DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 073 991 SO 005 451

. TITLE Teacher's Guide to the Ninth Grade Course on Our
Economic System and Socioeconomic Problems.
INSTITUTION Minnesota Univ., Minneapolis. Project Social Studies
Curriculum Center.
SPONS AGENCY Office of Education (DHEW), Washington, D.C. Div. of
Elementary And Secondary Research
PUB DATE 66
.OTE 75p.

ECRS PRICE MF-$0.65 HC-$3.29

DESCRIPTORS Behavioral Objectives; Charts; Concept Teaching;
Course Organization; *Economic Education; .Grade 9;
*Inquiry Training; Projects; Secondary Grades; Skill
Development; Social Studies; *Social Studies Units;
Social Systems; Socioeconomic- Influences; Teaching
Guides; Teaching Techniques
IDENTIFIERS Capitalism; *Project Social Studies
ABSTRACT
This teacher's guide for a ninth grade course on the
American economic system includes description of six units.of study;
1) The United States: An Affluent Society; 2) The American Enonomy:
How Cur Economic System Works; 3) Farm Problems; 4) The Auto
Industry; 5) Poverty in the United States; and 6) units on Political
Campaigns and Elections and The Middle East: An Area Study which
alternate in election and non-election years. Behavioral goals,
skills, objectives and goals related to concepts and generalizations
are identified. Charts appended to the guide indicate specifically,
the way in which all goals are developed in the different units.
Suggested teaching strategies haSed on the inquiry approach to
teaching are included together with references to background papers
on inquiry techniques. The guide is concluded with description of
adapting the resource units to specific courses. Related documents
are SO 005 452 through SO 005 457. (SHM)
 US. DEPARTMENT
OF HEALTH.
EDUCATION & WELFARE
OFFICE OF
THIS DOCUMENT EDUCATION
DOCED EXACTLY HAS SEEN REPRO.
THE PERSON 'AS RECEIVED
OR ORGANIZATION FROM
INATING T POINTS ORIG-
TEACHER'S GUIDE TO THE 'IONS STATED CO AM-OF VIEW OR OPIN-
REPRESENT OFFICIAL NECESSARILY
OFFICE OF EDO-
CATION POSITION OR POLICY
NINTH GRADE COURSE
ON
OUR ECONOMIC SYSTEM AND SOCIO-EC IC PROBLEMS
This course is part of an articulated curriculum
for grades K- I2 and has bee developed by the
Project Social Studies Curriculum Center at the
University of Minnesota.
This material was developed under a special grant
from the United States Off;ce of Education (HS-045).
1968
 GOALS FOR COURSE
The resource units make it clear that the
ninth grade course is designed to teach
attitudes and skills as well as generali-
zations and concepts. This section deals
briefly wIth objectives for the course.
Charts appended to this guide indicate more
specifically the way in which goals are de-
velped in the different units.
Behavioral Goals Related to Values
The ninth grade course was developed with
a view to helping pupils develop most of
the scholarly values identified by the Cen-
ter's staff for the entire social studies
program. It was designed also to develop
a number of attitudes related to public
values or the ground rules for the opera-
tion of a democratic society. It should'
be noted, moreover, that some of these at-
titudes are basic to an overall value which
has not been stated for each of the problem
units -- the value of human dignity. Most
pupils will come to the course with a fairly
well-developed value for human dignity as a
result of previous experiences at home, in
school, in church, and in their many infor-
mal groups. Probably the more specific
values of this course will develop as pu-
pils see the need for certain things in
order to protect this major value. How-
ever, the content used to teach these other
values, such as those related to protection
of minority rights,, evaluating events and in-
stitutions on the basis of their effects upon
human beings, etc. may also help reinforce pu
pils' attitudes toward human dignity.
The ninth grade course is also designed to dc .
velop several attitudes wWch are likely to
arise from the study of social science con-
tent. For example, several of the units try
to help pupils develop a scepticism of single-
factor causation in the social sciences and of
panaceas for curing social problems,
it should not be thought that some of the goal
are neglected merely because there is no check
against tl'em under a specific unit in the
chart. The checks indicate those units where
the goals have been kept in mind in designing
specific activities and sometimes the entire
unit approach. Many of the others will be re-
inforced in units in which they are not checkec
Skill!
This course attempts to develop many. skills.
A large. number of these are related to.methods
of inquiry. Many of 'these are introduced' in
the first unit which sets the stage for the,
entire year's work. Most of these skills have
been taught in earlier courses, although they
should be refined in this course. -Those which
.
are not taught in earlier courses are marked'
by stars in the chart on sequential develop-
ment of skills on pages 20-24 of this
guide.
