Test Bank for Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research and Everyday Experience, 3rd E

Test Bank for Cognitive Psychology: Connecting

Mind, Research and Everyday Experience, 3rd
Edition E. Bruce Goldstein

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 Chapter 7: Long-Term Memory—Encoding and Retrieval
Chapter Outline
Encoding: Getting Information into Long-Term Memory
Maintenance Rehearsal and Elaborative Rehearsal
Levels-of-Processing Theory
The Basic Levels of Processing
Demonstration: Remembering Lists
Method: Varying Depth of Processing
The Difficulty in Defining Depth of Processing
Research Showing that Encoding Influences Retrieval
Placing Words in a Complex Sentence
Forming Visual Images
Linking Words to Yourself
Generating Information
Organizing Information
Demonstration: Reading a List
Testing
Getting Information Out of Memory
Retrieval Cues
Method: Cued Recall
Matching Conditions of Encoding and Retrieval
Encoding Specificity
State-Dependent Learning
Transfer-Appropriate Processing
How to Study More Effectively
Elaborate
Generate and Test
Organize
Take Breaks
Match Learning and Testing Conditions
Avoid “Illusions of Learning”
Memory and the Brain
Experience Causes Change at the Synapse
Where Does Memory Occur in the Brain?
Forming New Memories in the Brain: The Process of Consolidation
New Memories Are Fragile, but Become Stabilized by Consolidation
The Standard Model of Consolidation
The Multiple Trace Hypothesis
Something to consider: Are Memories Ever “Permanent”?
Method: Fear Conditioning

CogLabs: Levels of Processing; Encoding Specificity; Von Restorff Effect (see Chapter 4)

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Web Links
Levels of Processing
Demonstrations of levels-of-processing and transfer-appropriate processing.
http://www.mtsu.edu/~sschmidt/Cognitive/LOP/LOP.html#1.Demonstration

Study Strategies
A multitude of study strategies; could promote a discussion evaluating the merits of the site
based on the research in this chapter.
http://www.studygs.net/

Dissecting H.M.’s Brain

An article about scientists dissecting H.M.’s brain to learn more about how memory works.
http://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/22/health/22brain.html

Sleep and Memory Consolidation

Video describing research strategies for studying the impact of sleep on memory consolidation
using starlings.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XJWxALeKHXc
Memory and PTSD
Recent work linking memory consolidation to treatment of PTSD.
http://www.nature-nurture.org/index.php/ptsd/applications-to-traumatic-
recall/consolidation-and-extinction/

Discussion Questions
1. Students are often fascinated by the way mood and emotions influence memory. Explore this
topic in greater detail. Some possibilities include the following:
- Students might report specific instances where a certain memory “evokes” a strong feeling of
the mood in which it was encoded. Can they find common threads between memories
that are mood-dependent? What is the significance of their ideas on an understanding of
human memory?
- Students might consider the kinds of experiences or stimuli that more easily include mood as
part of memory (e.g., a song from a particular time or place in their lives). What is
learned about memory from a consideration of these kinds of memories?
- Have students consider instances where emotion is likely to be present (e.g., witnessing a
crime) and how memory is likely to be influenced by such emotions. How should such
memories be interpreted?

2. Students often depend heavily on text ancillaries or instructors to give them their study
strategies, hints to help them remember material, and so forth. Ask students to think about what
research on the generation effect and work of Mantyla (1986) on retrieval cues suggests about
this dependency. How should instructors try to discourage it? Can students think of reasons why
instructors might be reluctant to give less assistance?

3. The text builds a strong connection between the lessons of memory research and developing
successful learning strategies. Students often find it helpful to share specific successes and

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frustrations about failures in their studying habits. Have students report individual experiences.
Focus the discussion on having them apply what they’ve learned from the text toward improving
their study habits.

This activity could be significantly expanded where students are asked to reflect on their
performance on a recent exam (not necessarily from your course) and to apply their new
knowledge of memory to potentially avoid some kinds of memory failures in the future. Ask
students to reflect on the following: What were they thinking at the time of the exam? Is there an
identifiable memory failure that occurred? Is that failure a result of a less than optimal study
habit? What insights are provided by having an understanding of memory?

