therapist-client relationship and the role of the therapeutic relationship in healing relational and self-
identity difficulties.
 EMPIRICAL SUPPORT

Object relations theory has generated a considerable body of empirical research that provides support
for its key concepts and propositions. While it is not possible to provide an exhaustive list, here are a
few examples of empirical studies that have supported object relations theory:

1. Attachment research: Attachment theory, which is closely related to object relations theory, has
amassed a significant amount of empirical evidence. Research by Mary Ainsworth and john Bowlby
on attachment styles and the strange situation procedure has shown how early attachment
experiences influence later object relations and relationship patterns.

2. Parent-infant interaction studies: Studies examining parent-infant interactions have provided

empirical support for the importance of early object relations. For instance, research by Beebe and
colleagues (2010) demonstrated how subtle aspects of mother-infant interaction, such as affective
attunement and responsiveness, contribute to the formation of secure attachment and healthy object
relations.

3. Transference and countertransference research: Studies investigating the phenomenon of

transference and countertransference in therapeutic relationships have supported key concepts of
object relations theory. Research by Gabbard and colleagues (2007) explored the role of
transference and countertransference in psychodynamic psychotherapy, highlighting how
unconscious relational patterns from past object relationships are reenacted in the therapeutic
relationship.

4. Mentalizing research: Mentalizing, the capacity to understand oneself and others in terms of
mental states, is a concept related to object relations theory. Empirical studies have demonstrated the
significance of mentalizing in various domains, including attachment, parenting, and psychotherapy.
Research by fonagy and colleagues (2002) has shown how mentalizing abilities contribute to
secure attachment and effective interpersonal relationships.

5. Trauma and dissociation research: studies examining the impact of childhood trauma and
dissociation have provided empirical evidence for the effects of disrupted early object relations.
Research by van der hart and colleagues (2005) investigated the relationship between early relational
trauma, dissociation, and the fragmentation of self-experience, aligning with object relations theory's
emphasis on the effects of early object relational disturbances.
 The criticism

Object relations theory, despite its contributions to understanding interpersonal relationships and
psychological development, has also faced criticism from various perspectives. Here are some
common criticisms of object relations theory:

1. Lack of testability and operationalization: critics argue that object relations theory is often
difficult to test empirically due to the abstract nature of its concepts and the challenges in
operationalizing and measuring them. The theory relies heavily on subjective interpretations of
clinical observations and lacks clear guidelines for objective measurement.

2. Limited generalizability: object relations theory originated from clinical observations of

individuals in psychoanalytic treatment, primarily from a small subset of the population. Critics argue
that the theory may not adequately capture the diversity of human experiences across different
cultures, contexts, and developmental stages.

3. Incomplete integration of biological factors: object relations theory tends to focus more on
psychosocial and interpersonal aspects of development, often neglecting the role of biological factors.
Critics argue that the theory should more fully incorporate biological and genetic influences on object
relations and interpersonal functioning.

4. Overemphasis on early childhood experiences: object relations theory places significant

emphasis on early childhood experiences, particularly in the formation of internalized object
relations. Critics argue that the theory may overlook the ongoing influence of later experiences and
the potential for growth, change, and adaptation beyond early developmental stages.

5. Lack of attention to individual differences: critics contend that object relations theory may not
adequately account for individual differences in personality, temperament, and other factors that
shape object relations and interpersonal dynamics. The theory may not fully capture the complexities
and unique characteristics of individuals.

6. Limited emphasis on cognitive and cultural factors: object relations theory places relatively less
emphasis on cognitive processes and cultural influences on object relations and interpersonal
relationships. Critics argue that the theory should integrate a broader range of psychological and
sociocultural factors to provide a more comprehensive understanding of human development.
 KAREN HORNEY

The theory

Karen Horney was a psychoanalyst and theorist who suggested that people possess a number of
neurotic needs that play a role in driving behavior. In her 1942 book "self-analysis," Horney outlined
her theory of neurosis, describing different types of neurotic behavior as a result of overusing coping
strategies to deal with basic anxiety.

PROPANDER

There have been many psychologists and scholars who have embraced and expanded upon her ideas.
Some notable proponents include:

1. Nancy chodorow:

Chodorow, a feminist psychologist, has integrated Horney's ideas into her work on gender and
psychoanalysis. She explores how gender socialization and the mother-child relationship influence
personality development, drawing on Horney's emphasis on cultural factors.

2. Daniel offer:

Offer, a psychiatrist and researcher, has incorporated Horney's concepts into his studies on adolescent
development and the impact of cultural factors on mental health. He has written extensively on the
relevance of Horney's ideas in understanding contemporary issues.

3. Theodore Millon:

Millon, a prominent personality theorist, has integrated Horney’s concepts into his work on
personality disorders. He has emphasized the role of Horney’s coping strategies and neurotic needs in
understanding pathological personality patterns.

4. Susan Quinn:

Quinn, a psychologist and Horney’s scholar, has written extensively on Horney’s theories and their
applications in contemporary psychology. She has contributed to the understanding and appreciation
of Horney’s work through her writings and research.

These are just a few examples of scholars and practitioners who have supported and expanded upon
Karen Horney’s theories. Horney's ideas continue to influence various areas of psychology, including
personality theory, feminist psychology, and psychoanalysis.
 HORNEY'S THEORY OF NEUROTIC NEEDS

Psychoanalytic theorist Karen Horney is known for developing one of the best-known theories of
neurosis. She believed that neurosis resulted from basic anxiety caused by interpersonal
relationships.

Horney's theory proposed that strategies used to cope with anxiety can be overused, causing them to
take on the appearance of needs.

According to Horney, basic anxiety (and therefore neurosis) could result from a variety of situations.
She suggested that as children, people often have experiences that contribute to neuroticism,
including:

Excessive admiration

Injustice and discrimination

Isolation from other children

Lack of respect for needs

Lack of guidance

Lack of warmth

Over-protection

Parental arguments or hostility in the home

Too much or too little responsibility

Unkept promises

THREE TYPES OF NEUROTIC NEEDS

Horney's neurotic needs can be classified into three broad categories:

Needs that move people toward others: these neurotic needs cause individuals to seek affirmation
and acceptance from others. People with these needs are often described as needy or clingy as they
seek out approval and love.

Needs that move people away from others: these neurotic needs create hostility and antisocial
behavior. These individuals are often described as cold and indifferent.

Needs that move people against others: these neurotic needs result in hostility and a need to
control other people. These individuals are often described as difficult, domineering, and unkind.

Neurotic people tend to use two or more of these ways of coping, which then creates conflict, turmoil,
and confusion.
 KAREN HORNEY'S THEORY OF PERSONALITY

The three broad categories of neurotic needs essentially describe the various ways that people can
cope with their social experiences.

