CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction
Watermelon is a popular fruit consumed worldwide, and its rind, which is often
discarded as waste, contains valuable component that can utilized for various
application. Pyrolysis, a thermal decomposition process in the absence of oxygen,
has been explored as a sustainable and eco-friendly method to convert watermelon
rind into activated carbon, which has excellent adsorption properties and can be
used for wastewater treatment pyrolysis process pyrolysis involves heating
watermelon rind at high temperature in the absence of oxygen to break down its
complex organic structure into simpler compounds, resulting in the production of
biochar or charcoal. The pyrolysis process can be carried out using different
heating sources, such as electric furnace or gas-fired kilns. The process parameter
such as temperature, heating rate, and residence time, can be optimized to control
the properties of the activated carbon produced.
Activation of biochar produced from watermelon rind pyrolysis can be further
activated to enhance its adsorption properties. Activation is typically done through
chemical or physical method .chemical activation involves treating the biochar
with activating agent, such as phosphoric acid.postassium hydroxide, or zinc
chloride, which react with the biochar to create pores and increase its surface area.
Physical activation on the other hand, involves using physical processes, such as
steam activation or carbon dioxide activation, to create pores in the biochar.
Properties of watermelon rind activated carbon produced from watermelon rind has
unique properties that make it suitable for wastewater treatment applications.it has
a high surface area and pore volume, which provide ample adsorption sites for
pollutant in waste water. The surface functional groups such as carboxyl, hydroxyl,
and phenolic groups, present in the activated carbon also contribute to its
adsorption capacity. Moreover, watermelon rind activated carbon has low ash

1
content, which reduces the possibility of fouling or clogging in wastewater
treatment systems.
Watermelon rind activated carbon has shown promising result in the treatment of
various type of waste waer.it can effectively remove organic pollutants, heavy
metals and emerging contaminants, such as pharmaceutical and personal care
product from waste water. The adsorption capacity of watermelon rind activated
carbon can be further enhanced by modifying its surface properties or by using it in
combination with other treatment processes, such as biological treatment or
membrane filtration.
The production of activated carbon from watermelon rind through pyrolysis offers
several sustainability advantages. It provides a value-added use for watermelon
rind, which is otherwise considered as waste, reducing environmental pollution and
waste disposal issues. Moreover, pyrolysis is a relatively energy-efficient process
compared to other carbon production methods, and the use of watermelon rind as a
feedstock can contribute to the circular economy concept. The economic feasibility
of watermelon rind activated carbon production depends on factors such as the
availability and cost of watermelon rind, the cost of activation agents, and the
market demand for activated carbon.
Conclusion Pyrolysis and production of activated carbon from watermelon rind can
be a sustainable and economically feasible approach for wastewater treatment.
Watermelon rind activated carbon has excellent adsorption properties and can
effectively remove various pollutants from wastewater. Further research and
optimization of the pyrolysis and activation processes, as well as assessment of the
economic viability, can contribute to the development of a green and cost-effective
technology for wastewater treatment using watermelon rind as a renewable
feedstock.

2
1.1 Problem Statement
The problem addressed by the study on pyrolysis and production of activated
carbon from watermelon rind for wastewater treatment is the increasing need for
sustainable and cost-effective methods for treating wastewater. Wastewater
treatment is a critical process that aims to remove pollutants from wastewater
before it is discharged into the environment. However, traditional methods of
wastewater treatment, such as chemical and biological treatments, are often costly,
energy-intensive, and can generate toxic byproducts.
The production of activated carbon from watermelon rind can provide a sustainable
and cost-effective alternative for treating wastewater. However, there is a lack of
research on the feasibility and effectiveness of using watermelon rind as a
precursor for producing activated carbon for wastewater treatment. Therefore, the
problem addressed by the study is the need for research on the potential of using
watermelon rind for producing activated carbon as an adsorbent for removing
pollutants from wastewater.
Additionally, the problem statement includes the fact that watermelon rind is a
waste product that is often discarded, leading to environmental pollution and waste
disposal problems. By utilizing watermelon rind as a precursor for producing
activated carbon, the study aims to provide a solution to both the problem of
wastewater treatment and waste disposal.
The problem statement for the study on pyrolysis and production of activated
carbon from watermelon rind for wastewater treatment is the need for sustainable
and cost-effective methods for treating wastewater, utilizing waste products such
as watermelon rind.

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1.2 Aim and Objectives
The aim of this study is to pyrolyze and produce activated carbon from
watermelon rinds for the removal of Cr6+ from electroplating wastewater. The aim
was achieved through the following objectives
1. To collect and grind watermelon rinds into powder using electric blender.
2. To pyrolze the ground watermelon rinds to obtain a biochar at the
temperature of 500 °C using slow pyrolysis.
3. To activate the biochar to obtain activated carbon using H3PO4.
4. To characterize the produced biochar and activated carbon using TGA,
FTIR, XRD, SEM and BET.
5. To investigate the influence of PH, adsorbent dose, initial metal ion
concentration and temperature in the removal of cr(vi).
6. To conduct the isothermal, kinetics and thermodynamics of the (adsorption
studies) removal of Cr(VI).
1.3 Significant of the study
The pyrolysis and production of activated carbon from watermelon rind for
wastewater treatment is a topic of great significance due to the increasing need
for sustainable and cost-effective methods for treating wastewater. The study
aims to investigate the potential of using watermelon rind, a waste product, as
a precursor for producing activated carbon, which can be used as an adsorbent
to remove pollutants from wastewater.
The significance of this study lies in the fact that watermelon rind is a cheap
and easily available source of carbon, and its utilization for producing
activated carbon can contribute to the reduction of environmental pollution
and waste disposal problems. Moreover, the use of activated carbon for
wastewater treatment is a well-established method, and the production of
activated carbon from watermelon rind can be a sustainable and cost-effective

4
 alternative to traditional methods. The study can have several implications for
the field of wastewater treatment. Firstly, it can provide insights into the
production of activated carbon from unconventional sources, which can lead
to the development of sustainable and cost-effective methods for wastewater
treatment. Secondly, the study can contribute to the development of a circular
economy by converting waste products into valuable resources. Finally, the
study can have implications for the agricultural sector, as the utilization of
watermelon rind for producing activated carbon can provide an additional
source of income for farmers.
The study on the pyrolysis and production of activated carbon from
watermelon rind for wastewater treatment is significant as it can provide a
sustainable and cost-effective alternative for treating wastewater while
contributing to the reduction of environmental pollution and waste disposal
problems.
1.4 Scope of the Study
The scope of this research is focused in the collection of watermelon rinds for
pyrolysis into biochar and subsequent activation on using po 4. Also the produce
biochar and activated carbon is characterized using TGA, FTIR, XRD, SEM and
BET. Therefore the activated carbon was used to remove cr(vi) from electroplating
wastewater under classical optimization of PH, contact time, adsorbent dose,
initial metal concentration and temperature. Furthermore, the isotherm, kinetic and
thermodynamics parameters were evaluated.
The scope of the study on pyrolysis and production of activated carbon from
watermelon rind for wastewater treatment is to investigate the potential of using
watermelon rind as a precursor for producing activated carbon as an adsorbent for
removing pollutants from wastewater. The study aims to determine the optimal
conditions for pyrolyzing watermelon rind and producing activated carbon, as well

5
as evaluating the effectiveness of the activated carbon for removing pollutants
from wastewater.
The study's scope includes the following:
1. Collection and preparation of watermelon rind: The study will involve the
collection and preparation of watermelon rind for pyrolysis.
2. Pyrolysis of watermelon rind: The study will investigate the optimal
conditions for pyrolyzing watermelon rind to produce activated carbon,
including temperature, duration, and heating rate.
3. Production of activated carbon: The study will produce activated carbon
from the pyrolyzed watermelon rind and evaluate its physical and chemical
properties.
4. Wastewater treatment: The study will evaluate the effectiveness of the
activated carbon produced from watermelon rind for removing pollutants
from wastewater.
5. Analysis of results: The study will analyze the results to determine the
optimal conditions for producing activated carbon from watermelon rind and
its effectiveness for wastewater treatment.