 -2-
It should be noted that although some of
these skills are not listed as objectives
in more than one unit. Later units give
pupils opportunities to practice and im-
prove the skill. Teachers may find that
they should work intensively on the skill
in a number of units and should then list
it as an objec, ive of the later teaching
units.
Some of the skills objectives should be
taught in all of the units for which they
are listed. These are the thinking skills
related to inquiry and critical evaluation.
Some of the, other skills are listed for
more than one unit, also. However, the
teacher may decide to postpone teaching
the skill in the first unit in which it
is listed. Or he may decide it is un-
necessary to teach it to all pupils in the
second unit in which it is found ever though
he may wish to work on the skill wi,h a
small group of students who still neeer help
on it.
Goals Related to Concepts and Generallizat!ons
The Center has chosen to identify important
concepts and generalizations from the vari-
ous Social sciences and has tried to provide
for a sequential development of them in
the
K-12 curriculum. The concepts for grade nine
are drawn, largely from the discipline of
economics. Taken as a, group, these. concepts earlier grades and almost all will be taught
and generalizations might be said
to constitt
one possible. structure from the discipline of
economics. The course also draws upon con-
cepts and generalizations from other field's,
particularly sociology and political science,
in the units which deal with socio-economic
problems. The staff's point of view about
structure in disciplines is explained in
back
ground papers #.'s 1 and 2, For further
analysis of the field of economics, the
teach
is referred to the bacground paper en that
discipline, which is a reaction to the Nation
Task Force Report on Economic Education,
published bytheCommittee for Economic. Devel
Most of the generalizations to be
developed
are presented in terms of the social sc1entis
No attempt should be made. to have pupils lean
the statements as they are stated in
the re-
source units. Rather, pupils should
be en-
couraged to generalize in their own words.
The Rationale for the Number of Objectives
These resource units differ from many units
in part because of the large numLer
of yeeeeer
:zations anJ skills -o be taeght. 'ee tee-Le
should remember t,- ma,/ of Lr''se gancrali-
zations and founu in a number of th
units in the ninth grade course. The sequenti
pattern from one unit to the next can be seen
in the charts at the end of this guide.
More-
_over, many of the objectives are reviewed from
through different content in later grades.
This means that it is not necessary or wise
to spend too much time clinching a single
generalization in any one unit. Rather,
pupils should generalize and hold these
generalizations as tentative -- as hypoth-
eses to be tested more fully as they study
other units. At the end of the course
they can generalize more fully about any
one topic than they can at the beginning
of the course. However, they should still
understand that generalizations may need'
to be modified later, that they should be
held tentz:tively, always subject to change
in the light of new evidence.
Because of this reinforcement and further
development of concepts, generalizations,
and skills, it is important for the teacher
to read through the objectives of all of
the units before he begins the course.
it
would be wise, als ©, to examine the objec-
t ives of earlier courses.
The charts on
goals, which are found at the end of the
guide, are keyed to show which ones were
taught in earlier grades.
The
chart in Background Paper #
ll
1 indicates at
what levels each concept, generalization,
skill, or attitudinal behavior appears.
TEACHING STRATEGIES
This course r i es heavily upon an inquiry'
approach to t aching. For a more complete
discussion of inquiry strategies in teach-
ing the teacher should read a number of
the background papers. Background Paper # 1
analyzes in more detail the Center's point
of view about inquiry as a teaching strategy
and what inquiry involves.
Background Paper
4'10 examines learning theory in relation to
the use of inquiry.
Background papers on the
individual disciplines focus upon inquiry
methods and techniques used in those disci-
plines, not upon inquiry approaches to teach-
ing. However, they discuss inquiry techniques
which might be taught to pupils in some of
the courses.
The ninth grade course emphasizes a teaching
strategy which encourages pupils to find out
thihgs for themselves rather than one which
emphasizes the absorption of generalizations
presented ready-made by the teacher or a book.
Pupils are asked to set up hypotheses iby draw-
ing upon previously - learned concepts and
generalizations. They decide that some idea
they have learned in the
past might help them
make 'sense out of this new situation. They
cannot be sure, but they guess that this might
be so..
Inquiry also involves gathering data,
evaluating sources, testing their hypotheses,
and generalizing from their findings.
The Center's staff does not believe, nor does
this course reflect a belief, that all learn-
ing must be developed by this type of teaching
strategy. For example, some goals call for
having pupils learn to use certain kinds of
references or to evaluate sources of infor-
mation. Such goals cannot be net unless pu-
rids use a wide variety of materials, which
 -4-
present different points of view. Moreover,
pupils may need to read materials by eco-
nomists or watch films in order to gather
data to test their hypotheses. Some ac-
counts used in the unit on poverty are de-
signed to help pupils find our how people
affected by a problem feel about the prob-
lem. The accounts give pupils a chance to
identify with the people in the accounts
and so to understand their feelings. Even
when pupils read other people's accounts
of topics, they should be evaluating the
ideas against other data, discriminating
between normative and non-normative state-
ments, identifying basic assumptions, etc.,
and using the data they find to either
stimulate new hypotheses for testing or
to test earlier hypotheses.
