CHAPTER 2

Data
Transmission

.
 Chapter 2: Outline
2.1 MODES OF DATA TRANSFER

2.2 CHARACTER CODES

2.3 TRANSMISSION MODE

2.4 COMMUNICATION CHANNEL

2.5 ANALOG AND DIGITAL TRANSMISSION

2.5.1 DIGITAL-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION

2.5.2 ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION

2.5.3 DIGITAL TO ANALOG CONVERSION

2.5.4 ANALOG TO ANALOG CONVERSION

 2.1 MODES OF DATA TRANSFER

1. Simplex
The communication is unidirectional, on way communication

2. Half- duplex
Each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time

3. Full-duplex
Both station can transmit and receive simultaneously
2.2 CHARACTER CODES
2.3 TRANSMISSION MODES

Of primary concern when we are considering the

transmission of data from one device to another is
the wiring, and of primary concern when we are
considering the wiring is the data stream. Do we
send 1 bit at a time; or do we group bits into larger
groups and, if so, how? The transmission of binary
data across a link can be accomplished in either
parallel or serial mode.
 Figure 1: Data transmission modes

Data transmission across a link can be

accomplished in either serial or parallel mode
 1. Parallel transmission

➢ Advantage:
➢ Fast
➢ Disadvantages:
➢ Expensive(requires larger number of wires)
➢ Limited to Short distance
Parallel Transmission
 2. Serial Transmission
In serial transmission one bit follows another, so we need
only one communication channel rather than n to transmit
data between two communicating devices

➢ Advantage:
➢ Low cost (requires less wire)
➢ Long distance
➢ Disadvantages:
➢ Low speed transmission
 Asynchronous transmission

➢ Have start and stop bits

Figure : Asynchronous transmission

Stop bit=1 : indicates the Start bit=0 :alerts the

end of data receiver arrival of new
character bits

➢ Advantage:
➢ Simple, no synchronization
➢ cheap
➢ Disadvantages:
➢ Large relative overhead of transmitted bits
 Synchronous transmission
➢ Send bits one after another without start and stop bits
or gaps.

Direction of flow
Frame Frame Frame

11110111 11111011 11110110 ••• 11110111 11110011

➢ Advantage:
➢ Faster. Useful for high speed application such as computer to
computer
➢ Disadvantages:
➢ High cost
 TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT

Signals travel through transmission media,

which are not perfect. The imperfection causes
signal impairment. This means that the signal
at the beginning of the medium is not the same
as the signal at the end of the medium. What is
sent is not what is received. Three causes of
impairment are attenuation, distortion, and
noise

1.15
 Causes of impairment

1.16
 Attenuation

Attenuation means a loss of energy. When a signal,

simple or composite, travels through a medium, it
loses some of its energy in overcoming the resistance
of the medium. That is why a wire carrying electric
signals gets warm, if not hot, after a while. Some of
the electrical energy in the signal is converted to
heat. To compensate for this loss, amplifiers are
used to amplify the signal. Figure 1 shows the effect
of attenuation and amplification..

1.17
 Figure 1 : Attenuation and amplification

1.18
Example 1
Suppose a signal travels through a transmission medium and
its power is reduced to one half. This means that P2 = 0.5
P1. In this case, the attenuation (loss of power) can be
calculated as

A loss of 3 dB (−3 dB) is equivalent to losing one-half the

power.

19
Example 2
A signal travels through an amplifier, and its power is
increased 10 times. This means that P2 = 10P1. In this case,
the amplification (gain of power) can be calculated as

20
 Figure 2: Decibels for Example 2

1.21
 Distortion

Distortion means that the signal changes its form or

shape. Distortion can occur in a composite signal
made of different frequencies. Each signal
component has its own propagation speed (see the
next section) through a medium and, therefore, its
own delay in arriving at the final destination.
Differences in delay may create a difference in
phase if the delay is not exactly the same as the
period duration.