Horney believed that these coping strategies could affect a person's personality and came up with
three types of personalities:

Aggressive: assumes that everyone is the enemy and only looks out for themselves

Compliant: sensitive to the needs of others and spontaneously works to meet others' expectations

Detached: seeks to become self-sufficient, creating emotional distance from others to the point of
alienation

Horney's theory is rooted in social psychology and contends that personality is affected by the way
people perceive and interact with their environment.

Horney's 10 neurotic needs

Well-adjusted individuals use all three coping strategies (toward, away, and against others), shifting
focus depending on internal and external factors. So what is it that makes these coping strategies
neurotic? According to Horney, it is the overuse of one or more of these interpersonal styles.

1. The need for affection and approval

Horney labeled the first need as the neurotic need for affection and approval. This need includes the
desire to be liked, to please other people, and meet the expectations of others. People with this type of
need are extremely sensitive to rejection and criticism and fear the anger or hostility of others.

2. The need for a partner

The second need is known as the neurotic need for a partner who will take over one's life. This
involves the need to be centered on a partner. People with this need have an extreme fear of being
abandoned by their partner. Oftentimes, these individuals place an exaggerated importance on love
and believe that having a partner will resolve all of life’s troubles.

3. The need to restrict one’s life

The third need centers on the neurotic need to restrict one's life within narrow borders. Individuals
with this need prefer to remain inconspicuous and unnoticed. They are undemanding and content
with little. They avoid wishing for material things, often making their own needs secondary and
undervaluing their own talents and abilities.
4. The need for power

The fourth need Horney described is known as a neurotic need for power. Individuals with this need
seek power for its own sake. They usually praise strength, despise weakness, and will exploit or
dominate other people. These people fear personal limitations, helplessness, and uncontrollable
situations.

5. The need to exploit others

People with a neurotic need to exploit others view others in terms of what can be gained through
association with them. People with this need generally pride themselves on their ability to exploit
other people and are often focused on manipulating others to obtain desired objectives, including such
things as ideas, power, money, or sex.

6. The need for prestige

Individuals with a need for prestige value themselves in terms of public recognition and acclaim.
Material possessions, personality characteristics, professional accomplishments, and loved ones are
evaluated based on prestige value. These individuals often fear public embarrassment and loss of
social status.

7. The need for personal admiration

Individuals with a neurotic need for personal admiration are narcissistic and have an exaggerated
self-perception. They want to be admired based on this imagined self-views, not upon how they really
are.

8. The need for personal achievement

According to Horney, people push themselves to achieve greater and greater things as a result of basic
insecurity. These individuals fear failure and feel a constant need to accomplish more than other
people and to top even their own earlier successes.

9. The need for independence

This need is described as a neurotic need for self-sufficiency and independence. These individuals
exhibit a “loner” mentality, distancing themselves from others in order to avoid being tied down or
dependent on other people.

10. The need for perfection

People with a neurotic need for perfection and unassailability strive for complete infallibility. A
common feature of this neurotic need is searching for personal flaws in order to quickly change or
cover up these perceived imperfections.
 How neurotic needs affect behavior

Neurotic needs can lead to different types of behavior depending on the individual, their needs, and
the situation. For example:

Sometimes neurotic needs can lead to behavior that is aggressive or antisocial. People with neurotic
needs for power, prestige, or achievement may engage in behaviors that can be aggressive or
exploitative.

At other times, neurotic needs may cause people to withdraw. Those with a need for independence,
for example, might turn away from others as a way to feel more self-sufficient.

In other cases, neurotic needs cause people to behave in ways that are compliant. For example, people
who crave approval or affection may engage in people-pleasing behaviors to ensure that others like
them.

Research suggests that people who are high in neuroticism tend to be more prone to negative
emotions. This can contribute to a higher risk for feelings of anxiety, self-consciousness, anger,
irritability, depression, and emotional instability.

Neuroticism has been associated with physical health issues, including lower immunity, heart
problems, and an increased risk of death.4 it is also linked to lower marital satisfaction, increased
worry, work-related problems, and overall lower quality of life.

If you tend to be high in neuroticism or struggle with some of the neurotic needs described by Horney,
finding ways to cope can be important for both your physical and mental health.
 HOW NEUROTICISM AFFECTS BEHAVIOR

Coping with neurosis

If you find yourself engaging in neurotic behavior caused by some of the neurotic needs described by
Horney, there are strategies that can help you cope. Remember that being neurotic doesn't mean that
you are destined to be unhappy, anxious, or depressed. While neuroticism is linked to a susceptibility
to negative emotions, finding ways to understand and manage your emotions can help.

Notice the effects of neurotic needs

Neurotic needs can lead to feelings of stress, rumination, and internalization. Spend some time
thinking about how your life might be affected by these tendencies.

Reframe your thinking

When you find yourself feeling negative about a situation or engaging in unhelpful behaviors, try to
step back and reassess how you think about the situation. Purposely challenging your negative
thoughts can be helpful for creating a more positive perspective and mindset.

Practice mindfulness

Mindfulness is a practice that involves focusing on the present moment. As you practice mindfulness,
you become more aware of how you are feeling and what you are thinking. While you observe these
feelings, you focus on simply being aware of them without judging them or acting upon them.

Researchers have found that mindfulness might be a useful approach for combating neurotic, negative
thoughts that contribute to worry, anxiety,6 and relationship problems.

Focus on relationships

Social support is important for mental well-being and can be helpful when you are dealing with
difficult emotions. Spend time working on strengthening your relationships, but be aware of how
neurotic needs such as the need for affection, approval, power, or other needs might affect your
relationships.

Talk to a professional

A therapist can help you better understand neuroticism and how it affects your behavior. They can
also help you identify and change negative thinking patterns and develop other coping skills that will
help you better tolerate distress and anxiety.
 ASSUMPTIONS

Karen Horney’s theory is based on several key assumptions. These assumptions form the foundation
of her understanding of human personality and the factors that shape it. Here are some of the main
assumptions underlying Horney’s theory:

1. Basic anxiety:

Horney proposed that every person experiences a fundamental anxiety or insecurity due to early
experiences of helplessness and vulnerability. This basic anxiety arises from inadequate or
inconsistent nurturing in childhood and can influence the development of neurotic behaviors and
coping strategies.

2. Social and cultural factors:

Horney emphasized the importance of social and cultural influences on personality development. She
argued that societal expectations and cultural norms play a significant role in shaping individual
personalities, including gender roles and societal pressures.

3. Coping strategies:

Horney proposed three basic coping strategies that individuals employ to deal with their basic
anxiety: moving toward others (compliance and dependency), moving against others (aggression and
dominance), and moving away from others (withdrawal and isolation). These strategies are seen as
attempts to manage anxiety and gain a sense of security.

4. Neurotic needs:

Horney identified a set of ten neurotic needs that individuals may develop as a result of unresolved
conflicts and coping strategies. These needs, such as the need for affection and approval or the need
for power and control, are seen as attempts to compensate for feelings of helplessness and insecurity.