At times the teacher may wish to use an in-
formal lecture to present certain facts,
but he can then ask questions to help pu-
pils arrive at their own generalizations
from these facts. Indeed, he can inter-
sperse questions and discussion with his
presentation. The purpose of such an in-
formal lecture is to give pupils the raw
data from which they can develop concepts
and generalizations -- information which
perhaps is difficult for them to rind else-
where or to read for :hemselves o which
can be presented more quickly in his fash-
ion. The informal lecture should seldom
present ready-made generalizations. Thus
it is a far cry from the well-organizerl
lecture which begins with a thesis and tete
-develops it.
Clearly, achieving varied. goals requires vane
teaching strategies. The strategy used in
each instance, however, should be appropriate
to the specific objectives to be achieved.
Some teachers worry about having pupils read
different materials. They may believe that
all pupils shod have read something in
common as a basis For discussions and for
tests. 'However, pupils can read different
materials all focused upon the same questions.
Pupils can be evaluated upon what they listen
to in class discussions or in various kinds
of reports as well as upon what they read.
By testing for concepts, generelizatior
and skills, rather than the specifics within
any piece of writing, the teacher can avoid
penalizing any pupil who has read something
different and can make it clear to the pupils
that he is in earnest when he says that he
is more concerned about important ideas than
about details. A part of a test might at
times ask each pupil to evaluate one of
the accounts which he has read.
Teachers should encourage pupil guesses or
hypotheses es being as worthwhile at some
stages of thinking as are statements which
present a commentary on facts found. in books,
articles, or films, or upon the results of
simulation games. At ether times pupils
should be asked to look for things which can
be used to test their hypotheses. They
should learn that an untesteA opinion of
a non-normative nature is r-c gc.od as
a tested opinion or generalization. Even
at this stage, however, pupils should be
rewarded for thinking of new ideas but
possible hypotheses or for asking relevant
questions which have not been raised earlier.
Whether or not pupils will learn to ask
questions, set up hypotheses, and generalize
for themselves, depends in part upon whether
or not such behavior is discouraged or en-
couraged b/ teachers. However, the teacher
should not always say "yes," "right," or
"good" when a pupil presents an idea which
the teacher considers good. Rather, the
teacher may wish to suggest that it is a
new or interesting idea and ask for other
ideas from the class. Then pupils can
test different ideas. Teachers can reward
or encourage the kinds of behavior desired
in many ways other than by saying that the
pupil has arrived at a "correct" answer.
At times pupils may fail to limit generali-
zations sufficiently or may arrive at faulty
generalizations which cannot be supported
by present data and knowledge in the social
sciences. If so, the teacher should not
feel obligated to correct pupils immediately
Rather, he should have pupils think of these
generalizations as possible hypotheses to
be tested laier. Indeed, at times it is
beneficial for students to over-generalize
and later discover that they must modify
their generalizations. Thus if they have
over-generalized about the effects of changing
prices upon demand in Unit 2, they will have
to modify this generalization as they study
inelastic demand in Unit 3. This experience
should help them learn the need to hold
generalizations tentatively.
When pupils arrive at generalizations which
are obviously contradicted by data, the teacher
needs to consider two questions. First, do
later parts of this unit or later units during
the year provide material to help them test
these generalizations so that pupils should
be permitted to think of them as tentative
generalizations or hypotheses until then?
Second, do later courses in the curriculum
provide material to help them test and limit
generalizations? For example, will units
in grade ten help them limit a generaliza-
tion about economic growth or causes of
poverty ? Or will a unit in grade eleven
help them identify the culture-bound aspects
of some generalization which they develop
or a result of studying American data?
If the answer to either question is "yes,"
it may be wise to let pupils hold these
generalizations tentatively but to remind them
they should think of them as hypotheses to be
tested in later units. This is probably the
procedure to use if the generalization repre-
sents an overgeneralization which does not
take into account some of the more sophisticated
limitations which a social scientist or even
an older pupil might place upon it.
On the other hand, suppose the answer to
both questions is "no." Or suppose that
the generalization is not just too broad
but is obviously contradicted by data
which pupils have already come across
or which could be presented to them in
an understandable form within the unit
being studied. The teacher should then
spend more time helping pupils test their
generalization at this time Rather
than merely telling pupils that their
generalization is wrong or needs to be
limited, the teacher might confront
them with data (orally, in readings, or
in pictorial, graphic, or tabular form)
which will lead pupils to modify their
generalization or arrive at a better
generalization themselves.