1.5 Limitation of the study

Limitations of the study for Pyrolysis and production of activated carbon from
watermelon rind for wastewater treatment
There are several limitations of the study on pyrolysis and production of activated
carbon from watermelon rind for wastewater treatment:
Limited scope: The study may have a limited scope in terms of the generalizability
of the findings, as the production of activated carbon from watermelon rind may
not be applicable to all types of wastewater or pollutants.

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 I. Experimental setup: The experimental setup used for the study may not be
representative of real-world conditions, as the study was conducted in a
laboratory setting.
II. Sample size: The sample size used in the study may not be sufficient to draw
general conclusions, as the study may require a larger sample size to ensure
statistical significance.
III. Time constraints: The study may have time constraints that limit the amount
of data collected and analyzed, which may impact the accuracy and
reliability of the findings.
IV. Lack of comparative analysis: The study may not compare the effectiveness
of the activated carbon produced from watermelon rind with other types of
activated carbon, which may limit the understanding of its potential as an
adsorbent for wastewater treatment.
V. Cost-effectiveness: The study may not assess the cost-effectiveness of
producing activated carbon from watermelon rind compared to other
methods of wastewater treatment, which may limit the practicality of its
implementation.

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 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1.1 What is wastewater?
Wastewater refers to any water that has been used and discharged from homes,
businesses, industries, and other sources. It can be a mixture of domestic sewage,
industrial effluents, and storm water runoff. Wastewater can contain a variety of
pollutants, including organic and inorganic compounds, pathogens, heavy metals,
nutrients, and microplastics (Prasad, Bhaskar et al 2007).
Wastewater can be harmful to the environment and public health if not treated
properly. It can lead to the contamination of water bodies, depletion of oxygen, and
the spread of waterborne diseases. Therefore, it is important to treat wastewater
before it is discharged into the environment.
Wastewater treatment involves several processes that aim to remove pollutants
from wastewater. The primary treatment involves physical processes such as
screening and sedimentation, which remove large particles and solids. Secondary
treatment involves biological processes such as activated sludge, which uses
microorganisms to break down organic matter. Tertiary treatment involves
advanced processes such as filtration and disinfection, which further removes
pollutant (Sarayu,K and Sandhya S 2015).
There are several technologies used for wastewater treatment, including:
I. Conventional treatment: This involves physical, biological, and chemical
processes to remove pollutants from wastewater.
II. Advanced treatment: This involves additional processes such as membrane
filtration and disinfection to produce high-quality treated water.
III. Decentralized treatment: This involves small-scale treatment systems that
are installed at the source of wastewater generation, such as homes or
industries.

8
IV. Reuse of wastewater: This involves treating wastewater to a quality that is
suitable for non-potable uses such as irrigation or industrial processes.
Wastewater is any water that has been used and discharged from various sources,
and it can contain a range of pollutants that can harm the environment and public
health. Wastewater treatment is a critical process that aims to remove these
pollutants and produce treated water that is safe for the environment and human
use (Pawlowska,M. and Bernat,K.2014).
2.1.2 Types and Sources of Wastewater
There are two main types of wastewater: domestic wastewater and industrial
wastewater.
1. Domestic Wastewater: Domestic wastewater, also known as municipal
wastewater, is the wastewater that comes from homes, offices, and
institutions. It includes water from toilets, sinks, showers, and washing
machines.
2. Industrial Wastewater: Industrial wastewater is the wastewater generated
from industrial processes. It can contain pollutants such as heavy metals,
organic compounds, and chemicals.
Sources of wastewater can be categorized as point source and non-point source.
I. Point source: Point source wastewater refers to wastewater that comes from
a single identifiable source. Examples include wastewater from a sewage
treatment plant, industrial effluent discharge, or a wastewater pipe from a
factory.
II. Non-point source: Non-point source wastewater refers to wastewater that
comes from multiple and diffuse sources, making it difficult to identify the
exact source. Examples include agricultural runoff, urban runoff from streets
and parking lots, and stormwater runoff.

9
wastewater can be classified into two main types: domestic and industrial.
Wastewater sources can be categorized as point source and non-point source, with
agricultural, hospital, recreational, and storm water runoff being additional sources
of wastewater.
2.1.3 Hazardous effect of Wastewater
Wastewater can have several hazardous effects on the environment, human
health, and aquatic life. Some of the hazardous effects of wastewater are:
Water Pollution: Wastewater contains organic and inorganic pollutants,
nutrients, and pathogens that can contaminate water bodies. Discharging
untreated or poorly treated wastewater into rivers, lakes, and oceans can cause
water pollution, affecting the quality of water, and threatening aquatic life.
Eutrophication: Wastewater contains high levels of nutrients, mainly nitrogen
and phosphorus, which can cause eutrophication of water bodies. Excess
nutrients promote the growth of algae, which can lead to oxygen depletion,
creating dead zones in water bodies.
Soil Contamination: Discharging wastewater onto land can contaminate the soil
with heavy metals, pathogens, and organic pollutants, reducing soil fertility, and
posing a risk to human health.
Air Pollution: Wastewater contains organic matter that can release volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) into the air, contributing to air pollution and
climate change.
wastewater can have several hazardous effects on the environment, human
health, and aquatic life, including water pollution, eutrophication, soil
contamination, air pollution, and risks to human health. Proper wastewater
treatment and management can help minimize these hazardous effects and
protect the environment and human health.

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 2.1.4 Industrial wastewater
Industrial wastewater is generated from various industrial processes such as
manufacturing, mining, agriculture, and power generation (Garg, A.et al.2018). It
contains a variety of contaminants such as heavy metals, organic chemicals, and
inorganic compounds, which can pose significant environmental and health
hazards if not treated properly.
The types and quantities of pollutants in industrial wastewater can vary depending
on the type of industry and the specific process involved. Some common pollutants
found in industrial wastewater include:
Heavy Metals: Industrial wastewater can contain heavy metals such as lead,
mercury, cadmium, and chromium, which are toxic to aquatic life and human
health. These metals can accumulate in the food chain and cause long-term health
effects such as cancer, neurological damage, and developmental disorders.
Organic Chemicals: Industrial wastewater can contain organic chemicals such as
solvents, pesticides, and petroleum products, which can contaminate water bodies
and soil. These chemicals can cause health problems such as cancer, liver damage,
and reproductive disorders.
Nutrients: Industrial wastewater can contain nutrients such as nitrogen and
phosphorus, which can cause eutrophication of water bodies and lead to the growth
of harmful algal blooms.
Acids and Bases: Industrial wastewater can be acidic or basic, which can cause
damage to soil and water bodies and affect aquatic life.
Proper treatment and management of industrial wastewater are crucial to prevent
environmental pollution and protect human health. Industries must comply with
local regulations and implement wastewater treatment technologies that remove or
reduce the contaminants in the wastewater(Oturan, N.and Oturan, MA 2014). This
can include physical, chemical, and biological treatment processes, such as

11
sedimentation, filtration, chemical precipitation, and activated sludge treatment. In
some cases, industries may need to pre-treat their wastewater before discharging it
to a municipal wastewater treatment plant.