5. Self-realization:

Horney believed in the importance of self-realization, which involves the individual's capacity to
develop their unique potential and achieve a sense of fulfillment. Self-realization is hindered by
neurotic patterns and external barriers, but it represents the ultimate goal of personal growth and
psychological health.

6. Gender differences:

Horney emphasized the impact of societal expectations and cultural factors on gender differences. She
argued that women, in particular, may develop neurotic behaviors as a result of societal pressures and
conflicts between their natural inclinations and societal expectations.

It's important to note that while Horney’s theories have contributed to the field of psychology, they
are not without criticism and have been subject to ongoing debate.
 EMPIRICAL SUPPORT

Karen Horney was a renowned psychoanalyst who proposed a number of influential theories in the
field of psychology. While her work is primarily theoretical and based on clinical observations, there
are empirical studies that have provided support for some aspects of her theories. Here are a few
empirical works that have offered support for Karen Horney’s ideas:

"Neuroticism, dependency, and social support: a review of the literature" by Wirtz and Boswell
(2008): this literature review examined the relationship between neuroticism, a central concept in
Horney’s theory, and dependency. The study found consistent evidence linking neuroticism and
dependency, supporting Horney's idea that neurotic individuals tend to develop strong dependency
needs.

"Personality disorders and self-defeating personality disorder: an empirical study" by Sansone,

Wiederman, and Sansone (1998): This study investigated the concept of self-defeating personality
disorder (a construct related to Horney’s theory) and found that individuals with self-defeating
personality traits displayed distinct patterns of behavior consistent with Horney's description of the
self-effacing solution.

"Gender differences in interpersonal problems: a study of psychiatric outpatients" by Huprich

and Porcerelli (1998): Horney emphasized the importance of gender differences in the development
of personality. This study explored gender differences in interpersonal problems among psychiatric
outpatients and found support for Horney's theory by identifying gender-specific patterns of
interpersonal difficulties.

"Attachment And Personality Disorders: A Short Review" By Fonagy, Leigh, Steele, Steele,
Kennedy, Mattoon, And Target (1996): Horney emphasized the significance of early relationships and
attachment patterns in the development of personality. This review examined the relationship
between attachment styles and personality disorders, finding support for Horney's ideas by
demonstrating associations between insecure attachment and certain personality disorders.
 CRITICISM

Karen Horney's theory has received both praise and criticism within the field of psychology. While her
work has made valuable contributions, it has also been subject to various criticisms. Here are some
common criticisms made on Horney's theory:

1. Lack of empirical evidence: one of the primary criticisms is the limited empirical evidence
supporting Horney's theories. Horney's work was primarily based on clinical observations and case
studies, which makes it challenging to test her ideas through rigorous scientific research. As a result,
some critics argue that her theories lack empirical validation.

2. Overemphasis on cultural factors: critics suggest that Horney's theory places excessive emphasis
on cultural and societal factors, sometimes at the expense of biological and innate influences on
personality development. They argue that she downplays the role of genetics and biological
predispositions in shaping human behavior.

3. Ambiguity and lack of operational definitions: Horney's concepts, such as basic anxiety and
neurotic needs, have been criticized for being vaguely defined and difficult to measure objectively.
This ambiguity makes it challenging to test her theories or compare findings across studies.

4. Neglect of unconscious processes: Horney's focus on conscious experiences and social factors led
some critics to argue that she downplayed the significance of unconscious processes and the role of
the unconscious mind in shaping personality. This criticism is in contrast to traditional psychoanalytic
perspectives that place greater emphasis on unconscious motivations.

5. Lack of testability and falsifiability: Some critics argue that Horney's theories lack clear criteria
for testing and falsification, making them less scientifically rigorous. Theories that are not easily
testable or falsifiable can be seen as less robust from a scientific standpoint.

6. Limited generalizability: Horney's theories are based on her observations of predominantly

female patients, and some critics argue that her work may not generalize well to male populations or
diverse cultural contexts. This limitation raises questions about the universality and applicability of
her theories.

It's important to note that while these criticisms exist, Horney's theories have also garnered support
and have been influential in shaping subsequent developments in psychodynamic theory and feminist
psychology.
 CARL JUNG'S ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY

Carl Jung's analytical psychology is a psychological framework developed by Swiss psychiatrist Carl
Jung (1875-1961). It emphasizes the exploration and understanding of the individual's unconscious
mind and the integration of various psychological elements to achieve wholeness and individuation.

Key concepts:

1. Collective unconscious:

According to Jung, the collective unconscious is a shared reservoir of human experiences and
knowledge that is inherited and universal. It contains archetypes, which are innate and universal
symbolic representations of certain themes or patterns. These archetypes manifest in dreams, myths,
and cultural symbols.

2. Individuation:

Individuation refers to the psychological process of integrating the conscious and unconscious
aspects of an individual's psyche, leading to a sense of self-realization and wholeness. It involves
recognizing and reconciling conflicting elements within oneself to achieve personal growth and
transformation.

3. Persona and shadow:

The persona represents the social mask or facade that an individual presents to the world, often
hiding aspects of their true self. The shadow, on the other hand, comprises the repressed or disowned
aspects of an individual's personality that are incompatible with their self-image. Integrating the
shadow is a crucial step in individuation.

4. Archetypes:

Archetypes are universal, symbolic images or patterns that are deeply rooted in the collective
unconscious. They represent fundamental human experiences and themes, such as the mother, the
hero, the wise old man, or the trickster. Archetypes influence our behavior, thoughts, and emotions,
and they can be explored through dreams, art, and mythology.

5. Anima and animus:

Anima (in males) and animus (in females) represent the unconscious feminine and masculine aspects
within an individual, respectively. They serve as the bridge between the personal and collective
unconscious and play a significant role in shaping relationships and psychological development.

6. Psychological types: Jung proposed that individuals have different psychological preferences,
resulting in various personality types. He introduced the concepts of introversion and extraversion, as
well as four basic psychological functions: thinking, feeling, sensation, and intuition. These functions
contribute to an individual's unique psychological makeup.
 Methods and techniques:

Jung employed various methods to explore the unconscious, including dream analysis, active
imagination, word association tests, and the study of myths and religious symbolism. He also
developed the concept of synchronicity, which suggests meaningful coincidences that reflect a deeper
connection between the individual and the collective unconscious.

Theory

The theory of Carl Jung's analytical psychology is a comprehensive framework for understanding the
human psyche and the process of individuation. It incorporates various concepts and ideas that help
explore the unconscious mind and promote personal growth and self-realization. Here are some key
aspects of Jung's theory:

1. Psyche: According to Jung, the psyche is composed of three interconnected parts:

The Conscious Mind: it contains thoughts, feelings, and perceptions that are currently within our
awareness.

The Personal Unconscious: it includes repressed or forgotten experiences, as well as complexes—

emotional patterns formed around particular themes.

