MATH4016 (ALGEBRA) 2023

Chapter 2: Direct products + Semi direct products

Dr. R. Kwashira

Office: MSB337
 MATH4016 JANUARY (2023) Chapter 2 : Semi-direct products Page 1 of 14

A : Direct products

ˆ Direct products are basically concerned with non-abelian groups

ˆ We compute larger groups from small ones.

Definition 1 (Direct product ). (1) The direct product G1 × G2 ×· · ·× Gn of the groups G1 , G2 , · · · , Gn

with operations ⋆1 , ⋆2 , · · · , ⋆n respectively, is the set of n-tuples (g1 , g2 , · · · , gn ) where gi ∈ G
with the operation defined component-wise by:
(g1 , g2 , · · · , gn ) ⋆ (h1 , h2 , · · · , hn ) = (g1 ⋆1 h1 , g2 ⋆1 h2 , · · · gn ⋆1 hn ).

(2) Similarly for the infinite direct product G1 × G2 × · · · of groups G1 , G2 , · · · with operations
⋆1 , ⋆2 , · · ·

Notation
We shall write (g1 , g2 , · · · , gn )(h1 , h2 , · · · , hn ) = (g1 h1 , g2 h2 , · · · , gn hn ).

Examples

(1) Suppose that Gi = R, i = 1, · · · , n.

Then Rn = R × R × · · · R = {(a1 , a2 , · · · , an ); ai ∈ R} with the usual vector addition:
(a1 , a2 , · · · , an ) + (b1 , b2 , · · · , bn ) = (a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 , · · · , an + bn ).

(2) Let G1 = Z, with the operation addition of integers

G2 = S3 , with the operation composition of permutations G3 = GL2 (R) where GL2 (R) is the
set of invertible matrices of order 2 with real entries with the operation of matrix multiplica-
tion.
Then
 G= G1 × G2× G3 where
    
a b p q ap + br aq + bs
n, σ, m, τ, = n + m, σ ◦ τ, .
c d r s cp + dr cq + ds

Proposition 2. If G1 , · · · , Gn are groups, their direct product is a group of order |G1 ||G2 | · · · |Gn |.
If any of the Gi is infinite so is the direct product.

ˆ The group axioms hold since each axiom hold for each Gi and the operation is component-wise.

(i) iG = (iG1 , iG2 , · · · , iGn )

(ii) (g1 , g2 , · · · , gn )−1 = (g1−1 , g2−1 , · · · , gn−1 )

(iii) |G| = |G1 ||G2 | · · · |Gn |.

Proposition 3. Let G1 , G2 , · · · , Gn be groups and let G = G1 × G2 × · · · Gn be their direct product.

 MATH4016 JANUARY (2023) Chapter 2 : Semi-direct products Page 2 of 14

(1) For each fixed i:

Gi ∼
= {(1, 1, · · · , 1, gi , 1, · · · 1) ; gi ∈ Gi } Gi  G and G/Gi ∼
= G1 × · · · × Gi−1 × Gi+1 × · · · × Gn

(2) For each i define

πi : G −→ Gi by π(g1 , · · · , gn ) = gi . πi is surjective homomorphism with
Ker (πi ) = {(g1 , · · · , gi−1 , 1, gi+1 , · · · , gn ; gj ∈ Gj , i ̸= j)}.

(3) Under the identification Gi ∼

= {(1, 1, · · · , 1, gi , 1, · · · , 1 gi ∈ Gi )}, if x ∈ Gi , y ∈ Gj for some
i ̸= j then xy = yx.

Examples

(1) Let gi ∈ Gi , 1 ≤ i ≤ n.
Then for all k ∈ Z, (g1 g2 · · · gn )k = g1k g2k · · · gnk .

(2) Since the order of g1 g2 · · · gn is the smallest positive integer k such that gik = iGi for all i,
we have that o(g1 g2 · · · gn ) is the lowest common multiple of the orders of gi for all i. Thus
o(g1 g2 · · · gn ) = lcm(o(g1 ) , o(g2 ) , · · · , o(gn )).
The order is infinite if any one of the gi has infinite order.

Theorem 4 (Recognition Theorem for direct products). Let G be a group and let H and K be
subgroups of G such that:

(1) H and K are normal in G,

(2) H ∩ K = {1}.

Then HK ∼
= H × K. In particular, if HK = G then G ∼
= H × K.

Exercises

(1) Let G1 , G2 , · · · , Gn be groups.