2.1.5 Electroplating
Electroplating is a process used to deposit a thin layer of metal onto a substrate
using an electric current. The process involves immersing the substrate, which
can be made of metal or non-metal, into an electrolytic solution containing
metal ions. The metal ions are reduced at the cathode (substrate), forming a thin
layer of metal coating (Li,Y.et al 2013).
The composition of electroplating wastewater can vary depending on the metal
being plated and the specific electroplating process used. However, some
common pollutants found in electroplating wastewater include:
Heavy Metals: Electroplating wastewater can contain high levels of heavy
metals such as cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, nickel, and zinc, which are
toxic to aquatic life and human health. These metals can accumulate in the food
chain and cause long-term health effects such as cancer, neurological damage,
and developmental disorders.
Acids and Bases: Electroplating wastewater can be acidic or basic, depending
on the type of electroplating solution used. The high levels of acidity or
alkalinity can cause damage to soil and water bodies and affect aquatic life.
Organic Chemicals: Electroplating wastewater can contain organic chemicals
such as solvents and surfactants, which can contaminate water bodies and soil.
These chemicals can cause health problems such as cancer, liver damage, and
reproductive disorders.

12
Cyanide: Some electroplating processes use cyanide-containing solutions,
which can release toxic hydrogen cyanide gas and pose a significant health
hazard.
Treatment of electroplating wastewater typically involves several steps,
including physical, chemical, and biological treatment processes. The primary
goal of wastewater treatment is to remove or reduce the pollutants in the
wastewater to a level that is safe for discharge into the environment.
Some common treatment processes used for electroplating wastewater include:
Chemical Precipitation: This process involves adding chemicals such as lime,
sodium hydroxide, or sodium sulfide to the wastewater to precipitate the heavy
metals and other contaminants, which can then be removed by sedimentation or
filtration.
Ion Exchange: This process involves exchanging the metal ions in the
wastewater with ions of a different metal or non-metal, which can then be
removed by sedimentation or filtration.
Electrochemical Treatment: This process involves using an electric current to
remove the heavy metals and other contaminants from the wastewater, which
can then be removed by sedimentation or filtration.
Biological Treatment: This process involves using microorganisms to degrade
the organic chemicals and other pollutants in the wastewater, which can then be
removed by sedimentation or filtration.
electroplating wastewater contains high levels of heavy metals, acids, and other
pollutants, which can pose a significant environmental hazard if not treated
properly (Li,Y.et al 2013).. Proper treatment and management of electroplating
wastewater are crucial to prevent environmental pollution and protect human
health.

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2.1.6 Treatment Method
Wastewater treatment involves a variety of physical, chemical, and biological
processes that are designed to remove contaminants from wastewater before it
is discharged into the environment or reused for other purposes(Li X. et al
2019). The specific treatment methods used can vary depending on the
characteristics of the wastewater and the intended use of the treated water.
Here are some common treatment methods used for wastewater:
Preliminary Treatment: This is the first stage of wastewater treatment, which
involves the removal of large debris such as sticks, leaves, rocks, and other
solid materials using screens, grit chambers, and sedimentation tanks. This
helps to protect downstream processes and prevent damage to equipment.
Primary Treatment: This stage involves the removal of suspended solids and
organic matter from wastewater using sedimentation tanks. The wastewater is
allowed to settle and the solid materials are removed from the bottom of the
tank, while the lighter materials such as fats, oils, and grease are skimmed off
the top.
Secondary Treatment: This stage involves the biological treatment of
wastewater using microorganisms to break down organic matter and remove
nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus. This is typically achieved using
activated sludge systems or trickling filters.
Tertiary Treatment: This stage involves the further treatment of wastewater to
remove any remaining contaminants such as pathogens, dissolved solids, and
nutrients. This can be achieved using various methods such as sand filtration,
microfiltration, reverse osmosis, and disinfection using chlorine or ultraviolet
light.
It is important to note that wastewater treatment is a complex and dynamic
process that requires careful monitoring and management to ensure that the

14
 treated water meets the required quality standards(Sponza, DT. 2015). The
treatment methods used can vary depending on the specific characteristics of
the wastewater and the desired quality of the treated water.
2.1.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of Various Wastewater Treatment
method

Waste treatment methods are used to manage and dispose of various types of
waste. Each method has its own advantages and disadvantages depending on the
type of waste being treated and the desired outcomes. Here are some of the most
common waste treatment methods, along with their advantages and disadvantages:

Incineration:
Incineration involves burning waste to convert it into ash and gases. This method is
commonly used for medical and hazardous waste. The advantages of incineration
include the destruction of pathogens, reduction of waste volume, and the
generation of energy. However, the disadvantages include air pollution, emission
of toxic substances, and high capital and operating costs.
Recycling:
Recycling involves converting waste materials into new products. The advantages
of recycling include the conservation of resources, reduction of waste, and the
creation of jobs. However, the disadvantages include the high costs of collection,
sorting, and processing, and the contamination of recyclable materials.
Composting:
Composting involves the decomposition of organic waste into a nutrient-rich soil
amendment. The advantages of composting include the reduction of waste volume,
the creation of a valuable product, and the improvement of soil health. However,

15
the disadvantages include the need for adequate space and proper management, the
risk of odors and pests, and the slow process of decomposition.
Biological Treatment:
Biological treatment involves the use of microorganisms to break down and
transform organic waste. This method is commonly used for wastewater treatment
and food waste. The advantages of biological treatment include the reduction of
waste volume, the production of energy and compost, and the removal of
contaminants. However, the disadvantages include the need for specialized
equipment and expertise, the generation of odors and noise, and the potential for
operational problems.
Chemical Treatment:
Chemical treatment involves the use of chemical reactions to convert waste into
less harmful substances. This method is commonly used for hazardous waste. The
advantages of chemical treatment include the destruction of contaminants,
reduction of waste volume, and the production of reusable products. However, the
disadvantages include the high cost of chemicals and specialized equipment, the
potential for toxic byproducts, and the need for proper disposal of residuals.
The choice of waste treatment method depends on various factors such as the type
and quantity of waste, environmental and health risks, cost-effectiveness, and
sustainability. Therefore, it is important to evaluate the advantages and
disadvantages of each method carefully and choose the most appropriate one for a
given situation.
2.1.8 Characterization Techniques for adsorbants
Characterization techniques are used to evaluate the physical and chemical
properties of adsorbents. Adsorbents are materials used for adsorption, which is the
process of capturing and removing pollutants from a fluid or gas stream. The

16
efficiency of adsorption is dependent on the properties of the adsorbent. Here are
some common characterization techniques for adsorbents:
BET Surface Area Analysis:
BET (Brunauer, Emmett and Teller) analysis is a technique used to measure the
surface area of porous materials such as adsorbents. This method involves
measuring the amount of gas (usually nitrogen) adsorbed onto the surface of the
adsorbent at different pressures. The data obtained is then used to calculate the
surface area of the adsorbent. This technique is widely used for the characterization
of porous adsorbents, as the surface area is directly related to the adsorption
capacity.
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM):
SEM is an imaging technique used to observe the surface morphology and
structure of materials. This method involves bombarding the surface of the
adsorbent with a beam of electrons and collecting the reflected or emitted electrons
to form an image. This technique can provide information on the pore size
distribution, particle size, and surface roughness of the adsorbent.
Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR):
FTIR is a technique used to identify the functional groups present in an adsorbent.
This method involves passing infrared radiation through the sample and measuring
the amount of energy absorbed at different frequencies. The resulting spectrum can
be used to identify the types of chemical bonds present in the adsorbent, which can
affect its adsorption properties.
X-ray Diffraction (XRD):
XRD is a technique used to analyze the crystal structure and phase composition of
materials. This method involves directing X-rays at the adsorbent and measuring
the pattern of diffracted X-rays. The resulting pattern can be used to determine the

17
crystal structure and phase composition of the adsorbent, which can affect its
adsorption prope
Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA):
TGA is a technique used to study the thermal stability and decomposition behavior
of materials. This method involves heating the adsorbent while measuring the
weight change as a function of temperature. The resulting data can be used to
determine the thermal stability and degradation behavior of the adsorbent, which
can affect its adsorption properties.
The characterization techniques for adsorbents are used to evaluate the physical
and chemical properties of the adsorbent. BET surface area analysis, SEM, FTIR,
XRD, and TGA are some of the most common techniques used for the
characterization of adsorbents. These techniques can provide valuable information
on the adsorption capacity, surface morphology, chemical composition, and
thermal stability of the adsorbent, which are important factors in selecting an
adsorbent for a specific application.