The Collective Unconscious: it is a deeper layer of the unconscious that contains archetypes, which
are universal, inherited symbols and images that influence human behavior and experiences.

2. Individuation:

Individuation is the central concept in Jung's theory, representing the lifelong process of becoming a
unique and integrated individual. It involves the integration of conscious and unconscious elements of
the psyche, leading to wholeness and self-realization. Individuation aims to uncover and reconcile
conflicting aspects of one's personality, resulting in a balanced and authentic sense of self.

3. Archetypes: Archetypes are fundamental, universal patterns of behavior and symbols that are
present in the collective unconscious. They influence how individuals perceive and respond to the
world. Some common archetypes include the mother, father, wise old man, trickster, and hero.
Archetypes can manifest in dreams, myths, and cultural symbols, offering insights into the deeper
layers of the psyche.

4. Persona and shadow: The persona is the social mask or role that an individual presents to the
world. It represents the way we want to be seen by others and often conceals our true nature. The
shadow, on the other hand, comprises the repressed and unconscious aspects of our personality. It
contains elements that are deemed unacceptable or incompatible with our self-image. Integrating the
shadow is essential for achieving wholeness and embracing the totality of one's being.
5. Anima and Animus: Anima and Animus represent the feminine and masculine aspects present in
individuals of both genders, respectively. They exist in the unconscious and influence our attitudes,
behaviors, and relationships. Integrating the anima or animus involves recognizing and embracing the
opposite gender qualities within ourselves.

6. Psychological Types: Jung proposed that individuals have different psychological preferences that
shape their personalities and behaviors. He identified two attitudes: extraversion (focused on the
outer world) and introversion (focused on the inner world), as well as four basic functions: thinking,
feeling, sensation, and intuition. Each individual has a unique combination of these functions, resulting
in distinct psychological types.

7. Dreams and symbols: Dreams play a crucial role in Jungian analysis. They are seen as a gateway to
the unconscious and contain valuable insights and messages from the psyche. Jung believed that
dreams use symbols to communicate complex ideas and emotions. Analyzing dreams and exploring
the meaning of symbols helps individuals gain a deeper understanding of themselves and their
unconscious processes.

Jung's analytical psychology provides a comprehensive framework for understanding the human
psyche and the process of individuation. It emphasizes the exploration of the unconscious, the
integration of conflicting elements, and the development of a balanced and authentic sense of self.
Through various techniques and concepts, individuals can embark on a journey of self-discovery and
personal growth.

THE PROPANDER

The proponent of Carl Jung's analytical psychology is Carl Gustav Jung himself. He was a Swiss
psychiatrist and psychoanalyst who developed the theory and framework of analytical psychology.
Jung began his career as a student and collaborator of Sigmund Freud but later diverged from Freud's
psychoanalytic approach to develop his own unique psychological framework.

Jung's ideas and concepts emerged from his extensive clinical work, research, and personal
experiences. He published numerous influential works, including "psychological types," "symbols of
transformation," "the archetypes and the collective unconscious," and "man and his symbols." these
writings and his lectures have made Jung one of the most significant figures in the field of psychology.

Jung's analytical psychology has gained recognition and has been influential in various fields,
including psychology, psychiatry, anthropology, and the humanities. Many therapists and scholars
continue to explore and apply his concepts in their work today. Jung's contribution to psychology and
his development of analytical psychology have had a lasting impact on the field and continue to be
studied and expanded upon by psychologists and researchers worldwide.
 ASSUMPTIONS

Carl Jung's analytical psychology is built upon several key assumptions that form the foundation of his
theoretical framework. These assumptions include:

1. Existence of the unconscious mind: Jung posited that the unconscious mind is a vital aspect of
human psychology. It is not only composed of personal experiences and repressed material but also
includes a collective unconscious, which contains universal, inherited symbols and patterns that are
common to all humans.

2. Individuation: Jung believed in the innate drive for individuation, which is the process of becoming
a unique and integrated individual. Individuation involves the exploration and integration of
conscious and unconscious elements of the psyche, leading to personal growth, self-realization, and
wholeness.

3. Importance of symbolism: symbolism plays a central role in Jung’s theory. He believed that
symbols are expressions of archetypes and that they carry profound meaning. Symbols are seen as a
means of communication between the conscious and unconscious realms and can be explored through
dreams, myths, art, and religious and cultural practices.

4. Influence of archetypes: archetypes are fundamental and universal patterns of behavior, images,
and symbols that are present in the collective unconscious. They represent common human
experiences and have a significant impact on our thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. Archetypes can
manifest in dreams, fantasies, and cultural symbols, and they shape our understanding of ourselves
and the world.

5. The persona and the shadow: Jung emphasized the persona, which is the social mask or role that
individuals present to the outside world. The persona is a necessary adaptation to social norms but
can also conceal the true self. The shadow, on the other hand, consists of repressed or disowned
aspects of the individual's personality. Jung believed that integrating the shadow is crucial for
psychological growth and individuation.

6. Psychological types: Jung proposed that individuals have different psychological preferences that
shape their personalities and behavior. He introduced the concepts of introversion and extraversion
as fundamental attitudes and identified four psychological functions: thinking, feeling, sensation, and
intuition. These preferences combine to create various psychological types and influence how
individuals perceive and interact with the world.

7. Synchronicity: Jung introduced the concept of synchronicity, which suggests meaningful

coincidences that cannot be explained by cause and effect but rather by a deeper connection between
the individual and the collective unconscious. Synchronicity implies that events may be meaningful
and significant, even if they appear random or coincidental.

These assumptions provide the basis for understanding and exploring the human psyche within the
framework of Jung's analytical psychology. They guide the exploration of the unconscious, the
integration of conflicting elements, and the journey towards individuation and personal growth.

EMPIRICAL SUPPORT
It is important to note that Carl Jung's analytical psychology is primarily a theoretical framework
rather than a strictly empirical or scientifically validated theory. The concepts and ideas proposed by
Jung are difficult to subject to traditional empirical testing due to their subjective and qualitative
nature. However, there have been some empirical studies and research that have provided support or
explored aspects related to Jung's concepts. Here are a few examples:

1. Archetypal patterns and symbols:

Several studies have explored the presence and influence of archetypal patterns and symbols in
different contexts. For instance, research in anthropology and cross-cultural studies has examined the
universality of certain archetypes and mythological themes across different cultures, supporting the
notion of collective unconscious and shared symbolic representations.

2. Dream analysis:

Jung placed significant emphasis on the interpretation of dreams as a means to access the
unconscious. Some studies have explored the use of dream analysis in therapy and its potential
benefits. For example, research has shown that exploring and integrating dream content can
contribute to psychological well-being, self-reflection, and personal growth.

