CHAPTER 3

Protection Against Unbalanced Faults and Over-Unbalanced Loading Condition

General

Protection of unbalanced condition in power system ensures safety of equipment, stability and
personnel. It basically involves implementation of each detection and protection method. With
respect to unbalanced faults and over-unbalanced loading, protection takes major liability to
maintain safety.

As discussed previously, unbalanced faults occur in existence of unequal current or voltage

distribution. Unbalanced faults such as line to line fault, line to ground fault and double line to
ground fault cause excessive current flow in the faulted phases. They are analyzed with
symmetrical components in previous chapter.

On the other hand, over-unbalanced loading is also a representation of voltage unbalance. It can
result from faulty equipment, unbalanced distribution of loads and phase faults. Both unbalanced
faults and over-unbalanced loading result in dangerously high heating of equipment. Especially,
if the over-unbalanced loading is not addressed, it can lead instability and cascading failures in
power system.

Over-Unbalanced Loading Conditions

Unbalanced load in power distribution systems is referred as voltage unbalance. It is defined as

the ratio of negative or zero sequence components to positive sequence components by IEEE.
The unbalance itself is simply explained as the deviation in sinusoidal voltage and current
waveforms. Voltage deviation is basically the difference of phase angles in non-equal phases.
Even in the balanced systems, voltages are not exactly same. The line voltage unbalance rate
(LVUR) is defined as following by the National Equipment Manufacturer’s Association
(NEMA). NEMA stands out that the average voltage is the rated value.

MVDALV .100
%LVUR=¿
ALV
In where:

MVDALV : maximum voltage deviation from average line voltage,

ALV : average line voltage.

Also, LVUR can be represented with root mean square (rms) value as defined in the standard
IEEE 936-1987.

DBH ∧LV
%LVUR IEEE 936 =¿
ALV
In where:
DBH&LV : difference between the highest and the lowest fundamental rms values.

On the other hand, the unbalance factor (VUF) is stated as following.

V2
VUF=
V1

In where:

V2: negative sequence voltage,

V1: negative sequence voltage.

But, when the disparity of phases expand, faults and disturbs occur in the power systems such as
over-heating and harmonics. To sum up, over-unbalanced loading causes voltage unbalance
which is explained with negative or zero sequence voltages result by negative or zero sequence
currents flowing.

In most of the situation, voltage unbalance is formed due to the unequal load in the single phase.
Besides, faults, unequal distribution of three-phase loads, unbalanced transformer connection and
phase failures effectuate voltage unbalance. In addition, false functioning electrical equipment,
blown capacitor fuses, transformer taps, open delta regulator, transformers and inductive motor
can lead to an unbalance in voltage.

Motor and generator’s stator and rotor windings mostly have irregular impedance. Therefore, it
leads to voltage unbalance which is also related to overcurrent unbalance. In conclude, heat is
resulted which can cause open circuit and fire outbreak in the devices. So, over-unbalanced
loading unbalance effects heat which cause permanent or partial damage in the motor windings.

Winding resistance is determined by the length and size of the wire. The heat has control over
resistivity of wire, and thus in the copper loss which is associated as the load loss. Copper loss is
determined as following.
2
Pcopper −loss =I R

The analysis shows that unbalanced current is resulted over-unbalanced loads that connected to
either phase or line voltage. So, the unbalanced voltage is seen at the end of the high voltage
side. Motor performance is affected by the voltage unbalance and resulted as losses, overvoltage,
interference with control electronics, and mechanical oscillations. Especially, over-unbalanced
loading causes major losses in the situation of encountering balanced loads.

In conclusion, unbalanced current leads unequal heating in stator. This drops life expectancy of
the windings. Also, it creates torque pulsation which results as noise and excessive mechanical
stress. Therefore, over-unbalanced loading conditions are analyzed and later on protection
devices are designed accordingly.
Protection Devices Against Faults and Over-Unbalanced Loading Condition

Since the need of protection devices is rised, the number of companies and protection device
solutions have been significantly increased. There are several protection devices to use against
faults and over-unbalanced loading condition. Firstly, current transformer and voltage
transformers are used as protection in action since they sense current and voltage along the line.
In addition, circuit breakers are applied since it provides mechanical isolation during a fault. To
conclude, it is categorized into four main devices which are distance relay, over-current relay,
restricted earth fault (REF) relay and finally negative sequence relay. Basically, relay is a switch
that is in control of current flow.

Distance Relay

Distance relay uses impedance as a measurement to detect the fault. Comparing different phases
in terms of impedances enables to identify unbalanced fault and therefore it determines the
action.

Over-Current Relay

Overcurrent relay detects overcurrent flowing and trip the breaker in the conditions where the
current exceed. But it also is used to detect unbalanced faults, therefore initiate tripping.

Restricted Earth Fault (REF) Relay

Restricted earth fault relays detect phase to ground faults. Mostly, they are actively used in
protection of generators and transformers.

Negative Sequence Relay

Negative sequence relays are used mostly in the unbalanced faults, line to line faults and over-
unbalanced loading. These types of relays track the negative-sequence component of the current
or voltage. In the existence of unbalanced condition, circuit breaker is used to trip.