2.1.9 Parameters affecting Adsorption studies

Adsorption studies are experiments conducted to evaluate the capacity and
efficiency of an adsorbent material to remove a particular pollutant from a fluid or
gas stream. Adsorption is a process in which a solid material (adsorbent) captures
and removes dissolved or suspended molecules (adsorbate) from a liquid or gas
phase by forming a thin film on its surface. The adsorption process is influenced by
various factors, such as adsorbent type, adsorbate concentration, temperature, pH,
and contact time.
The following are the steps involved in adsorption studies:
Selection of Adsorbent: The first step in conducting an adsorption study is the
selection of an appropriate adsorbent material. The adsorbent should have high

18
surface area, large pore volume, and good adsorption capacity for the pollutant of
interest. Commonly used adsorbent materials include activated carbon, zeolites,
clays, and polymers.

Preparation of Adsorbent: The adsorbent material is prepared by cleaning, drying,

and grinding it into a powder or small particles. The particle size of the adsorbent
should be carefully controlled to ensure maximum surface area exposure.
Preparation of Adsorbate Solution: The adsorbate solution is prepared by
dissolving a known amount of the pollutant in a solvent (e.g., water or a buffer
solution). The concentration of the adsorbate solution should be carefully
controlled to ensure accurate measurements.
Adsorption Experiment: The adsorption experiment involves adding a known
amount of adsorbent to a fixed volume of adsorbate solution in a container. The
mixture is then stirred to ensure maximum contact between the adsorbent and the
adsorbate. The container is then left to stand for a predetermined period, referred to
as the contact time.

Sample Analysis: After the contact time has elapsed, the solution is filtered, and
the concentration of the pollutant remaining in the solution is measured. The
concentration of the pollutant adsorbed by the adsorbent is then calculated by
subtracting the concentration of the pollutant remaining in the solution from the
initial concentration of the pollutant in the solution.
Data Analysis: The data obtained from the adsorption experiment is analyzed to
determine the adsorption capacity, equilibrium adsorption isotherm, and kinetics of
the adsorption process. The adsorption capacity is the maximum amount of
pollutant that can be adsorbed by the adsorbent at a given concentration. The
equilibrium adsorption isotherm describes the relationship between the adsorbate

19
concentration and the amount of pollutant adsorbed by the adsorbent at
equilibrium. The kinetics of the adsorption process describes how quickly the
pollutant is adsorbed by the adsorbent and the factors that influence the rate of
adsorption.Adsorption studies are experiments conducted to evaluate the
adsorption capacity, equilibrium isotherm, and kinetics of an adsorbent material to
remove a particular pollutant from a fluid or gas stream. The process involves
selecting an appropriate adsorbent, preparing the adsorbent and adsorbate solution,
conducting the adsorption experiment, analyzing the data obtained, and
interpreting the results. Adsorption studies are important in developing efficient
and cost-effective methods for removing pollutants from industrial and
environmental wastewater streams.

2.2.0 Benefit of Adsorption Methods

Adsorption studies are experiments that evaluate the capacity and efficiency of an
adsorbent material to remove a particular pollutant from a fluid or gas stream. The
adsorption process is influenced by various factors, which can affect the efficiency
and effectiveness of the adsorption process. Some of the parameters affecting
adsorption studies are:
Adsorbent Type: The adsorption capacity of an adsorbent material is strongly
influenced by its type. The surface area, pore size, and chemical composition of the
adsorbent material affect its ability to adsorb the pollutant. Some commonly used
adsorbents include activated carbon, zeolites, clays, and polymers.
Adsorbate Concentration: The concentration of the adsorbate (pollutant) in the
solution affects the amount of pollutant adsorbed by the adsorbent. At low
concentrations, there are more active sites available for adsorption, leading to
higher adsorption capacities. However, at high concentrations, the active sites on
the adsorbent may become saturated, resulting in a decrease in adsorption capacity.

20
Contact Time: The contact time between the adsorbent and the adsorbate affects
the rate and efficiency of the adsorption process. A longer contact time allows
more time for the adsorbent to interact with the adsorbate, leading to higher
adsorption capacities. However, a longer contact time may not always lead to
higher efficiency, as the adsorbent may become saturated after a certain point,
leading to a decrease in adsorption capacity.
pH: The pH of the solution affects the surface charge of both the adsorbent and the
adsorbate, which can affect the adsorption process. For example, if the adsorbate
has a positive charge, a negatively charged adsorbent may be more effective in
adsorbing the pollutant. The pH can also affect the stability of the adsorbate,
leading to changes in the adsorption capacity.
Temperature: The temperature affects the rate of adsorption by altering the
adsorption kinetics. Increasing the temperature can increase the rate of adsorption
by providing more energy for the adsorbent and adsorbate to interact. However, at
high temperatures, the adsorbent may become less stable, leading to a decrease in
adsorption capacity.
Particle Size: The particle size of the adsorbent affects the surface area available
for adsorption. Smaller particles have a larger surface area and can lead to higher
adsorption capacities. However, smaller particles can also lead to higher pressure
drop and clogging of the adsorption system.
Adsorption Isotherm: The adsorption isotherm is a mathematical relationship that
describes the relationship between the concentration of the adsorbate in the
solution and the amount of adsorbate adsorbed onto the adsorbent at equilibrium.
The shape of the isotherm can vary depending on the adsorbent and adsorbate
properties, and it can be used to determine the adsorption capacity and efficiency
of the adsorption process.The efficiency and effectiveness of the adsorption
process depend on several parameters, including the adsorbent type, adsorbate

21
concentration, contact time, pH, temperature, particle size, and adsorption
isotherm. Understanding these parameters is crucial for developing efficient and
cost-effective methods for removing pollutants from industrial and environmental
wastewater streams.
2.2.1 Adsorbants for Adsorption Method
Adsorbents are materials that are used to remove contaminants from wastewater,
air, and other industrial streams through the process of adsorption. An adsorbent
material typically has a large surface area and is capable of attracting and retaining
pollutants through physical or chemical interactions.
Some of the most commonly used adsorbent materials include:
Activated Carbon: Activated carbon is a highly porous form of carbon that is
commonly used in adsorption applications. Its high surface area provides ample
space for adsorbing pollutants, and its chemical properties allow it to remove a
wide range of contaminants, including organic compounds, volatile organic
compounds, and heavy metals.
Silica Gel: Silica gel is a granular, porous form of silica that is commonly used in
adsorption applications. Its high surface area provides ample space for adsorbing
pollutants, and its chemical properties make it effective at removing moisture and
water-soluble contaminants.
Zeolites: Zeolites are microporous aluminosilicate minerals that are commonly
used in adsorption applications. Their high surface area and unique crystal
structure allow them to remove a wide range of contaminants, including organic
compounds, heavy metals, and radioactive isotopes.
Clay Minerals: Clay minerals are naturally occurring materials that are commonly
used in adsorption applications. Their high surface area and unique chemical
properties make them effective at removing a wide range of contaminants,
including heavy metals, organic compounds, and phosphates.