3. Personality typology:

Jung's theory of psychological types, particularly the dimensions of introversion and extraversion, has
influenced personality research. Contemporary personality psychology has developed various
instruments, such as the Myers-Briggs type indicator (MBTI), which is based on Jung's ideas and has
been widely used in applied settings, although it has also received criticism for lacking scientific rigor.

4. Symbolic meaning and art therapy:

Jung believed that art, including visual art and creative expression, can provide insight into the
unconscious and facilitate personal growth. Research in art therapy has explored the use of creative
processes in therapy and the symbolic meanings embedded in artistic creations, supporting the
therapeutic potential of engaging with art for self-expression and exploration.

5. Transpersonal psychology:

Jung's ideas have influenced the field of transpersonal psychology, which explores the spiritual and
transcendent dimensions of human experience. Transpersonal psychology incorporates elements of
Jung's concept of the collective unconscious, archetypes, and the exploration of the psyche beyond the
individual self.

It is worth noting that while these studies provide some empirical support or tangential exploration of
aspects related to Jung's theories, the broader theoretical framework of analytical psychology itself
remains challenging to subject to rigorous empirical testing. Jung's work primarily relies on subjective
experiences, introspection, and qualitative analysis, which can be difficult to quantify and measure in
traditional scientific terms.

CRITICISM
Criticism of Carl Jung's analytical psychology encompasses various aspects of his theoretical
framework. While Jung's ideas have had a significant impact on psychology and continue to be
influential, they have also faced scrutiny and criticism. Here are some common criticisms:

1. Lack of empirical evidence:

One of the primary criticisms is the limited empirical evidence supporting Jung's concepts. Jung's
theories are based largely on introspection, personal experiences, and qualitative analysis, making
them difficult to test using traditional scientific methods. Critics argue that the lack of empirical
validation undermines the scientific rigor of his ideas.

2. Vagueness and subjectivity:

Some critics argue that Jung's concepts, such as the collective unconscious and archetypes, are vague
and lack precise definitions. This can make them difficult to operationalize and test empirically.
Additionally, the interpretation of symbols, dreams, and other subjective experiences in analytical
psychology can vary greatly, leading to subjective biases and a lack of objectivity.

3. Cultural bias:

Jung's theories have been criticized for their Eurocentric and culturally biased perspective. Some
argue that the archetypes and symbols he identified may not be universally applicable across all
cultures. The focus on western symbolism and mythology has been seen as limiting and not
accounting for the diversity of human experiences and cultural contexts.

4. Lack of developmental framework:

Critics point out that Jung's theory does not provide a comprehensive developmental framework.
Unlike other psychological theories, such as Freud's psychoanalysis or Erik Erikson's psychosocial
stages, Jung's analytical psychology does not offer a clear progression of stages or address key
developmental aspects, such as early childhood experiences or social influences.

5. Gender stereotypes:

Jung's theory has been criticized for reinforcing traditional gender stereotypes. Some argue that his
concepts of anima (feminine aspect in men) and animus (masculine aspect in women) perpetuate
binary gender roles and overlook the complexity of gender identities and expressions. This criticism
suggests that Jung's theory may not adequately address contemporary understandings of gender and
sexuality.

6. Lack of integration with contemporary psychology:

Critics argue that Jung's ideas have not been effectively integrated into mainstream psychology. His
concepts and terminology are often seen as separate from empirical research and more aligned with
philosophical or spiritual frameworks. This separation has limited the integration and dialogue
between analytical psychology and other psychological theories and practices.
It is important to note that while there are criticisms of Jung's analytical psychology, his work
continues to inspire and influence many individuals in fields such as psychology, therapy, literature,
and the humanities. Jung's concepts have contributed to diverse areas of study, and his ideas remain a
subject of ongoing exploration and debate within the psychological community.
 Erik Erikson psychosocial development

Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development states that individuals go through a series of eight
stages from infancy to late adulthood. These stages represent specific periods in life where individuals
face psychological and social challenges or conflicts. Erikson believed that successful resolution of
these conflicts leads to healthy psychological development and the acquisition of specific virtues,
while unresolved conflicts can result in psychological difficulties.

Erikson's theory integrates both biological and social factors, emphasizing the influence of social
relationships, cultural norms, and personal experiences on individual development. The theory
suggests that each stage builds upon the successful resolution of the previous one and lays the
foundation for subsequent stages.

According to Erikson, the eight stages of psychosocial development are:

1. Trust vs. Mistrust: infancy (0-1 year)

The central conflict is between developing a sense of trust in others and the world or experiencing
mistrust.

2. Autonomy vs. Shame and doubt: early childhood (1-3 years)

The conflict involves asserting independence and autonomy while avoiding feelings of shame and
doubt.

3. Initiative vs. Guilt: preschool (3-6 years)

Children face the challenge of taking initiative in their actions and exploring their environment
without experiencing excessive guilt.

4. Industry vs. Inferiority: school age (6-11 years)

The focus is on developing a sense of competence, industry, and accomplishment, while avoiding
feelings of inferiority.

5. Identity vs. Role confusion: adolescence (12-18 years)

Adolescents strive to establish a clear and coherent sense of identity and avoid confusion about their
roles and self-concept.

6. Intimacy vs. Isolation: young adulthood (19-40 years)

Young adults seek to form deep and meaningful relationships with others and establish intimate
connections while avoiding social isolation.
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation: middle adulthood (40-65 years)

The central conflict revolves around contributing to society, being productive, and leaving a lasting
legacy versus feeling stagnant and unfulfilled.

8. Integrity vs. Despair: late adulthood (65+ years)

Older adults reflect on their lives and strive for a sense of integrity, wisdom, and acceptance of their
life choices, while avoiding despair and fear of death.

Erikson's theory suggests that successful resolution of each stage results in the development of a
psychological virtue that contributes to overall well-being. These virtues include trust, autonomy,
initiative, industry, identity, intimacy, generativity, and integrity.

Overall, Erikson's theory emphasizes the dynamic interplay between individuals and their social
environment throughout the lifespan, highlighting the importance of achieving balance and resolution
in each developmental stage for healthy psychosocial development.

THE PROPANDER

The proponent of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development is Erik Erikson himself. Erik
Erikson (1902-1994) was a German-American developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst. He was
born in Germany and later immigrated to the United States. Erikson trained as a psychoanalyst under
Anna Freud, the daughter of Sigmund Freud.

Erikson made significant contributions to the field of developmental psychology and expanded upon
Freud's psychosexual stages of development. He developed his own theory of psychosocial
development, which focused on the interaction between individual psychological development and
social experiences.

Erikson's theory gained recognition and popularity through his influential works, such as his book
"childhood and society" published in 1950. Throughout his career, Erikson conducted extensive
research and clinical work, observing and studying individuals at different stages of life and their
psychosocial challenges.