Demonstrations
1. To show the failure of maintenance rehearsal in transferring information into long-term
memory, ask several students (at one time) to volunteer to draw the face of a U.S. penny from
memory on the board. The resulting variety in their depictions nicely illustrates the
ineffectiveness of remembering information that you can argue has had an enormous amount of
repeated perceptions but, unless a person is a coin collector, most people do not elaboratively
process the details of such information. (Reference: Rubin, D.C., & Contis, T.C. (1983). A
schema for common cents. Memory and Cognition, 11, 335-341.)

2. Discuss how the memory system uses organization to access information.

Read the following list of items to the class: bus, pear, car, fox, cherry, taxi, bear, orange, truck,
lion, grape, sheep, van, apple, ape, plum, hen, boat

Ask students to immediately write down as many of the items as possible. Following recall, read
the list again and ask students to report if they remembered the words in the same order they
were initially presented. Many students may notice that similar items (category members) are
grouped together when remembered. Discuss this mechanism of “spontaneous organization” and
what is learned about memory.

3. Conduct a levels-of-processing experiment. The text describes processing levels including

shallow (e.g., counting the number of vowels in words) and deep (e.g., naming antonyms of
words). Develop two lists of 20 common words for which students can conduct shallow and deep
levels of encoding. Give different encoding instructions for each list and ask them to recall the
words following the presentation of each of the lists. Have students compare memory
performance for the two types of encoding, and discuss the results in light of the levels-of-
processing theory.

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 CogLab Instructor’s Material:
Levels of Processing
Introduction
In the 1970s, Craik and Lockhart expanded on the area of memory with their levels-of-
processing framework. They believed that the type of processing of information was related to
one’s ability to remember information. According to them, memory was a result of a successive
series of analyses, each at a deeper level than the previous one. A shallow level of processing
could focus on how a word sounds; a deeper level on the meaning of a word. They assumed that
the deeper the level of processing, the more durable the resulting memory, hence rehearsal was
unimportant. If processing occurs at different levels, testing may be best through incidental
learning rather than intentional learning.

Part I
Student Projects and Critical Thinking Exercises
1) According to Alan Baddeley, the levels-of-processing framework is an extension of his
working memory model. Have students review the literature on both Baddeley’s working
memory model and levels of processing to see how they are similar and how they are
different.
a. Students can critically analyze the idea that Baddeley’s model is an integrative
memory model and write a paper summarizing their findings. This could be an
APA-formatted paper.

2) Brain imaging research suggests that different brain areas may be activated during
different types of tasks, suggesting localization of function. Have students review the
literature for evidence of localization of function during levels-of-processing tasks.
a. Have them consider other potentially important factors, like modality (does
visually presented material get processed in different areas than verbally
presented stimuli?), speed of processing (if the task is automatic, does it get
processed in a different area as a controlled task?), or gender (are similar brain
areas activated in males compared to females during the tasks?)

Part II
Possible Test Questions
Basic or Introductory Questions
1. How did the three different tasks represent the three levels of processing?
Answer: Analyzing the consonants and vowels represented shallow processing, rhyming
represented medium processing, and judging whether it is a synonym is a deeper level of
processing.

2. On average, which of the three tasks should have taken you longer to respond to?
Answer: It should have taken you longer to process the synonym questions, compared to
rhyming and determining if the letters were consonants or vowels.

3. According to the results of this study, which of the three sets of words should you have
had the best memory for? Why?

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Answer: Memory should have been best for the words where you judged whether they were
synonyms because this was the deepest level of processing.

4. In your neuropsychology class, you are struggling with the multiple choice exams your
professor gives. You are used to factual questions, but Dr. Brown is giving applied
questions. Why might you have trouble with an applied exam when you have been
memorizing definitions?
Answer: Factual multiple choice questions take a more shallow level of processing than applied
questions because you have to understand the theory or concept to apply it to a situation. Factual
questions are simple memorization of a definition.