22
Metal Oxides: Metal oxides such as iron oxide and titanium oxide are commonly
used as adsorbent materials. Their high surface area and chemical properties make
them effective at removing a wide range of contaminants, including heavy metals,
organic compounds, and phosphates.
The choice of adsorbent material depends on several factors, including the type of
contaminant being removed, the properties of the wastewater stream, and the
desired treatment goals. Each adsorbent material has its own strengths and
weaknesses, and the selection of an appropriate material is critical to the success of
the adsorption process.
2.2.2 What is biochar?
Biochar is a type of charcoal that is produced by heating biomass in the absence of
oxygen through a process known as pyrolysis. It is a porous, carbon-rich material
that is similar to activated carbon and is widely used for environmental
applications, including soil remediation, carbon sequestration, and water treatment.
Biochar is produced by heating biomass, such as agricultural waste, forestry
residue, or even municipal solid waste, in a pyrolysis reactor at temperatures
ranging from 350°C to 700°C. The process of pyrolysis breaks down the biomass
into a solid residue, which is the biochar, and
The process of pyrolysis breaks down the biomass into a solid residue, which is the
biochar, and gases, such as carbon dioxide, water vapor, and volatile organic
compounds, which can be captured and used for energy production.
Biochar has several properties that make it an attractive material for environmental
applications, including:
High Porosity: Biochar has a highly porous structure that provides a large surface
area for adsorbing contaminants, such as heavy metals, organic compounds, and
nutrients, from soil and water.

23
Stability: Biochar is a stable material that can remain in the soil for hundreds or
even thousands of years, making it an effective long-term solution for soil
remediation and carbon sequestration.
Nutrient Retention: Biochar has the ability to retain nutrients, such as nitrogen and
phosphorus, in the soil, which can improve soil fertility and reduce the need for
synthetic fertilizers.
pH Buffering: Biochar has a high buffering capacity, which can help to maintain
soil pH and prevent soil acidification.
Carbon Sequestration: Biochar is a carbon-negative material, meaning that it can
sequester carbon from the atmosphere and store it in the soil for long periods,
making it an effective tool for mitigating climate change.
Biochar is used for a wide range of environmental applications, including:
Soil Remediation: Biochar can be used to remediate contaminated soils by
adsorbing heavy metals and organic contaminants and improving soil fertility and
structure.
Water Treatment: Biochar can be used for water treatment by adsorbing pollutants,
such as pesticides, pharmaceuticals, and heavy metals, from wastewater and
surface water.
Carbon Sequestration: Biochar can be used for carbon sequestration by
incorporating it into soil, where it can store carbon for long periods.
Agriculture: Biochar can be used as a soil amendment to improve soil fertility,
water retention, and crop yields.

2.2.3 Synthesis method

Synthesis methods are procedures used to create new materials or compounds
through chemical reactions. There are several synthesis methods, each of which
involves different techniques and conditions for creating a desired material. In this

24
answer, we will provide an overview of some of the most commonly used
synthesis methods.
Sol-gel Synthesis: Sol-gel synthesis is a method used to create materials with high
purity and controlled properties. It involves the hydrolysis and condensation of
metal alkoxides or metal salts in a liquid medium to form a sol, which is a colloidal
suspension of nanoparticles. The sol is then subjected to drying and heating to
produce a gel, which can be further processed to obtain a desired material.
Hydrothermal Synthesis: Hydrothermal synthesis is a method used to create
materials under high temperature and pressure conditions in a liquid medium,
typically water. The method involves the dissolution of precursors in water,
followed by heating at high temperatures and pressures to initiate chemical
reactions that lead to the formation of desired materials.
Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD): CVD is a method used to deposit thin films of
materials on a substrate through the use of a gas-phase reaction. The method
involves the introduction of precursor gases into a chamber, where they react and
deposit onto the substrate to form a thin film.
Electrochemical Synthesis: Electrochemical synthesis is a method used to create
materials through electrochemical reactions. The method involves the use of an
electrolytic cell, in which an electric current is applied to a solution containing
precursor ions, resulting in the deposition of a desired material onto an electrode.
Solid-state Synthesis: Solid-state synthesis is a method used to create materials
through the reaction of solid-state precursors at high temperatures. The method
involves the mixing of precursors in a dry state, followed by heating to initiate
chemical reactions that lead to the formation of desired materials.
2.2.4 Properties of Biochar
Biochar is a carbon-rich material that is produced through the pyrolysis of organic
matter, such as wood, agricultural waste, or animal manure. The properties of

25
biochar can vary depending on the feedstock, pyrolysis conditions, and post-
treatment methods used. In this answer, we will provide an overview of some of
the key properties of biochar.
Porosity: One of the most important properties of biochar is its porosity, which
refers to the amount of pore space within the material. The porosity of biochar is
influenced by factors such as the feedstock, pyrolysis temperature, and heating
rate. High-temperature pyrolysis of feedstocks that have a high cellulose and
hemicellulose content can result in biochar with a high surface area and a large
number of small pores, while low-temperature pyrolysis of feedstocks that have a
high lignin content can result in biochar with a low surface area and a small
number of large pores.
Chemical composition: Biochar is primarily composed of carbon, but can also
contain small amounts of other elements such as hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen.
The chemical composition of biochar can affect its properties and performance in
various applications. For example, biochar with a high ash content may be less
effective in soil remediation due to the presence of potentially harmful substances.
Stability: Biochar is known for its stability, meaning that it is resistant to
degradation over time. This property makes it an attractive option for long-term
carbon sequestration and soil improvement. The stability of biochar is related to its
high carbon content and the presence of recalcitrant organic compounds that are
resistant to decomposition.
pH: The pH of biochar can vary depending on the feedstock and pyrolysis
conditions used. Biochar can be acidic, neutral, or alkaline, and the pH can
influence its performance in various applications. For example, alkaline biochar
may be more effective in soil remediation by neutralizing acidic soils and
improving nutrient availability.The properties of biochar can vary depending on
factors such as the feedstock, pyrolysis conditions, and post-treatment methods

26
used. Key properties of biochar include its porosity, chemical composition,
stability, cation exchange capacity, and pH. These properties make biochar a
potentially valuable material for a range of applications, including soil
improvement, carbon sequestration, and water treatment.

2.2.5 Application of Biochar

Biochar is a carbon-rich material that is produced through the pyrolysis of organic
matter, such as wood, agricultural waste, or animal manure. Due to its unique
properties, biochar has a wide range of applications in various fields. In this
answer, we will provide an overview of some of the main applications of biochar.
Soil improvement: One of the most common applications of biochar is in soil
improvement. Biochar can be added to soil to improve its physical, chemical, and
biological properties. The high porosity and surface area of biochar can help to
increase soil water retention, nutrient availability, and microbial activity. Biochar
can also help to sequester carbon in the soil, thereby mitigating greenhouse gas
emissions.
Water treatment: Biochar can be used to treat wastewater and drinking water by
removing contaminants such as heavy metals, organic pollutants, and pathogens.
The porous structure of biochar can provide a large surface area for adsorption,
while its high cation exchange capacity can help to retain and release nutrients and
other beneficial compounds.
Energy production: Biochar can be used as a source of renewable energy through
combustion or gasification. This process involves heating biochar in the presence
of oxygen or steam to produce combustible gases such as methane and hydrogen.
Biochar can also be used as a feedstock for the production of biofuels such as
ethanol and biodiesel.