1.22
 Figure 3: Distortion

1.23
 Noise

Noise is another cause of impairment. Several types

of noise, such as thermal noise, induced noise,
crosstalk, and impulse noise, may corrupt the signal.
Thermal noise is the random motion of electrons in
a wire, which creates an extra signal not originally
sent by the transmitter. Induced noise comes from
sources such as motors. Crosstalk is the effect of one
wire on the other.

1.24
 Figure 4: Noise

1.25
 Figure 5: Two cases of SNR: a high SNR and a low SNR

1.26
Example 3
The power of a signal is 10 mW and the power of the noise
is 1 μW; what are the values of SNR and SNRdB?
2.5 ANALOG AND DIGITAL TRANSMISSION

2.5.1 DIGITAL-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION

➢ Data can be either digital or analog.

➢ Signals that represent data can also be digital or
analog.
➢ How we can represent digital data by using
digital signals?
➢ The conversion involves techniques: line
coding and scrambling.
 Line Coding

➢ Line coding is the process of converting digital

data to digital signals.
➢ Assume that data, in the form of text, numbers,
graphical images, audio, or video, are stored in
computer memory as sequences of bits .
➢ Line coding converts a sequence of bits to a
digital signal.
➢ At the sender, digital data are encoded into a
digital signal; at the receiver, the digital data are
recreated by decoding the digital signal. Figure 1
shows the process.
Figure 1 : Line coding and decoding
 Signal element Vs Data element

• Data element:
➢ The smallest entity that can represent a
piece of information: that is bit

• Signal element:
➢ The shortest unit with respect to time
(timewise) of a digital signal
 Data Rate Vs Signal Rate
• Data rate
➢ The number of data elements (bits) sent in 1 s
➢ Unit is bits per second (bps)
➢ Called bit rate
• Signal rate
➢ The number of signal elements sent in 1s
➢ Unit baud
➢ Signal rate is sometimes called the pulse rate,
the modulation rate or the baud rate
 Line Coding Schemes
Types of line coding schemes into five broad
categories, as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Line coding scheme

 Figure 3: Unipolar NRZ scheme

It is called NRZ because the signal does not return to zero at

the middle of the bit
Figure 4: Polar schemes (NRZ-Level (NRZ-L) and NRZ-
Invert(NRZ_I))

NRZ-L the level f the voltage determines the value of the

bit.
NRZ-I the inversion or the lack of inversion determines the
value of the bit.
Figure 5: Polar schemes (RZ)

Signal changes during each bit:

▪ Positive voltage = 1
▪ Negative voltage = 0
▪ Signal returns to zero halfway through the bit
interval
Figure 6: Polar biphase

Manchester : Signal changes at the middle of bit interval

+ve to –ve transition for a “0” bit
-ve to +ve transition for a “1” bit
Differential Manchester:
Transition for every bit in the middle of bit
Transition at the beginning of the bit if the next bit is “0”
No Transition at the beginning of the bit if the next bit is “1”
Figure 9: Bipolar schemes: AMI (Alternate mark inversion) and
pseudoternary

Bipolar sometimes call multilevel binary

- Three voltage levels: positive,negative and zero
AMI
-0: neutral zero voltage
1:alternating positive and negative voltages
Pseudoternary
-1: neutral zero voltage
0: alternating positive and negative voltages
 Scrambling

We modify line to include scrambling, as shown in

Figure 10. The system needs to insert the required
pulses based on the defined scrambling rules. Two
common scrambling techniques are:
1) B8ZS (Bipolar with 8-zero substitution)
• Substitutes eight consecutive zeros level
voltage with 000VB0VB
• V= violation: a nonzero voltage that breaks
an AMI rule(opposite polarity from
previous)
• B=Bipolar: a nonzero level voltage follow
the AMI rule.
Figure 10: AMI used with scrambling
Figure 11: Two cases of B8ZS scrambling technique
2) HDB3 (High-density bipolar 3-zero)
• substitutes 000V or B00V
• Rules:
a) If number of nonzero pulses after the last
substitution is odd, substitute 000V
b) If number of nonzero pulses after the last
substitution is even, substitute B00V
Figure 12: Different situations in HDB3 scrambling technique
2.5.2 ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION

We have an analog signal such as one created by a

microphone or camera. Change an analog signal to
digital data by using

1. Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

2.Pulse Code Modulation (PCM).
 3.4.2 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

The most common technique to change an analog

signal to digital data (digitization) is called pulse
code modulation (PCM). A PAM & PCM encoder
shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Components of PCM encoder

Three process PCM encoder:

1. Analog signal is sampled
2. Sample signal is quantized
3. Quantized value are encoded as streams of bits
Figure 2: Three different sampling methods for PCM

An impulse at each sampling instant A pulse of short width with varying amplitude

Sample and hold, like natural but with

single amplitude value
 Quantization

➢ After the sampling process, the sampled points will be

transform in a set of quantized level – called quantization
Quantization
Quantization
Flow of PCM
Figure 3: Components of a PCM decoder
 2.5.3 DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION

Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of

changing one of the characteristics of an analog
signal based on the information in digital data.

▪ Aspects of Digital-to-Analog Conversion

▪ Amplitude Shift Keying
▪ Frequency Shift Keying
▪ Phase Shift Keying
▪ Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
Digital to Analog Conversion

◼ Digital data needs to be carried on an

analog signal.
◼ A carrier signal (frequency fc) performs the
function of transporting the digital data in
an analog waveform.
◼ The analog carrier signal is manipulated to
uniquely identify the digital data being
carried.
Digital-to-analog conversion
Types of digital-to-analog conversion
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

◼ ASK is implemented by changing the amplitude

of a carrier signal to reflect amplitude levels in the
digital signal.
◼ For example: a digital “1” could not affect the
signal, whereas a digital “0” would, by making it
zero.
Binary amplitude shift keying
Implementation of binary ASK
Frequency Shift Keying

◼ The digital data stream changes the

frequency of the carrier signal, fc.
◼ For example, a “1” could be represented by
f1=fc +f, and a “0” could be represented by
f2=fc-f.
Binary frequency shift keying
FSK
Phase Shift Keying

◼ The phase shift of the carrier signal varied

to represent digital data.
◼ Today PSK is more common than ASK or
FSK.
Binary phase shift keying
Implementation of BASK
Quadrature amplitude modulation is a
combination of ASK and PSK.
Constellation diagrams for some QAMs
 2.5.4 ANALOG TO ANALOG CONVERSION

Analog-to-analog conversion is the representation of

analog information by an analog signal.

Topics discussed in this section:

▪ Amplitude Modulation
▪ Frequency Modulation
▪ Phase Modulation

5.75
 Figure Types of analog-to-analog modulation

5.76
 Amplitude Modulation

◼ A carrier signal is modulated only in amplitude

value
◼ The modulating signal is the envelope of the
carrier
◼ The required bandwidth is 2B, where B is the
bandwidth of the modulating signal
◼ Since on both sides of the carrier freq. fc, the
spectrum is identical, we can discard one half, thus
requiring a smaller bandwidth for transmission.

5.77
 Figure Amplitude modulation

5.78
 Note

The total bandwidth required for AM

can be determined
from the bandwidth of the audio
signal: BAM = 2B.

5.79
 Figure AM band allocation

5.80
 Frequency Modulation

◼ The modulating signal changes the freq. fc

of the carrier signal
◼ The bandwidth for FM is high
◼ It is approx. 10x the signal frequency

5.81
 Figure Frequency modulation

b= β, factor/value depends on
modulation technique

5.82
 Figure FM band allocation

5.83
 Phase Modulation (PM)

◼ The modulating signal only changes the

phase of the carrier signal.
◼ The bandwidth is higher than for AM.

5.84
 Figure Phase modulation

b= β, factor/value depends on
modulation technique

5.85