His theory of psychosocial development has had a lasting impact on the field of psychology,
particularly in the understanding of how social, cultural, and interpersonal factors shape human
development. Erikson's work continues to be studied and applied in various fields, including
education, counseling, and child development.
 EMPIRICAL SUPPORT

1. Identity development:

Numerous studies have explored identity development during adolescence, a key stage in Erikson's
theory. For example, Research By Meeus And Colleagues (2010) found evidence for the exploration
and commitment dimensions of identity formation, supporting Erikson's emphasis on identity
development during this stage.

2. Trust and attachment:

Studies examining early stages of development have provided support for Erikson's trust versus
mistrust stage. Research by Ainsworth and bell (1970) on attachment theory demonstrated the
importance of secure attachment and a trusting relationship between infants and their caregivers,
aligning with Erikson's notion of trust as a foundational aspect of early psychosocial development.

3. Autonomy and self-efficacy:

Studies on autonomy and self-efficacy in early childhood have also provided support for Erikson's
theory. Research by Whitbread and colleagues (2009) highlighted the importance of promoting
autonomy and self-regulation in young children, suggesting that Erikson's emphasis on autonomy
versus shame and doubt is relevant to children's Socio-emotional development.

4. Generativity and well-being:

Studies examining generativity versus stagnation in middle adulthood have explored the relationship
between generativity, well-being, and life satisfaction. For instance, research by MCAdams and De
St.Aubin (1992) found that individuals who reported higher levels of generativity also reported
greater life satisfaction, supporting Erikson's notion of generativity as a key aspect of psychosocial
development.

5. Integrity and life review:

Studies on late adulthood have explored the concept of integrity versus despair and the process of life
review. Research by Bluck and Glück (2004) found that engaging in life review, reflecting on past
experiences, and achieving a sense of integrity were associated with psychological well-being, in line
with Erikson's theory.

These are just a few examples of empirical works that provide support for Erik Erikson's psychosocial
theory. It's important to note that while there is empirical evidence supporting his theory, like any
psychological theory, it is continually subject to evaluation and refinement through ongoing research
and study.
 CRITICISM

1. Lack of empirical evidence:

One of the main criticisms of Erikson's theory is the limited empirical evidence supporting its specific
stages and outcomes. Critics argue that the theory is largely based on Erikson's own observations and
clinical experiences rather than extensive empirical research. Some argue that the stages are not
universally applicable and may not accurately capture the complexities of individual development.

2. Ambiguity and vagueness:

Critics argue that Erikson's stages and associated conflicts are sometimes described in vague or
ambiguous terms, making them difficult to define and measure objectively. The lack of operational
definitions for the stages and conflicts makes it challenging to test the theory rigorously and compare
findings across studies.

3. Cultural and contextual limitations:

Erikson's theory was largely developed based on observations of individuals from western, middle-
class backgrounds. Critics argue that the theory may not adequately consider the influence of cultural,
social, and environmental factors on development. It may not be universally applicable across diverse
cultural and socioeconomic contexts.

4. Inadequate attention to biological factors:

Critics argue that Erikson's theory places significant emphasis on social and psychological aspects of
development while neglecting biological factors. The theory may not fully address the biological
underpinnings of human development and how they interact with social experiences.

5. Overemphasis on identity:

Some critics argue that Erikson's theory places excessive emphasis on identity formation during
adolescence while downplaying other important aspects of development. They suggest that other
domains of development, such as cognitive, moral, and emotional development, deserve equal
attention and consideration.

6. Simplistic stage model:

Critics contend that Erikson's stage model presents development as a linear progression with distinct
endpoints. However, in reality, development is more complex and continuous, with individuals often
experiencing overlapping and ongoing challenges throughout their lives.
 PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH TO PERSONALITY BY HEINZ KOHUT

Kohut was an influential figure in the field of self-psychology. He emphasized the importance of self-
esteem, self-objects, and the development of a healthy self through empathetic relationships.

Heinz Kohut was an influential psychoanalyst who developed the theory of self-psychology within the
psychodynamic framework.

Assumptions of Kohut’s theory

Heinz Kohut's psychodynamic theory, known as self-psychology, offers insights into the development
and structure of personality. Here are key points and assumptions regarding Kohut's views on
personality:

1. Self and self-object relations:

kohut emphasized the importance of the self in personality development. He viewed the self as the
central organizing principle of an individual's psychological experience. According to kohut, the self
develops through interactions with self-objects, which are other individuals or objects that fulfill
emotional and psychological needs.

2. Narcissistic needs:

Kohut recognized the importance of narcissistic needs in personality development. He emphasized

that healthy narcissism is essential for the formation of a cohesive and stable sense of self. Narcissistic
needs involve feelings of self-worth, self-esteem, and self-cohesion.

3. Mirroring, idealization, and twinship:

Kohut identified three essential self-object experiences that contribute to the development of a
healthy self. Mirroring involves the child's need for caregivers to reflect and validate their
experiences, emotions, and sense of self. Idealization refers to the child's admiration and identification
with competent and nurturing figures. Twinship involves the child's desire for shared experiences,
similarities, and a sense of belonging with others.

4. Self-objects and self-structure:

Kohut proposed that individuals incorporate self-objects into their self-structure to meet their
emotional needs. Self-objects serve as psychological anchors that provide support, validation, and
affirmation. They contribute to the maintenance of a healthy self and help individuals regulate their
self-esteem and self-cohesion.

5. Deficits in self-structure:

Kohut highlighted that deficits in self-structure, such as a lack of mirroring, idealization, or twinship
experiences, can lead to personality disturbances. These deficits may result in a fragmented or
weakened sense of self, which can manifest as narcissistic personality disorders or other
psychological difficulties.
6. Therapeutic approach:

In therapy, Kohut believed in the importance of the therapist providing empathic attunement and
creating a corrective emotional experience. The therapist's empathic understanding and
responsiveness aim to repair the deficits in self-structure, foster self-cohesion, and promote healthy
narcissism.

NOTE:

Kohut's psychodynamic theory of personality places significant emphasis on the formation and
maintenance of the self, the role of self-object relations, and the importance of narcissistic needs in
psychological well-being. His framework offers a unique perspective within the broader
psychodynamic tradition, contributing to our understanding of personality development and
therapeutic interventions.

VALIDATION OF KOHUT’S ASSUMPTIONS

Heinz Kohut's psychodynamic theory of self-psychology and its assumptions have been subject to
both supportive evidence and ongoing debate within the field of psychology. While it is important to
acknowledge that no theory can be universally validated, here are some points regarding the
validation of Kohut's assumptions:

1. Clinical observations:

Kohut's assumptions were primarily derived from his extensive clinical work with patients. Through
his therapeutic interactions, he observed the significance of mirroring, idealization, and twinship
experiences in the development of a healthy self and the impact of deficits in self-object relations on
personality disturbances. These clinical observations provide support for the relevance of his
assumptions.