27
Livestock feed: Biochar can be added to animal feed to improve digestive health
and reduce the incidence of diseases. The high porosity and surface area of biochar
can help to bind and remove toxins and pathogens from the digestive tract, while
its high cation exchange capacity can help to retain and release nutrients.
Carbon sequestration: Biochar can be used as a tool for carbon sequestration by
storing carbon in the soil for long periods of time. This can help to mitigate
greenhouse gas emissions and reduce the impacts of climate change. biochar has a
wide range of applications in fields such as soil improvement, water treatment,
energy production, livestock feed, and carbon sequestration. These applications are
based on the unique properties of biochar, including its porosity, surface area,
cation exchange capacity, and stability. Biochar is a versatile material that has the
potential to contribute to sustainable development in a variety of ways.
2.2.6 Activated carbon and its preparation method
Activated carbon, also known as activated charcoal, is a form of carbon that has
been processed to make it highly porous and adsorbent. It is produced by heating
carbon-rich materials such as wood, coal, coconut shells, or peat in the absence of
oxygen, a process known as pyrolysis. The resulting product is then activated by
exposing it to a high-temperature gas, such as steam or carbon dioxide, which
creates millions of tiny pores and channels within the carbon structure.
Activated carbon has a wide range of applications due to its unique properties.
Some of its main characteristics and applications are:
High surface area: Activated carbon has an extremely high surface area per unit of
mass, which makes it highly adsorbent. The surface area can range from 500 to
1500 square meters per gram, depending on the activation process used. This high
surface area allows activated carbon to adsorb a wide range of molecules,
including gases, liquids, and dissolved solids.

28
Adsorption capacity: Activated carbon can adsorb a wide range of substances due
to its high surface area and the presence of functional groups on its surface. It is
commonly used to remove impurities from air, water, and other fluids. Activated
carbon can be used to remove organic compounds, such as volatile organic
compounds (VOCs), pesticides, and other contaminants from water and air.
Chemical stability: Activated carbon is highly stable and does not react with most
chemicals. This makes it an ideal material for use in harsh environments, such as in
industrial applications or in water treatment plants.
Regenerability: Activated carbon can be regenerated and reused multiple times,
making it a cost-effective solution for many applications. Regeneration can be
achieved by heating the spent carbon in the presence of an oxidizing gas such as air
or steam, which removes the adsorbed compounds from the surface.
Versatility: Activated carbon can be produced from a wide range of feedstocks,
including wood, coal, coconut shells, and other materials. This makes it a versatile
material with a wide range of applications.
Some of the common applications of activated carbon include:
Water purification: Activated carbon is commonly used to remove impurities from
drinking water and wastewater. It can remove organic compounds, chlorine, and
other contaminants from water.
Air purification: Activated carbon is used to remove volatile organic compounds
(VOCs), odors, and other pollutants from air in industrial and residential settings.
Chemical processing: Activated carbon is used in chemical processing to remove
impurities from chemicals and to recover valuable products from waste streams.
Medical applications: Activated carbon is used in medical applications, such as in
the treatment of drug overdose or poisoning, due to its ability to adsorb toxins and
other harmful compounds.

29
Energy storage: Activated carbon can be used as a material for energy storage in
batteries and supercapacitors due to its high surface area and
conductivity.Activated carbon is a highly porous and adsorbent form of carbon that
has a wide range of applications. Its high surface area, adsorption capacity,
chemical stability, regenerability, and versatility make it a valuable material in
many industries and applications
PREPARATION OF ACTIVATED CARBON.
Activated carbon can be produced from a variety of carbon-rich materials such as
wood, coconut shells, coal, and peat. The preparation method for activated carbon
typically involves two stages: carbonization and activation.
Carbonization: The first stage involves the carbonization of the raw material,
which is heated in the absence of air to drive off volatile components and convert it
into a carbon-rich material. The temperature and time of carbonization depend on
the type of material used, but typically range from 500 to 900°C for several hours.
The resulting carbonized material is known as charcoal.
Activation: The second stage involves the activation of the carbonized material to
create activated carbon with high surface area and porosity. There are two main
methods of activation
a. Physical activation: In this method, the carbonized material is heated in the
presence of a gas such as steam or carbon dioxide at a temperature of around 800
to 900°C. This process causes the material to expand and create a highly porous
structure with a large surface area.
b. Chemical activation: In this method, the carbonized material is impregnated with
a chemical agent such as potassium hydroxide or phosphoric acid and heated to a
temperature of around 400 to 600°C. This process creates a highly porous structure
with a large surface area by reacting with the carbon and removing some of its
mass.

30
After activation, the activated carbon is washed and dried to remove any residual
impurities or chemicals. The resulting product is a highly porous and adsorbent
material with a large surface area that can be used in a wide range of applications.
The specific preparation method for activated carbon can vary depending on the
type of material used and the intended application. For example, the activation
temperature and time can be adjusted to control the pore size and surface area of
the activated carbon, which can affect its adsorption capacity for different types of
molecules. Additionally, the use of different chemical agents for activation can
affect the chemical properties and surface chemistry of the activated carbon,
making it more or less suitable for different applications.

2.1.7 Activating agents, Applications and properties

The choice of activating agent for activated carbon depends on the type of raw
material and the desired properties of the final product. The activating agent is
used during the activation process to create pores and increase the surface area of
the carbon. Some common activating agents for activated carbon include:
Potassium hydroxide (KOH): KOH is a strong alkaline compound that is often
used for the activation of carbon derived from lignocellulosic materials such as
wood or coconut shells. The activation process involves impregnating the carbon
with KOH and then heating it to a high temperature (usually around 700-900°C) in
the presence of an inert gas such as nitrogen. The KOH reacts with the carbon to
create pores, and the high temperature causes the carbon to expand and create a
highly porous structure with a large surface area.
Phosphoric acid (H3PO4): H3PO4 is a weak acid that is often used for the
activation of carbon derived from coal or petroleum coke. The activation process
involves impregnating the carbon with H3PO4 and then heating it to a high
temperature (usually around 400-500°C) in the presence of an inert gas such as

31
nitrogen. The H3PO4 reacts with the carbon to create pores, and the high
temperature causes the carbon to expand and create a highly porous structure with
a large surface area.
Zinc chloride (ZnCl2): ZnCl2 is a strong Lewis acid that is often used for the
activation of carbon derived from coconut shells or other lignocellulosic materials.
The activation process involves impregnating the carbon with ZnCl2 and then
heating it to a high temperature (usually around 600-800°C) in the presence of an
inert gas such as nitrogen. The ZnCl2 reacts with the carbon to create pores, and
the high temperature causes the carbon to expand and create a highly porous
structure with a large surface area.
Other activating agents that have been used for the activation of carbon include
sodium hydroxide (NaOH), potassium carbonate (K2CO3), and sulfuric acid
(H2SO4). The choice of activating agent depends on a variety of factors, including
the raw material used, the desired pore size and surface area of the activated
carbon, and the specific application for which the activated carbon will be used.
Activated carbon has a wide range of applications due to its high surface area, high
adsorption capacity, and chemical stability. Some of the common applications of
activated carbon are:
Water treatment: Activated carbon is widely used in the treatment of drinking
water and wastewater. It can effectively remove contaminants such as organic
compounds, chlorine, and heavy metals from water. In drinking water treatment,
activated carbon is often used as a pre-treatment step to remove chlorine and other
organic compounds that can affect taste and odor. In wastewater treatment,
activated carbon can be used as a tertiary treatment step to remove residual organic
compounds and other contaminants before discharge.