5. When you get your test results back from your first psychology exam, you almost start to
cry because you thought you aced that exam. You go to the professor and tell him that
you studied for over 10 hours, going over and over the definitions, but you still did so
poorly. Use the results of this lab to explain what might have happened.
Answer: Going over definitions within a textbook is a shallow method of studying, and the test
may have asked for deeper processing, like critical thinking and application. Even with the
rehearsal, you were not able to increase your memory for the material.

Research/Cognition-Based Questions
1. What would be the independent variable in this CogLab? What are the levels of the
independent variable? What is the dependent variable?
Answer: The independent variable is the type of task. There are three levels to this independent
variable: determining the pattern of consonants and vowels, rhyming, and determining if the
words are synonyms. The dependent variable is the number of words remembered.

2. Both rehearsal and levels of processing are examples of elaboration models. How are
they similar and how are they different.
Answer: Both the elaboration model and levels-of-processing framework explain ways to
improve memory. They are different in that one can rehearse at a shallow level, but memory is
not improved, suggesting that levels of processing may be more important than rehearsal for
improving memory.

Advanced Questions
1. How is the level-of-processing framework related to the elaboration model?
Answer: Elaboration is a memory mnemonic related to improved performance. With
elaboration, there is a deeper level of processing for a word, concept, or idea. The level-of-
processing framework is an example of an elaboration model.

2. You are taking a sociology class but are not doing well in it. There are so many long
words that you find it hard to read and comprehend the text. How could you use the
results of this study to improve your performance in your sociology class?
Answer: You probably skim over the long words when you should look them up in the
dictionary as you are reading. By looking up their definitions, it improves your comprehension of
the material and your memory should be better for the information.

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Discussion Questions
1. Discuss some of the occupations that could benefit from the results of this experiment?
Think about professions where memory is a key part of job responsibility or livelihood.
Answer: Some of the professions where memory might help could be waiter/waitress, university
professor (student names), lawyer (remembering case precedence and facts), doctor, salesperson,
and many more.

2. Discuss how the self-reference effect could be an expansion of the levels-of-processing

framework.
Answer: If we are asked to remember a set of items, recall is higher when we process them as
they relate to ourselves. Since our self-schema is an elaborate and organized system, we can
encode information related to ourselves much more than information about other topics. Hence,
relating items to ourselves is a deeper level of processing.

Part III
Group or Online Projects
1. An interesting thing about experiments performed in a laboratory is that sometimes they
don’t have ecological validity or value in the real world. As a group, have students test
this cognitive concept in a real-world setting or discuss experiences they have had with
better memory and deeper processing of information.
a. Have them think about how rehearsal is related to levels of processing.
b. If you are doing this in a classroom, you might have the groups think about a way
they could test this concept within the classroom or on campus.

2. In the 1960s, the most common view of memory was that there were different memory
stores. The levels-of-processing framework suggested that the type of processing might
be more important than the hypothetical store that retained the information. Have
students get into classroom or online groups and review this transition from memory
stores to levels of processing.
a. Have them think about the studies that were being conducted and what the results
were. Also, when there is a shift in the literature, one model can’t always explain
some anomalies—is that true in this shift?
b. They could discuss it in class or online and come to an acceptable conclusion.
You could have them hypothesize about it before researching it.

Part IV
Multiple Choice Questions
1) Which of the following is an example of deep processing used in the Levels of Processing
CogLab?
a. Rhyming two words together
b. Determining if the letters were consonants or vowels
c. Determining if the words were synonyms
d. Determining if the word was written in uppercase or lowercase letters
(c)

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2) Which of the three levels of processing produced a greater memory for the words?
a. Shallow level
b. Medium level
c. Deep level
d. Shallow and deep were the same
(c)

3) Which of the three tasks took longer to perform in the Levels of Processing CogLab?
a. Rhyming two words together
b. Determining if the letters were consonants or vowels
c. Determining if the words were synonyms
d. Determining if the word was written in uppercase or lowercase letters
(c)

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 CogLab Instructor’s Material:
Encoding Specificity
Introduction
The encoding specificity principle addresses the interaction between the cue or properties of the
environment during encoding, with the cue or properties of the environment present during
memory retrieval. Memory can be enhanced if the cue during encoding matches the cue during
retrieval, unless the material to be remembered is overlearned. Knowing this about our memory
systems may help a student’s studying and test-taking habits.