Show that Z(G1 × G2 × · · · × Gn ) = Z(G1 ) × Z(G2 ) × · · · × Z(Gn ).
Deduce that a direct product of groups is abelian if and only if each factor is abelian.

(2) A subgroup of a direct product need not be a direct product.

ˆ Let G = Z × Z = {(x, y) | x ∈ Z, x ∈ Z} and let H = {(x, x) | x ∈ Z}.

We have that H is a subgroup of G but H ∼ = Z through (x, x) 7→ x.
 MATH4016 JANUARY (2023) Chapter 2 : Semi-direct products Page 3 of 14

B : Internal Direct products

Recall
If H and K are subgroups of a group G then HK is a subgroup of G if and only if HK = KH.
Conditions under which HK is a subgroup of G

ˆ If H, K are subgroups of G and H ≤ HG (K) then HK ≤ G.

ˆ If K  G then HK ≤ G for any H ≤ G.

Definition 5 (Internal direct product). Let G be a group and let H and K be normal subgroups of
G such that H ∩ K = {1}.
We call HK = {hk | h ∈ H , k ∈ K} the internal direct product of H and K.
We call H × K = {(h, k) | h ∈ H , k ∈ K} the external direct product of H and K.
Definition 6. Let G be a group and let H1 , · · · , Hn be subgroups of G.
G is an internal direct product of H1 , · · · , Hn if the following conditions hold:

(1) Hi  G,

(2) G = H1 H2 · · · Hn ,

(3) Hi ∩ H1 · · · Ĥi · · · Hn = {i} , Ĥi means Hi is omitted.

In this case we write G = H1 × H2 × · · · × Hn .
Theorem 7. A group G is an internal direct product of normal subgroups H1 , H2 , · · · , , · · · Hn if
and only if every g ∈ G is uniquely expressible as g = h1 h2 · · · hn .

Examples

(1) Let G be a group of order p2 , p a prime. Then G is an abelian group and G is an internal
direct product of H =< x > and K =< y > where o(x) = p and o(y) = p.
ˆ Let iG ̸= g ∈ G. Then o(g) = p or p2 . If o(g) = p2 then G = (g) is a cyclic group.
Otherwise all iG ̸= g ∈ G are of order p. Choose iG ̸= x ∈ G and iG ̸= y ∈ G. Let
H =< x > and K =< y >. Both H and K are normal subgroups of G and H ∩K = {iG }.
Now |H||K| = p2 = |G|. Thus G = H × K ∼ = Zp × Zp .
G is called elementary abelian group of order p2 . We write G = Ep2 .
(2) If G has exactly one Sylow p-group for every prime p dividing order of G, then G is an internal
direct product of its Sylow p-subgroups.
ˆ Let pi be the distinct primes dividing the order of G. For each pi the unique Sylow pi -
subgroup is normal in G. The orders of the elements of each subgroup Pi are pi -powers,
thus Pi ∩ Pj = {iG } ∀i ̸= j.
We have that |G| = |P1 ||P2 | · · · |Pn | and G = P1 × P2 × · · · × Pn .
 MATH4016 JANUARY (2023) Chapter 2 : Semi-direct products Page 4 of 14

ˆ Not all groups can be decomposed into direct products of normal subgroups, for example,
simple groups have no non-trivial normal subgroups.

ˆ For that, we introduce semi-direct products.

B : Semi Direct products

ˆ In this section we will study the semi-direct product. Their use is in classifying groups of
small order.

ˆ We recall: Let H and K be subgroups of G. For the internal direct product of H and K, we
require that H  G and K  G.

ˆ For semi-direct products, the normality condition is relaxed. We use automorphisms of one
of the two groups.

ˆ We construct a non-abelian group from H and K even if both H and K are abelian.

BI : Internal Semi-Direct products

Definition 8 (Internal semi-direct product). Let G be a group and H and N be subgroups of G.

We say that G is an internal semi-direct product of N and H if:

(i) N  G,

(ii) H ∩ N = {iG },

(iii) G = HN .

Examples

(1) Trivially, every internal direct product HN is an internal semi-direct product.

(2) Let G = D2n = a, b | an = 1, b2 = 1, (ab)2 = 1 = 1, a, a2 , · · · an−1 , b, ab, · · · , an−1 b


the nth
dihedral group. |D2n | = 2n. Note that (ab)2 = 1 ⇒ abab = 1 ⇒ ab = ba−1 .