32
Air purification: Activated carbon is used in air purification systems to remove
volatile organic compounds (VOCs), odors, and other pollutants from the air. It is
commonly used in indoor air purification systems, such as air filters for HVAC
systems, as well as in industrial applications such as fume hoods and air scrubbers.
Pharmaceutical and medical applications: Activated carbon is used in the
pharmaceutical industry for the purification of drugs and other pharmaceutical
products. It can also be used in medical applications, such as in the treatment of
poisoning and overdoses.
Environmental remediation: Activated carbon can be used for the remediation of
contaminated soil and groundwater. It can effectively remove organic compounds
and other contaminants from these environments.
Overall, activated carbon is a versatile material with a wide range of applications
in various industries. Its effectiveness in removing contaminants and impurities
makes it an essential material in many purification and remediation processes..The
choice of activating agent for activated carbon depends on the type of raw material
and the desired properties of the final product. The activating agent is used during
the activation process to create pores and increase the surface area of the carbon.
Some common activating agents for activated carbon include:
APPLICATION OF ACTIVATED CARBON
Activated carbon has a wide range of applications due to its high surface area, high
adsorption capacity, and chemical stability. Some of the common applications of
activated carbon are:
Water treatment: Activated carbon is widely used in the treatment of drinking
water and wastewater. It can effectively remove contaminants such as organic
compounds, chlorine, and heavy metals from water. In drinking water treatment,
activated carbon is often used as a pre-treatment step to remove chlorine and other
organic compounds that can affect taste and odor. In wastewater treatment,

33
activated carbon can be used as a tertiary treatment step to remove residual organic
compounds and other contaminants before discharge.
Air purification: Activated carbon is used in air purification systems to remove
volatile organic compounds (VOCs), odors, and other pollutants from the air. It is
commonly used in indoor air purification systems, such as air filters for HVAC
systems, as well as in industrial applications such as fume hoods and air scrubbers.
Gas purification: Activated carbon is also used in the purification of gases, such as
natural gas and hydrogen. It can effectively remove impurities such as sulfur
compounds and carbon dioxide from these gases.
Food and beverage processing: Activated carbon is used in the food and beverage
industry for the purification of sugar, sweeteners, and other food ingredients. It can
also be used to remove impurities from beer, wine, and other alcoholic beverages.
Pharmaceutical and medical applications: Activated carbon is used in the
pharmaceutical industry for the purification of drugs and other pharmaceutical
products. It can also be used in medical applications, such as in the treatment of
poisoning and overdoses.
Environmental remediation: Activated carbon can be used for the remediation of
contaminated soil and groundwater. It can effectively remove organic compounds
and other contaminants from these environments.
Overall, activated carbon is a versatile material with a wide range of applications
in various industries. Its effectiveness in removing contaminants and impurities
makes it an essential material in many purification and remediation processes.
PROPERTIES OF ACTIVATED CARBON
Activated carbon, also known as activated charcoal, is a highly porous and
amorphous form of carbon that has been treated with an activating agent to
increase its surface area and adsorption capacity. The properties of activated

34
carbon are determined by its pore structure, surface chemistry, and surface area.
Here are some of the key properties of activated carbon:
High surface area: Activated carbon has an extremely high surface area per unit
volume, ranging from several hundred to several thousand square meters per gram.
This high surface area allows for a large number of adsorption sites, making it
highly effective in removing contaminants from liquids and gases.

Porosity: Activated carbon has a highly porous structure, with a network of

interconnected pores of varying sizes. These pores can be classified as micropores
(<2 nm), mesopores (2-50 nm), and macropores (>50 nm), depending on their size.
The porosity of activated carbon allows for rapid adsorption and desorption of
molecules.
Adsorption capacity: Activated carbon has a high adsorption capacity due to its
large surface area and porous structure. It can adsorb a wide range of contaminants,
including organic compounds, gases, and metals, from liquids and gases.
Surface chemistry: The surface chemistry of activated carbon is highly complex
and can vary depending on the activating agent used during the manufacturing
process. The surface of activated carbon is typically rich in functional groups, such
as carboxyl, hydroxyl, and phenolic groups, which can enhance its adsorption
capacity for specific contaminants.
Electrical conductivity: Activated carbon is an electrical conductor, which makes it
suitable for use in electrical energy storage applications, such as batteries and
supercapacitors.
Low density: Activated carbon has a low density, which makes it lightweight and
easy to handle.
Overall, the unique combination of high surface area, porosity, adsorption
capacity, surface chemistry, chemical stability, electrical conductivity, and low

35
density make activated carbon a highly versatile material with a wide range of
applications in various industries.

2.1.8 Material used for Activated carbon

Activated carbon is a highly porous material that is used for a wide range of
applications, including water purification, air filtration, and as an adsorbent in
chemical and pharmaceutical industries. The properties of activated carbon depend
on the materials used to make it, as well as the method of activation.
There are many different materials that can be used to make activated carbon, but
the most commonly used ones are:
Coconut shells: Coconut shells are one of the most popular materials used for
activated carbon production because they are widely available, have a high carbon
content, and produce a high-quality product.
Wood: Wood is another common material used for activated carbon production.
Different types of wood, such as pine, oak, and bamboo, can be used depending on
the desired properties of the final product.
Coal: Coal is also used as a raw material for activated carbon production. It is a
cheaper alternative to other materials and is commonly used for industrial
applications.
Petroleum coke: Petroleum coke is a byproduct of the oil refining process and is
also used as a raw material for activated carbon production.
Agricultural waste: Agricultural waste, such as rice husks, sugarcane bagasse, and
peanut shells, can be used as a raw material for activated carbon production. This
is a sustainable option as it makes use of waste materials that would otherwise be
discarded.
The activation process of these materials involves heating them in the presence of a
gas, such as steam or carbon dioxide, at high temperatures to create a highly

36
porous structure. The pores in the activated carbon can then adsorb a wide range of
molecules and impurities, making it an effective adsorbent.
In addition to the raw materials used, the activation process can also affect the
properties of the final product. There are two main types of activation: chemical
activation and physical activation. Chemical activation involves treating the raw
material with an activating agent, such as phosphoric acid, while physical
activation involves heating the material in the presence of a gas.

37
 CHAPTER THREE
MATERIALS AND METHOD
3.1 Materials
The materials used in this study include waste watermelon rinds which was
obtained from a Ihiala market, Ihiala Anambra State. In all, distilled water was
used in this study.
Table 3.1: List of Equipment/Apparatus
S/N INSTRUMENT MANUFACTURER MODEL
1 Muffle furnace Gallenkamp, England PSE-621-010L
2 Digital weighing Ohaus corporation, Scout pro
Balance China Sp601
3 Crucible SEDI, Nigeria Ceramic
4 Spatula - -
5 Conical flask Winson, China -
6 Beaker Winson, China -
7 Measuring cylinder Winson, China -
8 Handheld pH meter Hach, Mena HQ Series 006
9 Water bath Scientz, China WBA-178A
10 Laptop computer Hp Core i5
11 Sample bottles Dana, Nigeria -
12 Sieve Interlabs, seithi ASTM No 100
13 TGA Perkin Elmer, UK TGA 4000
14 FTIR Perkin Elmer, UK Frontier FT-IR
15 XRD Shimadzu scientific XRD 6000
16 HRSEM Fisons instruments Polaron
UK SC515
17 BET Quantachrome, UK NOVA 4200e