Part I
Student Projects and Critical Thinking Exercises
1) During class, have your students use objects around the classroom as cues for specific
words to be remembered. Have a list of 10 words ready to read to them. After reading
one word, have them pick a cue object in the room that will help them remember the
word. For example, if the word is "secretary," they may look at the desk at the front of
the room as a cue to remember "secretary."
a. They could write down their cue object to help them remember what their cue is.
Go through the list twice so they can practice. You can test their memory for the
list of words periodically.
b. Have them record the number of words that they remember at each retrieval
session. After testing their memory a couple of times, move to another classroom,
if possible (if that is not possible, try removing the cue items or moving them
around). Have them compare their memory for the list of words while in the
classroom that those words were encoded in to the novel environment.

2) Encoding specificity is more than just a physical cue triggering memories but can include
feeling and mood. Have students design an experimental methodology or research
proposal that would be able to test the effects of mood on memory recall.
a. Give them the example that when people are suffering from a migraine headache,
they tend to remember the negative aspects of an autobiographical memory but
recall more positive aspects of that same event when they are not in pain.
b. Have them think about applications for these differences in memory recall.

3) Odor cues can play a powerful part in remembering specific people, places, feelings or
events. Have students think about ways that smells are used to influence behaviors.
a. This critical thinking exercise can include influences on humans or other animals
(for example, using liver treats to train your dog to perform tricks, smelling your
girlfriend's cologne may trigger positive feelings). (See potential reference at the
end of manual.)

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Part II
Possible Test Questions
Basic or Introductory Questions
1) Why do you think that having a weak cue at the test phase improves the memory for a
word that had a weak cue during study compared to a strong cue?
Answer: The idea behind encoding specificity is that encoding matches retrieval. Although
strong cues may seem to trigger a word more readily, if the cues do not match, then memory is
impaired.

2) You are having trouble remembering your high school prom, although you know that you
had a good time and it has only been two years. What could you do to try to remember
your prom night?
Answer: One way of sparking memories of events in your past is to go to the place where they
occurred. To remember prom night, go back where it was held. In this way, encoding of the
memories matches the retrieval of them.

3) While walking your dog, you see a strange dog running around. You think you remember
seeing this dog before, but you are not sure. As you round the corner, you run into a
woman from your neighborhood looking for her dog. You suddenly remember that you
saw that woman walking the strange dog you saw earlier in the week. What was missing
when you were trying to remember whether or not you recognized the stray dog?
Answer: The woman acted as a cue for you for the dog. When she was absent, you weren’t able
to remember where you saw the dog, but seeing her triggered the memory of her walking the
strange dog earlier.

4) While shopping for new cologne for your father for Christmas, you smell something that
you recognize but you can’t quite place. You find that you are having memory flashbacks
of sitting around a fire and drinking apple cider with friends. As you look around, you
notice a candle burning and recognize it as the smell you detected. Explain how a candle
that you have never seen before could be related to the memory flashbacks with your
friends.
Answer: The smell of the candle triggered these memories because of its relationship with the
encoded environment that the memories were formed in. Maybe a similar candle was burning
when you were with your friends, so it is related with the learning of a memory. Being exposed
to the same or similar smell triggered your memory of that night.

5) You are at a huge fraternity party and you see a girl playing beach volleyball that you
think you recognize. You are not able to talk to her, but it bugs you that you can’t
remember where you know her from. On Monday morning, as you walk into biology
class, you see the same girl sitting in front of you. You feel a bit stupid that you didn’t
remember her at the party because she has sat in front of you for two months now. Now
that you have done this lab, how would you explain your memory problem?
Answer: Your memory of the girl was closely related to a specific environment of the
classroom, and although she seemed familiar, you had trouble recognizing her because your
memory retrieval was not tested in the classroom. You were tested in another environment.