(i) Let N = ⟨a⟩ and H = ⟨b⟩. Then N  G since [G : N ] = 2 and H = {1, b}.
 MATH4016 JANUARY (2023) Chapter 2 : Semi-direct products Page 5 of 14

(ii) H ∩ N = {iG }

(iii) G = D2n = HN .

ˆ G is an internal semi-direct product of N and H.

ˆ G is not an internal direct product of N and H since H is not normal in G.

Note that aba−1 = a(ab) = a2 b ∈/ H.

(3) Let Q8 = ⟨a, b | a4 = 1, a2 = b2 , ab = ba−1 ⟩ = {1, a, a2 , a3 , b, ab, a2 b, a3 b}.

Show that Q8 cannot be expressed as an internal semi-direct product of a non-trivial normal
subgroup N by a subgroup H.

ˆ Assume the contrary. Then |N | = 2 or 4.

(i) If |N | = 4 then |H| = 2 and H = ⟨x⟩ with o(x) = 2.

H = {1, a2 } and N will contain three of the elements {a, a3 , b, ab, a2 b, a3 b}.
Show that H ∩ N ̸= {iG }.
Note that a2 = (a3 )2 = b2 = (ab)2 = (a2 b)2 = (a3 b)2 ∈ N .

(ii) If |N | = 2 then |H| = 4 and both H and N are normal subgroups of Q8 (show).
Since H and N are abelian and nh = hn ∀n ∈ N, h ∈ H then Q8 is abelian. A
contradiction!

Thus, Q8 cannot be expressed as an internal semi-direct product of a non-trivial normal

subgroup N by a subgroup H.

(4) A group of order pq is an internal semi-direct product of a normal cyclic subgroup by a cyclic
subgroup.

ˆ Suppose that |G| = pq and p > q where p, q are primes.

Then G contains exactly one Sylow p-subgroup P which is normal in G.
If Q is any Sylow q-subgroup of G, then P ∩ Q = {iG }.
|P ||Q|
Then |P Q| = = pq = |G|.
|P ∩ Q|
Thus G = P Q with P  G and P ∩ Q = {iG }.
G is an internal semi-direct product of P and Q.

BII : External Semi-Direct products

ˆ For external semi-direct product we need the group of automorphisms of a group G.

Definition 9 (Aut(G)). Let G be a group. The automorphism group of G is defined by

Aut(G) = {σ : G −→ G | σ isomorphism} .

ˆ Note that:
 MATH4016 JANUARY (2023) Chapter 2 : Semi-direct products Page 6 of 14

(i) σ ∈ Sym(G).

(ii) Aut(G) is a group under composition of mappings.

(iii) σ : G −→ G is called an automorphism.

ˆ Examples

(i) For any group G, the identity map

1G : G −→ G is a trivial automorphism.

(ii) For any fixed g ∈ G, the conjugation map

τg : G −→ G ; τg (x) = gxg −1 ∀g ∈ G is an automorphism called inner automorphism.

(iii) If G is any group, then σ : G −→ G ; σ(g) = g −1 is an automorphism if and only if G is

abelian.
– Let σ ∈ AutG and let x, y ∈ G. Then
σ(xy) = (xy)−1 = y −1 x−1 = σ(y)σ(x) = σ(yx) ⇒ xy = yx.
Thus G is abelian.
Conversely, assume that G is an abelian group and let x, y ∈ G.
x = y ⇔ x−1 = y −1 ⇔ σ(x) = σ(y). Thus σ is well defined and 1 − 1.
σ(xy) = (xy)−1 = y −1 x−1 = x−1 y −1 = σ(x)σ(y). Thus σ is a group homomorphism.
For any g ∈ G, g −1 ∈ G and σ(g) = g −1 . Thus σ is onto.
(iv) We denote by Inn(G) = {τg : G −→ G ; τg automorphism} the subgroup of Aut(G) com-
prising of inner automorphisms of G.

Lemma 10. For any group G we have the following:

(1) Aut(G) is subgroup of Sym(G).

(2) Inn(G) is a normal subgroup of Aut(G).

(3) The mapping τ : G −→ Aut(G) defined by τ (g) = τg is a group homomorphism with Ker(τ ) =
Z(G) and Im(τ ) = Inn(G).
Thus G/Z(G) ∼= Inn(G).

Lemma 11. Aut(Zn ) ∼

= Z∗n for all positive integers n.