3.2.1 Preparation of watermelon rinds

38
The watermelon rinds were washed with distilled water to remove dirt and
impurities. Thereafter, the watermelon rinds were then dried in the absence of
direct sunlight for fourteen days. Subsequently, the dried watermelon rinds were
ground using electric grinding machine, sieved to a particle size of 2 micro meter
(2 µm) and were stored in an air tight container labelled WMR.
3.2.2. Biochar Production
The temperature range for the decomposition of watermelon rinds was determined
using Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). A decomposition temperature range of
400 to 600 ºC was identified and the temperature of 500 ºC was chosen for this
study to save energy and enhance effective conversion of the biomass to biochar.
In view of that, the pyrolysis experiment was carried out in a muffler furnace at the
temperatures of 500°C and 600°C respectively. About 20 g of the WMR sample
was weighed into the crucible. The crucible containing the samples was placed
with a lid. The furnace form pyrolysis at the temperature of 500 ºC. The pyrolysis
heating rate was set at 10°C/min for a residence time of 1 hr. At the end of the
pyrolysis period, the furnace was switched off and the samples were allowed to
cool to room temperature. The biochar obtained was labelled as WBC. Then the
biochar samples were stored in an air tight bottle until further use.
3.2.3. Preparation of activated carbon
The obtained WBC was activated using H 3PO4. WBC of 10 g was soaked with 100
mL of H3PO4 (2 M). in a 200 cm3 conical flask and sonicated for 1 h at 40 ºC. The
sample was later poured into a crucible and placed in the furnace set at 500 oC. The
set-up was allowed to activate for 30 min and thereafter cooled to room
temperature. The produced activated carbon was labelled WAC and stored in a
plastic container until further characterizations and applications.

39
3.2.4. Characterization of WBC and WAC samples
The thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) and Derivative Thermogravimetric (DTG)
analysis was achieved by measuring from 50 to 100°c in a nitrogen gas
environment. The information on the biochar samples functional groups was
determined by Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR). The FTIR analysis indicates the
chemical properties of biochar by assigning peaks of interest to functional groups
based on characteristic absorption regions. The mineralogical composition of
biochars was determined by x- ray diffraction (XRD). The crystal patterns of the
XRD technique also gives information on the crystallinity of the biochar samples.
The surface morphological of the biochar samples was examined using Scanning
Electron Microscopy (SEM) system. Also, the surface area and pore structure were
analyzed using the Brunauer Emmett Teller (BET) technique.
3.2.5 Adsorption studies
The removal of Cr6+ from electroplating wastewater was conducted in an
adsorption experiment using WAC in a batch method while optimizing the
parameters for the adsorption process such as pH, adsorbent dose, contact time,
initial metal concentration and temperature. Ultrasonic bath (SB25-12DT,
Ultrasonic Scientz) was utilized to conduct all the adsorption experiments and the
heating system was set at the temperature (40 ºC), power (180 W) and frequency
(40 kHz), respectively.
The adsorbed quantity of Cr6+ at equilibrium and the percentage removal were
calculated by the following equations:
( C 0−C e ,t ) V
q e ,t = 1
m
C0 −Ce ,t
Removal %= x 100 2
C0

40
where qe,t (mg/g) is the adsorption capacity of Cr6+ adsorbed per gram of the
adsorbent at equilibrium, C0 (mg/L) = the initial concentrations of Cr 6+ and Ce,t
(mg/L) = equilibrium concentrations of Cr6+, m (g) = the adsorbent weight and V
(L) = the adsorbate solution volume.

3.2.6. Adsorption isotherm models

To evaluate the distribution of adsorbate molecules at solid/ liquid interface, some
adsorption isotherm models was applied. The obtained equilibrium adsorption data
in this work was analyzed using Langmuir, Freundlich, Temkin isotherm and
Dubinin-Radushkevich (D-R) models to indicate Cr6+ adsorption using WAC.
The Langmuir isotherm model is mathematically represented by the equation:
Ce 1 Ce
= + 3
q e K L q m qm

Freundlich isotherm model equation is described as follows:

1
¿ q e =¿∈ K F + ∈C e ¿ 4
nF

Temkin isotherm model equation is represented as follows:

q e=
RT
bT
∈ AT + ( )
RT
bT
∈C e 5

Dubinin-Radushkevich model is mathematically represented in Eq. (6)

¿ q e =¿ q s−k ad ɛ
2
6

where q e (mg/g) = quantity of Cr6+ adsorbed at equilibrium, q m (mg/g) = maximum

adsorption capacity for monolayer coverage on the surface of adsorbent, C e (mg/L)
= Cr6+ concentration at equilibrium. k L (L.mg-1) = Langmuir equilibrium adsorption
constant. K F (mg/g) and n F = the Freundlich adsorption isotherm constant denoting
the adsorption capacity of the WAC and the heterogeneity of adsorption process
respectively. b T (kJ/mol) and AT (L/g) = Temkin constants that are related to the

41
heat of adsorption and maximum binding energy. T = temperature (ºC), while R
(8.314 J/mol.K) = universal gas constant. q ad and q s = constant related to adsorption
mean free energy and D-R adsorption capacity at monolayer saturation, while ɛ is a
Polyani potential.

3.2.7. Adsorption kinetic models

In order to determine the kinetic mechanism of Cr6+ adsorption onto WAC, the
kinetic models utilized to fit the experimental data include: pseudo first order,
pseudo-second order, intraparticle diffusion and Elovich kinetic model.
The pseudo first order model is expressed mathematically as:
¿(qe −qt )=¿ qe −k 1 t 7
The pseudo-second-order model is shown as follows:
t 1 t
= + 8
qt k 2 q 2e q e

The intraparticle diffusion model is expressed by the following equation:

q t=k∫ ¿ t 1/2
+C ¿ 9
The Elovich kinetic model is presented as follows:
1 1
q t= ∈ ( αβ )+ ∈t 10
β β
where q e (mg/g) = adsorbed amounts of Cr6+ at equilibrium, q t (mg/g) = adsorbed
amounts of Cr6+ at time t (min), k 1 (min-1), k 2 (mg/g.min), k ∫ ¿¿ (mg/g.min0.5) and α
(mg/g.min) = pseudo-first order, pseudo-second order, intraparticle diffusion and
Elovich rate constants. C (mg/g) = constant for the boundary layer thickness, while
β (mg/g.min) = constant for the desorption rate relative to the activation energy for
chemisorption and extent of surface coverage.

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3.2.8. Adsorption thermodynamics
The thermodynamics studies of Cr6+ adsorption onto WAC were performed to
understand the essential energy changes indicating a favorable adsorption at
various temperatures of 30, 35, 40, 45 and 50 ºC. The thermodynamic parameters
determined are enthalpy change (ΔH°), Gibbs free energy change (ΔG°) and
entropy change (ΔS°). The Gibbs energy change (ΔG, kJ/mol) of the Cr6+
adsorption process can be expressed by Eq. (11)
Δ G ads= ΔG ° + RTInQ 11
where Q describes the quotient of reaction which relates to the Cr6+ concentrations
of a system that is not in equilibrium. However, at equilibrium Δ𝐺𝑎𝑑𝑠 = 0. Hence
Eq. (11) is reduced to Eq. (12).
ΔG ° =−RTIn k d 12
where k d is the equilibrium parameter that can be represented by Eq. (13):
qe
k d= 13
Ce

where qe and Ce are the quantity of Cr6+ adsorbed at equilibrium and the
equilibrium concentration of Cr6+ in the solution.
Substituting, ΔG ° =ΔH °−T ΔS ° into equation (11) and dividing by RT, gives:
−ΔG ° ΔS ° ΔH °
k d= = − 14
RT R RT
The ΔH° and ΔS° values can be obtained from the slope and intercept of linear
regression analysis of the van't Hoff plots of In kd against 1/T.

43
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