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Advanced Questions
1) While taking your psychology test, you notice that the girl beside you is singing a song
about the different brain parts. After doing this lab, what could you infer about her
encoding methods during her studying?
Answer: You could infer that she encoded the information about the different brain areas
through a song, so she is trying to match the retrieval style with that to improve her memory. The
song acts as a strong cue for the memories of the brain areas.

2) You find the morning of test day that the classroom has been changed from your regular
classroom to one that you have never been in. How do you think this will affect your test
performance?
Answer: Since your learning of class material happened in a specific room, a number of cues
around the room may trigger memories. If you move rooms for a test, unless you have
overlearned the material, it will have an effect on your ability to retrieve memories. The
environment of the encoding should match the retrieval environment.

3) Your mother is making your favorite pie for dessert, but she ran out of ingredients and
asks you to go to the store for her. She only needs eggs, milk, white sugar, and cinnamon,
so you don’t write it down. When you get to the store, you remember the milk, cinnamon,
and sugar but can’t remember what the last thing was. Just then, a woman walks in
wearing the same shirt that your mother was wearing, and you suddenly remember the
eggs.
Answer: The shirt acted as a cue for your mother, which triggered the memory of the eggs
because the retrieval environment seemed closer to the encoding environment where the list was
learned. Perhaps the shirt cued a picture of your mother telling you what she needed, which
improved your memory for eggs.

Discussion Questions
1) Now that you know that the environment and conditions where information is learned
plays an important role on memory recall or recognition, discuss some of the important
factors to keep in mind if you were trying to study more effectively for a test.
Answer: When coming up with answers, students have to be aware that that the encoding
conditions and retrieval conditions should be similar. This can include the following:
environment (classroom), study habits (drinking a coffee or eating food), mood, cues or
examples encoded, or people present.

2) Discuss how encoding specificity could be used to explain why using self-referent
examples improve memory for to-be-learned material. Discuss any possible drawbacks
with using your own examples over ones that teachers provide for you.
Answer: Researchers suggest that when people make up examples that mean something to their
own experiences and knowledge, they tend to be stronger cues. If the goal was to make stronger
cues during studying so that retrieval would be easier, then using personal examples would be a
good technique. Students, however, may discuss some problems such as not being able to come
up with a strong example, which may be worse than not having a cue at all. If the teacher
provides the example, one might be more confident that it is a good one. They may also discuss
the importance of the strength of the cue at the time of testing.

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Part III
Group or Online Projects
1) Break students down into small groups or as an online discussion and have them think
about and discuss their ideas about how memory is relied upon in the legal system, from
the initial stage of identification to the prosecution of a criminal.
a. Have them think about the possible problems and errors made in respect to
encoding specificity as well as the end results of these errors (potentially an
innocent person being put into jail). If we know that there is an emphasis placed
on memory in some areas of our society, what restrictions or guidelines could be
used to emphasize or increase accuracy?

2) Have students think about and discuss different examples when the encoding specificity
principle affected their memory recollection. Have them discuss the impact of these
errors and how they could have prevented them from happening.
a. If they cannot come up with an example immediately, give them hints about
studying, recalling autobiographical memories, or remembering people in
different contexts.

Part IV
Multiple Choice Questions
1) According to the encoding specificity effect, memory recall is best when
a. encoding context matches retrieval context.
b. encoding context is novel compared to retrieval context.
c. encoding context is novel compared to retrieval context.
d. none of the above is correct
(a)

2) What specific kind of memory task does the encoding specificity effect work best with?
a. Recognition memory tests
b. Matching
c. True or false
d. Recall memory tests
(d)

3) While studying for a biology test, you make up a rhyme to remember taxonomical
information. What should you do when you are taking the test?
a. Try to remember what you read while studying
b. Silently sing the song to yourself that you studied with
c. Take your time taking the test
d. Nothing will help you when you take the test
(b)

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