Proof
All elements of Z∗n are the generators of Zn .
If σ ∈ Aut(Zn ), then σ(1) generates Z∗n since 1 generates Zn . We have that the evaluation homo-
morphism

φ : Aut(Zn ) −→ Z∗n ; σ1 7→ σ(1).

 MATH4016 JANUARY (2023) Chapter 2 : Semi-direct products Page 7 of 14

Proposition 12. Let H  G and K ≤ G be groups. The map

ϕ : K −→ Aut(H)
k 7−→ ϕ(k)
is a group homomorphism, where ϕ(k) is an action of K on H by conjugation, that is,

ϕ(k) : H −→ H
ϕ(k)(h) = hk = khk −1 .

Proof
We show that ϕ(kk ′ ) = ϕ(k)ϕ(k ′ ) ∀k, k ′ ∈ K.
Let k, k ′ ∈ K and let h ∈ H. Then

ϕ(kk ′ )(h) = (kk ′ )h(kk ′ )−1 = (kk ′ )hk ′−1 k −1 = k(k ′ hk ′−1 )k −1 = ϕ(k)(k ′ hk ′−1 ) = ϕ(k)ϕ(k ′ )(h).

Hence ϕ(kk ′ ) = ϕ(k)ϕ(k ′ ) ∀k, k ′ ∈ K and ϕ is a group homomorphism.

Theorem 13 (Semi-direct product Theorem). Let H and K be groups, and ϕ : K −→ Aut(H) be

a group homomorphism. Then (G, ∗) = ({(h, k) : h ∈ H, k ∈ K} , ∗) is a group with

(i) the binary operation: (h, k) ∗ (h′ , k ′ ) = (hϕ(k)(h′ ), kk ′ ) ∀(h, k), (h′ , k ′ ) ∈ G,

(ii) identity (e, e) = (eK , eH ),

(iii) inversion: (h, k)−1 = (ϕ(k −1 )(h−1 ), k −1 ).

Proof
To show that G is a group, we have to show that the properties associativity, existence of an identity
element, existence of inverse for each element hold in G.

(i) Firstly, we see that G is closed under ∗ since the element (hϕ(k)(h′ ), kk ′ ) ∀(h, k), (h′ , k ′ ) ∈ G.

(ii) Let (h, k), (e, e) ∈ G.

We have that

(h, k)∗(e, e) = (hϕ(k)(e), ke) = (he, ke) = (h, k), (ϕ(k) is a group homomorphism so eh 7→ eH )

and
(e, e) ∗ (h, k) = (eϕ(e)(h), ek) = (eh, ek) = (h, k).

(iii) Inverses: Let (h, k) ∈ G. Then

(h, k) ∗ (ϕ(k −1 )(h−1 ), k −1 ) = (hϕ(k)ϕ(k −1 )(h−1 ), kk −1 ) = (hϕ(kk −1 )(h−1 ), kk −1 )
= (hϕ(e)(h−1 ), kk −1 ) = (e, e).
Exercise: Show that (ϕ(k −1 )(h−1 ), k −1 ) ∗ (h, k) = (e, e).
 MATH4016 JANUARY (2023) Chapter 2 : Semi-direct products Page 8 of 14

(iv) Exercise: Show that associativity holds:

Let (h, k), (h′ , k ′ ), (h′′ , k ′′ ) ∈ G. Then

((h, k)(h′ , k ′ ))(h′′ , k ′′ ) = (hϕ(k)(h′ ), kk ′ )(h′′ , k ′′ )

= (hϕ(k)(h′ )ϕ(kk ′ )(h′′ ), kk ′ k ′′ )
= (hϕ(k)(h′ )((ϕ(k) ◦ ϕ(k ′ ))(h′′ ), kk ′ k ′′ )
= (hϕ(k)(h′ )ϕ(k)((ϕ(k ′ )(h′′ )), kk ′ k ′′ )
= (hϕ(k)(h′ ϕ(k ′ )(h′′ )), kk ′ k ′′ )
= (h, k)(h′ ϕ(k ′ )(h′′ ), k ′ k ′′ )
= (h, k)((h′ , k ′ )(h′′ , k ′′ ))

Thus, (G, ∗) is a group.

Definition 14 (Semi-direct Product ). A group G satisfying the properties in the Semi-direct prod-
uct Theorem is called the semi-direct product of H and K with homomorphism ϕ and is denoted by
G = H ⋊ϕ K.

ˆ Note that the symbol ⋊ is a combination of the normal subgroup symbol
and the product
symbol × and the notation tells one which of H and K is the normal subgroup (one can also
write K ⋉ H for the same group).