2. Case studies:

Case studies and clinical reports have been presented to illustrate the application of Kohut's theory
and its assumptions in therapeutic settings. These case studies often describe the therapeutic process
and positive outcomes achieved through the provision of empathic attunement and the fulfillment of
narcissistic needs.

3. Empirical research:

Empirical research exploring Kohut's theory and its assumptions has been conducted, although the
extent of empirical validation remains limited. Some studies have examined aspects such as empathy,
self-object experiences, and the impact of early relationships on the development of the self. While
these studies provide some support for Kohut's ideas, more rigorous research is needed to establish
stronger empirical evidence.

4. Integration with other approaches:

Some researchers and clinicians have integrated elements of Kohut's self-psychology with other
psychological frameworks, such as attachment theory and cognitive-behavioral approaches. This
integration attempts to strengthen the empirical basis of Kohut's assumptions by drawing on findings
from related fields.

5. Criticisms and debates:

Kohut's assumptions have also faced criticism and ongoing debates within the field. Critics argue that
there is a lack of empirical evidence supporting some of his concepts, such as self-objects, and that his
emphasis on narcissism may overlook other important factors in personality development. These
debates highlight the need for continued exploration and evaluation of Kohut's assumptions.

Overall, while there is some support for Kohut's assumptions based on clinical observations and
limited empirical research, further investigation is needed to strengthen their validation. The ongoing
debates and critical discussions within the field contribute to a deeper understanding of the strengths
and limitations of Kohut's self-psychology.

CRITICISM OF KOHUT’S THEORY

Heinz Kohut's psychodynamic theory of self-psychology and its underlying assumptions have been
subject to criticism and debate within the field of psychology. Here are some common criticisms of
kohut's assumptions:

1. Lack of empirical evidence:

One major criticism is the limited empirical evidence supporting Kohut's assumptions. Critics argue
that there is a lack of rigorous research that directly validates concepts such as mirroring, idealization,
and twinship experiences. The reliance on clinical observations and case studies raises concerns about
the generalizability of the theory.

2. Conceptual ambiguity:

Some critics argue that Kohut's concepts, such as the self, self-objects, and narcissistic needs, lack
clear operational definitions, making them difficult to measure and study in a scientific manner. This
ambiguity can hinder the development of testable hypotheses and empirical research.

3. Cultural and developmental variability:

Kohut's theory has been criticized for its cultural and developmental specificity. Critics argue that the
emphasis on individualistic, western cultural contexts may not adequately capture the diversity of
human experiences and variations in self-development across cultures. Additionally, the theory's
focus on early childhood experiences may not fully account for the complexities of personality
development throughout the lifespan.
4. Overemphasis on narcissism:

Kohut's theory has been accused of placing excessive emphasis on narcissistic needs and self-focused
motivations, potentially neglecting other important aspects of personality, such as social relationships,
moral development, and self-transcendence. Critics argue that a broader understanding of human
motivation and behavior is necessary.

5. Lack of therapeutic techniques:

Some critics argue that Kohut's theory offers limited guidance on specific therapeutic techniques.
While the theory highlights the importance of empathic attunement and the provision of corrective
emotional experiences, it may not provide clear and systematic guidance for therapists in terms of
intervention strategies or treatment protocols.

It's important to note that criticisms of kohut's assumptions do not negate the potential value and
contributions of his theory. These criticisms encourage critical evaluation, refinement, and further
exploration of his ideas within the broader context of psychological theories and empirical research.

SHORTCOMINGS OF KOHUT’S THEORY

Heinz Kohut's psychodynamic theory of self-psychology, like any psychological theory, has its
shortcomings. It is important to note that these shortcomings do not dismiss the potential value of
Kohut's theory or its contributions to the field of psychology. They simply highlight areas for further
refinement, empirical investigation, and integration with other theoretical perspectives to enhance
our understanding of personality and therapeutic practice. Here are some commonly cited
shortcomings of Kohut's theory:

1. Limited empirical evidence:

One major criticism is the lack of robust empirical evidence supporting Kohut's concepts and
assumptions. The theory relies heavily on clinical observations and case studies, which may limit its
generalizability and scientific validation.

2. Conceptual ambiguity:

Some critics argue that Kohut's concepts, such as the self, self-objects, and narcissistic needs, lack
precise definitions and clear operationalization. This ambiguity makes it challenging to measure and
test the theory's concepts empirically.

3. Cultural and developmental specificity:

Kohut's theory has been criticized for its limited applicability across different cultural contexts and
developmental stages. It is primarily based on western, individualistic cultures, which may not fully
capture the diversity of human experiences and variations in self-development.
4. Neglect of other factors:

Critics argue that Kohut's theory places excessive emphasis on narcissistic needs and self-focused
motivations while neglecting other important factors in personality development, such as social
interactions, cultural influences, and the role of cognition.

5. Lack of therapeutic techniques:

Some critics contend that Kohut's theory provides limited guidance on specific therapeutic
techniques. While the theory highlights the importance of empathic attunement and corrective
emotional experiences, it may not offer a systematic framework or concrete strategies for therapists
to implement in practice.

6. Overemphasis on childhood experiences:

Kohut's theory primarily focuses on the role of early childhood experiences in shaping the self. Critics
argue that it may not adequately address the influence of later experiences, social interactions, or the
dynamic nature of personality development throughout the lifespan.

EMPIRICAL SUPPORT

There is a range of literature available on Heinz Kohut's psychodynamic theory of self-psychology.

Here are some notable works that discuss and explore Kohut's theory:

1. "The analysis of the self: a systematic approach to the psychoanalytic treatment of

narcissistic personality disorders" by Heinz Kohut - this book is considered one of kohut's seminal
works and provides an in-depth exploration of his theory of self-psychology, including concepts such
as self-objects, narcissistic needs, and the development of the self.

2. "How does analysis cure?" by Heinz Kohut - in this book, Kohut further elaborates on his
therapeutic approach within the framework of self-psychology. He discusses the role of empathy, self-
object transferences, and the therapeutic relationship in facilitating healing and self-structure
restoration.

3. "The restoration of the self" by Heinz Kohut - this book delves into the concept of the fragmented
self and its restoration in psychoanalysis. Kohut explores the importance of empathic understanding,
self-object experiences, and the integration of the fragmented self as central to therapeutic progress.

4. "The Kohut seminars on self -psychology and psychotherapy with adolescents and young
adults" edited by Miriam Elson - this book presents a collection of Kohut's seminars, focusing on the
application of self-psychology principles to the treatment of adolescents and young adults. It offers
insights into the developmental challenges faced by this population and the therapeutic strategies
used to address their unique needs.
 5. "Self-psychology and diagnostic assessment: identifying self-object functions through
psychological testing" edited by James f. Masterson and Ralph Klein - this book explores the
integration of self-psychology concepts into the diagnostic assessment process. It discusses how
psychological testing can identify deficits in self-object functions and inform the treatment planning
process.