ˆ This notation is not really satisfactory, since the structure depends not only on H and K but
also on the homomorphism ϕ : K −→ Aut(H). One sometimes writes G = H ⋊ϕ K to include
all the necessary information in the notation.

Many interesting properties of the semi-direct product follow from the prior constructions.

Corollary 15 (Corollary to Semi-direct product Theorem). Let G = H ⋊ϕ K . Then

(1) |G| = |H||K|,

(2) He = {(h, e) | h ∈ H} and K

e = {(e, k) | k ∈ K} are subgroups of G isomorphic to H and K
respectively,

(3) H ∩ K = {iG },

(4) H is normal in G,

(5) khk −1 = hk , ∀h ∈ H, k ∈ K.

Proof

ˆ |G| = |H × K| = |H||K|.
G = {(h, k) | h ∈ H, k ∈ K}. Thus |G| = |H||K|.
 MATH4016 JANUARY (2023) Chapter 2 : Semi-direct products Page 9 of 14

ˆ We define the following bijections:

ϕ1 : H −→ H
e ; h 7→ (h, e), ϕ2 : K −→ K
e ; h 7→ (e, k).

Then we have

ϕ1 (h)ϕ1 (h′ ) = (h, e)(h′ , e) = (hϕ(e)(h′ ), ee) = (hh′ , e) = ϕ1 (hh′ ), similarly (e, k)(e, k ′ ) = (eϕ(k)(e), kk ′ ) =

e = {(h, e) : h ∈ H} ∼
The maps are homomorphisms that are one-to-one and onto, thus, H =H
e = {(e, k) : k ∈ K} ∼
and K = K.

ˆ H
e ∩Ke = {(h, e) : h ∈ H} and {(e, k) : k ∈ K} = {(e, e)} = {iG }.
Thus, through the isomorphism identification, we may conclude that H ∩ K = {iG }.

ˆ Let (h, k) ∈ G. Then

(e, k)(h, e)(e, k)−1 = ((e, k)(h, e))(e, k)−1
= (ϕ(k)(h), k)(ϕ(k −1 )(e−1 ), k −1 )
= (ϕ(k)(h), k)(e, k −1 )
= (ϕ(k)(h)ϕ(k)(e), kk −1 )
= (ϕ(k)(h), e).
Now, the product (e, k)(h, e)(e, k)−1 is identified with khk −1 under the above isomorphisms.
Then ϕ(k)(h) must be identified with hk consequently, khk −1 = hk ∀h ∈ H , ∀k ∈ K.
Therefore (5) holds under the isomorphisms.
Also, since hk ∈ H for an arbitrary k. Therefore H e is normal in G.

Theorem 16 (Recognition Theorem). Suppose G is a group with subgroups H and K , so that H

is normal in G and the intersection H ∩ K is trivial. If ϕ : K −→ Aut(H) is the automorphism
given by left conjugation by k, then HK ∼
= H ⋊ K. If G = HK then G = H ⋊ K.
Proposition 17. Let H and K be groups and let ϕ : K −→ Aut(H) be a group homomorphism.
Then the following statements are equivalent:

(1) The identity map between H ⋊ϕ K and H × K is an isomorphism,

(2) ϕ : K −→ Aut(H) is the trivial homomorphism,

(3) K is normal in H ⋊ϕ K.

Proof

ˆ (1) ⇒ (2):
Let h , h′ ∈ H, k, k ′ ∈ K and suppose that there is an isomorphism from H ⋊ϕ K to H × K.
Then
(h, k)(h′ , k ′ ) = (hϕ(k)(h′ ), kk ′ ) = (h, k)(h′ , k ′ ) = (hh′ , kk ′ ).
Thus h′ = ϕ(k)(h′ ), ∀k ∈ K, ∀h′ ∈ H. Thus ϕ(k) is the trivial (identity) homomorphism.
 MATH4016 JANUARY (2023) Chapter 2 : Semi-direct products Page 10 of 14

ˆ (2) ⇒ (3):
Suppose that ϕ : K −→ Aut(H) is trivial, that is, for all k ∈ K we have that ϕ(k)(h) = h.
Then
∀k ∈ K, ∀h ∈ H we have that

hk = h ⇔ khk −1 = h ⇔ hkh−1 = k ⇔ K  H. (khk −1 = h ⇔ k = hkh−1 )

Now, K is normal in K and H and K make up all elements of H ⋊ϕ K. Thus, K is normal

in H ⋊ϕ K.

ˆ (3) ⇒ (1):
Suppose that K  H ⋊ϕ K.
Since K  H ⋊ϕ K and H ∩ K = {iG } then hk = kh for all h ∈ H, k ∈ K and the action
ϕ : K −→ Aut(H) is trivial, so that

(h, k)(h′ , k ′ ) = (hϕ(k)(h′ ), kk ′ ) = (hh′ , kk ′ ) ∀h, h′ ∈ H, ∀k, k ′ ∈ K.

Thus H ⋊ϕ K ∼
= H × K.
Corollary 18. G = H ⋊ϕ K is abelian if and only if ϕ is trivial and H and K are abelian.

Theorem 19. Suppose that K, J and H are groups, σ : K −→ J is an isomorphism,

and φ : J −→ Aut(H) is a homomorphism, so that ϕ = φ ◦ σ : K −→ Aut(H) is also an
homomorphism. Then
H ⋊ϕ K ∼ = H ⋊φ J.

Proof
Consider a map
Φ : H ⋊ϕ K −→ H ⋊φ J ; (h, k) 7→ (h, σ(k)).
Since σ is an isomorphism, σ(e) = e so that (h, σ(e)) = (h, e) ∀h ∈ H.
If (h, j) ∈ H ⋊φ J, then j ∈ J. But σ is onto, then σ(k) = j for some k ∈ K . Thus Φ(h, k) = (h, j)
so ϕ is onto.
If Φ(h, k) = Φ(h′ , k ′ ) then (h, σ(k)) = (h′ , σ(k ′ )). Then h = h′ and σ(k) = σ(k ′ ).
Since σ is bijective, the inverse map σ −1 exists and k = σ −1 (σ(k)) = σ −1 (σ(k ′ )) = k ′ .
Thus, Φ is a bijection.
The function σ is a homomorphism, so
Φ(h, k)Φ(h′ , k ′ ) = (h, σ(k))(h′ , σ(k ′ ))
= (hφ(σ(k)(h′ )), σ(k)σ(k ′ ))
= (hϕ(k)(h′ ), σ(kk ′ ))
= Φ(hϕ(k)(h′ ), kk ′ )
= Φ((h, k)(h′ , k ′ )).
Therefore Φ is an isomorphism.

Corollary 20. Suppose that K and H are groups.

If φ : K −→ Aut(H) is a homomorphism, then for any σ ∈ Aut(K), ϕ = φ ◦ σ : K −→ Aut(H) is
also a homomorphism giving H ⋊ϕ K ∼
= H ⋊φ K.

Proof
In this case, J = K.
 MATH4016 JANUARY (2023) Chapter 2 : Semi-direct products Page 11 of 14

Corollary 21. Let H and K be groups, and suppose that K is cyclic, and ϕ, φ : K −→ Aut(H)
are monomorphisms such that ϕ(K) = φ(K) in Aut(H).
Then there exists σ ∈ Aut(K) so that ϕ = φ ◦ σ.

Proof
If K is cyclic, then any automorphism σ ∈ Aut(K) preserves the generators of K.

Lemma 22. Let θ : Cn −→ Cm be a surjective homomorphism and let Cn = ⟨a⟩ , Cm = ⟨b⟩. Then
b = θ(ar ) where (r, n) = 1.

Theorem 23 (Conjugate images). Let K be a cyclic group of order n and let H be an arbitrary
group. Let ϕ1 , ϕ2 : K −→ Aut(H) be two group homomorphisms such that ϕ1 (K) and ϕ2 (K) are
conjugate in Aut(H). Then H ⋊ϕ1 K ∼= H ⋊ϕ2 K.

Proof
Let K = ⟨a⟩ ∼ = cn and let ϕ1 , ϕ2 : K −→ Aut(H) be two group homomorphisms such that ϕ1 (K)
and ϕ2 (K) are conjugate.
Then ϕ2 (K) = ϕ1 (K)σ = σϕ1 (K)σ −1 for some σ ∈ Aut(H).
Then, ϕ2 (K) = σϕ1 (K)σ −1 ⇔ σϕ1 (K) = ϕ2 (K)σ.
Now, σϕ1 (K)σ −1 = σϕ1 (⟨a⟩)σ −1 = ⟨σϕ1 (⟨a⟩)σ −1 ⟩.
We can apply the lemma to ϕ2 : K −→ ⟨σϕ1 (⟨a⟩)σ −1 ⟩ to get σϕ1 (a)σ −1 = ϕ2 (ar ) for some r such
that (r, n) = 1.
For any power of a, we have σϕ1 (as )σ −1 = (σϕ1 (a)) σ −1 = (ϕ2 (ar ))s = (ϕ2 ((as )r )).
Thus, any x ∈ K maps to xr ∈ K.