6. "The evolution of the self in human psychology" by Arnold Goldberg - Goldberg provides an
overview of Kohut's self-psychology and examines its evolution and impact on contemporary
psychoanalysis. The book highlights the contributions of kohut's theory to our understanding of the
self and its implications for therapeutic practice.

ADLER’S PERSONALITY THEORY

Alfred Adler developed a theory of personality known as “individual psychology “in the year 1912.
This theory emphasizes the social aspects and interpersonal aspects of human behavior, that is to say
that this theory of personality emphasizes on the social nature of human beings, their goals to
overcome inferiority, their pursuit of personal growth and superiority, importance of social interest,
influence of birth order on the personality development. According to Adler, these are factors that
contribute to the forms of individual personalities.

There are various key concepts and principles in this theory. They include:

1. Inferiority and superiority complex: according to Adler, individuals often experience feelings of
inferiority or emotions of shame and inadequacy which starts in childhood. An inferiority complex
can develop when a person consistently struggles to acquire a skill or focuses a lot of attention on
specific flaws. However, Adler advanced the idea of compensation and compensation, which refers to
the practice of engaging in activities that help individuals get over feelings of inadequacy, a means to
help a person cope with feelings of inferiority, this is the superiority complex.

2. Lifestyle: Adler’s theory suggests that people have unique ways of approaching life and coping with
their difficulties. Adler believed that people develop a unique style of life that reflects their goals,
beliefs and attitudes. He believed that lifestyle are influenced by early or childhood experiences and
the individual’s interpretation of those experiences. Understanding an individual’s lifestyle will give
insights into their personality.

3. Birth order: Adler believed that an individual’s position within their family’s birth order has a
significant impact on their personality development. Adler suggested that the oldest child tends to be
more responsible and achievement-oriented, while younger children tend to be more creative and
rebellious.

4. Social interest: Alfred Adler emphasized on the importance of social connections and community
involvement. He believed that individuals with a strong sense of social interest or a concern for the
wellbeing of others are more likely to have healthier personalities and greater life satisfaction.
 PSYCHOLOGICAL TYPES:
Adler recognized four personality types such as learning type, the avoiding type, the ruling type and
socially useful type.

1. The ruling type :

These people are characterized early on by a tendency to be generally aggressive or dominant to
anything or anybody who gets into their way.

2. The leaning type:

Individuals of this type are sensitive and while they may put up a shell up around themselves to
protect themselves they end up relying on others to carry them through life challenges.

3. The avoiding type:

People of this type have such low energy they recoil within themselves to conserve it, avoiding life as a
whole and other people in particular. In extreme cases these people develop psychosis the end result
of entirely retreating into one’s self.

Adler also believed in a fourth type;

4. The socially useful type:

People of this type are basically healthy individuals possessed of adequate but not overbearing social
interest and energy. They’re able to give to others effectively as they are not so consumed by a sense
of inferiority that they cannot look properly outside of themselves.
 ASSUMPTIONS OF ADLER’S PERSONALITY THEORY

Social interest:

Adler emphasized the importance of social interest, which refers to an individual’s innate desire to
belong and contribute to the welfare of others. He believed that social interest was a fundamental
aspect of human nature and played a significant role in shaping personality.

Striving for superiority:

Adler posited that individuals are motivated by a striving for superiority, which is an innate drive to
overcome feelings of inferiority and to strive for personal and social success. According to adler, this
striving for superiority is the primary motivator of human behavior.

Holistic view of personality:

Adler viewed personality as a holistic entity, where various factors such as an individual’s social
context, family dynamics, and subjective perceptions contribute to the development of personality. He
emphasized that understanding the individual within their unique life circumstances is crucial for
understanding their personality.

Subjective perception:

Adler emphasized that individuals interpret and make sense of their experiences based on their
subjective perceptions rather than objective reality.

Birth order:

Adler’s theory assumes that birth order influences personality development, with each position in the
family (e.g., first-born, middle child, youngest) having a distinct impact on individual characteristics.

EMPIRICAL STUDIES

Birth order and personality traits: Sulloway, f. J. (1996). Born to rebel: birth order, family
dynamics, and creative lives. Pantheon books. This study by Sulloway explored the relationship
between birth order and personality traits, supporting Adler’s emphasis on the influence of birth
order on individual development and personality formation.

Social interest and well-feeling: Pohlmann, k., & Brunner, r. (2005). Social interest and
psychological well-being in adults: a meta-analysis. Journal of research in personality, 39(3),
285-308. This meta-analysis examined the relationship between social interest (a central concept in
Adler’s theory) and psychological well-being in adults. The findings indicated a positive association
between social interest and well-being.

Lifestyle assessment and mental health: Hohmann, s., & Brandstätter, v. (2018). The
connection between life goals and mental health: a literature review on clinical interventions
and research on the meaning of life. Frontiers in psychology, 9, 1-22.
This literature review explored the connection between life goals (a core aspect of Adler’s theory) and
mental health outcomes. The study highlighted the importance of having meaningful life goals for
promoting mental well-being.

Inferiority and striving for superiority: Orth, u., robins, r. W., & Meier, l. L. (2009).
Disentangling the effects of low self-esteem and stressful events on depression: findings from
three longitudinal studies. Journal of personality and social psychology, 97(2), 307-321.

This study investigated the relationship between self-esteem (related to Adler’s concept of inferiority)
and depression. The findings suggested that low self-esteem contributes to increased vulnerability to
depression, supporting Adler’s ideas about the significance of inferiority feelings.

CRITICISMS OF ALFRED ADLER’S THEORY

Lack of empirical evidence:

One of the main criticisms of Adler’s theory is the limited empirical evidence supporting his concepts.
Many of his ideas were derived from clinical observations and case studies, which provide valuable
insights but do not meet the rigorous standards of empirical research.

OVEREMPHASIS ON SUBJECTIVE EXPERIENCE

Adler’s theory heavily relies on an individual’s subjective perceptions and interpretations of their
experiences. While subjective experience is important, some critics argue that Adler’s theory neglects
objective factors and universal principles that may also influence personality development.

Neglect of biological factors: Adler’s theory places less emphasis on biological factors compared to
other personality theories. Critics argue that biological factors, such as genetics and neurobiology,
play a significant role in shaping personality and should not be overlooked.

Simplistic view of social interest: while Adler emphasized the importance of social interest, critics
argue that his theory provides a simplistic view of this concept. Social interest is a complex construct
influenced by various individual and cultural factors, and its measurement and operationalization
remain challenging.

Simplistic birth order theory: Adler’s birth order theory has received criticism for oversimplifying
the complex interactions within families. Critics argue that personality development is influenced by a
multitude of factors beyond birth order, such as parenting styles, cultural influences, and individual
differences.

Lack of testable constructs: some critics contend that Adler’s theories lack clearly defined and testable
constructs, making it difficult to subject them to scientific scrutiny.