Define a map
f : H ⋊ϕ1 K −→ H ⋊ϕ2 K ; (h, k) 7→ (σ(h), k r ) .

(i) f is 1 − 1.
Let (h, k), (h1 , k1 ) ∈ H ⋊ϕ1 K.
Then (h, k) = (h1 , k1 ) ⇔ h = h1 and k = k1 ⇔ σ(h) = σ(h1 ) and k r = k1r ⇔ (σ(h), k r ) =
(σ(h1 ), k1r ) ⇔ f (h, k) = f (h1 , k1 ).
Or, one can use the following:

ˆ Let (h, k) ∈ Ker(f ). Then f (h, k) = (1, 1) and (σ(h), k r ) = (1, 1) ⇔ σ(h) = 1 and h = 1.
If k r = 1 then o(k) | r so o(k) = 1 since (r, n) = 1. So k = 1.
Thus
Ker(f ) = {(1, 1)} and f is 1 − 1.

(ii) f is onto:

ˆ Let (h′ , k ′ ) ∈ H ⋊ϕ2 K

Since σ is onto, there exist h ∈ H such that σ(h) = h′ . Since (r, n) = 1 then rs + nt = 1
for suitable s, t ∈ Z.
Then k ′ = (k ′ )1 = (k ′ )rs+nt = (k ′ )rs = ((k ′ )s )r .
Let k = (k ′ )s . Then f (h, k) = (h′ , k ′ )

(iii) f is a group homomorphism:

For any (h1 , k1 ), (h2 , k2 ) we have that
 MATH4016 JANUARY (2023) Chapter 2 : Semi-direct products Page 12 of 14

f ((h1 , k1 )(h2 , k2 )) = f (h1 ϕ1 (k1 )(h2 ), k1 k2 )

= (σ (h1 ϕ1 (k1 )(h2 )) , k1r k2r )

= (σ(h1 )σ(ϕ1 (k1 )(h2 ), k1r k2r ))

(σ(h1 )ϕ2 (k1r )σ(h2 ), k1r k2r ) since σϕ1 (x) = ϕ2 (xr )σ and h2 = 1H (h2 )

= (σ(h1 ), k1r ) (σ(h2 ), k2r ) defn of ϕ2 in H ⋊ϕ2 K.

Thus f is an isomorphism.

Applications

(1) If G is a group of order 2p where p is a prime, p > 2 then G ∼

= C2p or G ∼
= D2p ∼
= Cp ⋊ϕ C2 .

ˆ Let P ∈ Syl2 (G), Q ∈ Sylp (G).

np ≡ 1 mod p and np | 2. So np = 1. Thus Q  G and P ∩ Q = {iG } and G = P Q.
Thus G = Q ⋊ϕ P for some ϕ : P −→ Aut(Q).
Let P = ⟨y⟩ where o(y) = 2. Then ϕ(y) has order 1 or 2 in Aut(Q). If o(ϕ(y)) = 1 then
ϕ(y) = 1Q so G = Q × P ∼ = Cp × C 2 ∼
= C2p since (2, p) = 1.
Now Q ∈ Sylp (G) and Aut(Q) is cyclic of order p − 1 = 2n for some n ∈ Z (recall that
Aut(Zn ) ∼
= Z∗n and here n = p).
Then there exist exactly one element of order 2 in Aut(Q) given by the inversion(any
cyclic group of even order has exactly one element of order 2).
Then G has exactly one element of order 2 and has a cyclic group of order p.
So G ∼
= D2p . If Q = ⟨x⟩, then G ∼= D2p = ⟨x, y | xp = 1, y 2 = 1 ; yx = x−1 y⟩.
Note: yxy −1 = x−1 where x  is the anticlockwise
  rotation and y is the reflection,
cosα −sinα 0 1
that is, x = and y = .
sinα cosα 1 0

(2) We use the semi-direct product to classify all groups of order pq where p, q are primes with
p > q.

ˆ Let G be a group such that |G| = pq with p > q. Let H be a p-subgroup of G and let
K be a a q-subgroup of G. Both H and K are cyclic groups of orders p and q respectively.

ˆ Then np ≡ 1 mod p and np | q. Then np = 1 is the only possibility since p > q. Thus H
is the unique Sylow p-subgroup and H  G.

ˆ H ∩ K = {iG } since H ∩ K is subgroup of both H and K and its order divides both p
and q. Thus |H ∩ K| = 1.

ˆ Now we have that HK is a subgroup of G and |HK| = pq = |G|. Thus HK = G and

we have a semi-direct product G = H ⋊ϕ K where ϕ : K −→ Aut(H) is a group action
(homomorphism).

ˆ Which semi-direct product is it?

It can be a direct product if ϕ : K −→ Aut(H) is a trivial homomorphism.
 MATH4016 JANUARY (2023) Chapter 2 : Semi-direct products Page 13 of 14

In this case we have that G = H × K ∼

= Zp × Zq ∼
= Zpq .

ˆ Is there a possibility of a non trivial homomorphism ϕ : K −→ Aut(H)?

We will answer that in the next theorem:

Theorem 24. Let G be a group of order pq where p, q are distinct primes with p > q.
Then either:

ˆ p ≇ 1 mod q and G ∼
= Zpq or,

ˆ p ≡ 1 mod q and either G ∼

= Zpq or G is non-abelian and G ∼
= Zp ⋊ Zq .

Proof
Let H and K be Sylow p-subgroup and Sylow q-subgroup respectively.
We have that np ≡ 1 mod p and np | q. Then np = 1 or q.
If np = q then p | (np − 1) ⇒ p|(q − 1), a contradiction since p > q.
So np = 1 and H  G.
Now |H| = p and H ∼ = Zp , consequently |Aut(H)| = p − 1 since |Z∗p | = p − 1.
Recall that if G is a group, f a group homomorphism and if o(g) = n then o(f (g)) | n (since
g n = e and f (g n ) = (f (g)n ) we have m = o(f (g)) ≤ n. If m does not divide n write
n = tm + r ; r < m. Then e = f (g)n = f (g)tm f (g)r = f (g)r contradicting the definition of n,
remember, r < n)
Now ϕ : K −→ Aut(H) is a non trivial homomorphism if and only if q | (p − 1) since if |K| = q
and K =< k > with o(k) = q then ϕ(k) ≤ Aut(H) and |ϕ(k)| divides |Aut(H)| = p − 1.
If non-trivial homomorphisms do exist, then they all give isomorphic semi-direct products
(since K is cyclic).
Therefore, if q | (p−1), there are two homomorphisms, ϕ, φ : K −→ Aut(H) where ϕ is trivial,
and otherwise there is only the trivial homomorphism ϕ.

(3) Classification of groups of order 15.

ˆ Let G be a group of order 15, that is, |G| = 15 = 3 · 5.

Since 5 ≇ 1 mod 3 then G ∼= Zpq = Z15 .

Chapter 2: Review Questions

(1) If G = ⟨x⟩ is a cyclic group and θ ∈ Aut(G), then G = ⟨θ(x)⟩.

(2) If G is any group such that Aut(G) is cyclic, then G must be abelian.

(3) Let G be a group of order 203.

(i) Prove that if P is a normal subgroup of order 7 in G, then P ≤ Z(G).

(ii) Deduce that G is abelian in this case.

MATH4016 JANUARY (2023) Chapter 2 : Semi-direct products Page 14 of 14

(4) Let G be a group of order 12, that is, |G| = 12 = 22 · 3. Let P be a Sylow 2-subgroup of order
4 and Q be a Sylow 3-subgroup. We have that so that P ∼ = V4 the ”Klein 4” or P ∼= Z4 and
∼
Q = Z3 .
One of P or Q (or both) are normal since P Q = G, from the fact that P ∩ Q = {iG } since
gcd(|P |, |Q|) = 1.
Consequently, we have the following possibilities for the group G represented as a semi-direct
product:

(i) Z4 and Z3 are both normal.

(ii) Z4 is normal, Z3 is not normal.

(iii) Z4 is not normal, Z3 is normal.

(iv) V4 and Z3 are both normal.

Show that the above cases yield the following isomorphisms for G:

(i) G ∼
= Z12 .

(ii) G ∼
= Z12 .

(iii) G ∼
= Z3 ⋊ Z4 .

(iv) G ∼
= Z2 × Z6 .

ˆ Support/explain your answers.

ˆ Note that V4 = {1, a, b, ab ; a2 = b2 = (ab)2 = 1} and V4 ∼

= Z2 × Z2 .