THE FOCUS OF THE NINTH GRADE COURSE
The focus of this course is on the Ameri-
can' economic system, with some study of
a contrasting economic system in non-
election years (see below). There is
considerable attention to certain aspects
of consumer economics in the unit on the
w.tomobile industry; however, the main
emphasis is upon developing' economic
literacy about ideas which the citizen
needs to know in order to understand how
our economic system operates and to eva-
luate economic proposals and economic de-
bate both during and between election
ears.
The course combines different types of unit
approaches. The first unit is or overview
which serves to introduce a number of differ-
ent ideas and raise a series of questions
to be examined during the year. T
!cond
unit uses simulation games to devei,;p, con-
cepts and generalizations which will be used
in later units.
The unit deals with non-
normative economic questions. Two units focus
upon problems and require pupils to use eco-
nomic analysis as they examine problems
involving, value-judgements.
Pupils define.
the problem, analyze causes of the problem,
and look at alternative, courses of action.
They learn to use non-normative analysis to
help, them when dealing with questions which
involve value. choices.
One of these problems
units is designed in part to develop more
fully the concepts of supply and demand, a
competitive market, and alternative costs.
The other problems unit focuses upon the socio-
economic problem of poverty. This unit in-
cludes sections on school dropouts. and on
automation Which, should help, ninth graders
understand the importance of further schooling.
The unit on the automobile industry differs
from the others in approach.
it includes
a number of problem, questions, although the
first part of the unit focuses primarily
upon analysis.
This unit also provides a
combination of consumer economics with a study
of the American economic system.
The unit on the Middle. East in non-election
 7-
years is an area study, with a different
type of unit organization from all of the their knowledge of political science
in which they study the unit in years
others. It is developed
so that the teacher on Political
can focus upon foreign policy problems Campaigns and Elections.
facing us in the Middle East as well as
upon, a comparative study of other economic, After the curriculum has been instituted
systems and socio-economic problems. in a school system for a few
years and pupils
have come through the fourth grade
Such study should serve to highlight some course,
of the aspects of our own system. the amount of time spent on some topics
units one and two can be reduced in
ably. consider-
The ninth grade course draws most heavily This will provide more time for
upon economics. However, considerable study or even the inclusion of another
attention is given to sociological prob- problems unit.
lems and analysis in both problems
units.
The course also draws upon, what pupils GENERAL OUTLINE OF THE COURSE
learned in the eighth grade course about
the development of interest groups which The ninth grade course includes the
attempt to affect policy decisions and units. following
It should be noted that the unit
about the varied influences upon politi- on political parties is to be taught in
cal decision-making about economic prob- election' years, the unit on the Middle East
lems. The course draws in non-election years.
in the first unit in an upon anthropology This variation is
attempt to make explained below under the unit topics.
clear that our economic system is
only kind of system, that not the Unit
any economic
1
The United States: An Affluent
system is affected by the cultural Society?
of the people and by the total values
system, including the political social This overview of economics raises
The course draws system. about what economics is and about kinds questions
upon geography as pupils of
look at poverty resulting economic questions which must be resolved
fro the ex-
hoko,tion of reources in an in any society. It also raises the issue:
area or from
romootilion with new resources or Is our society an affluent society,
ducts. pro- still say that or can we
Finally, pupils draw upon all of our economic system' must deal
rile social science disciplines with the problem of scarcity?
wheiq they study the unit in years The unit
helps pupils understand that
on the Middle any society has
on Lilo othe r hand, they build certain economic goals, but that these
upon and economic motives differ from goals
one culture
to another.
Unit 2: The American Economy: How
Our Economic System Works
This unit uses simulation games as
well as other procedures to teach
some basic ideas about the American
economic system, including the com-
ponents of the system and allocation
under a market system, the way in
which supply and demand affect prices
and the, ways in which pecple may
agglomorate their economic power
through labor unions or cooperation
among producers. The unit also
develops an understanding of our
monetary system, the role of banks
and the relationship of savings to
investment. Some of the material
in this unit is reviewed from the
fourth grade course, but the ideas
are developed with much greater
sophistication than is possible with
fourth graders and through a very
different approach.
Unit 3: Farm Problems
The emphasis in this unit is upon
such concepts as supply and demand,
inelastic ity of - demand,
a competitive market model, alter-
native costs, and government actions
which affect the market. The. unit
is organized around a problems approach.
Pupils are introduced to farm problems.
They investigate and define them more
thoroughly and set up hypotheses about
causes of these problems. They try to test
their hypotheses, modify them, and work out
new generalizations as they investigate
causes. (This aspect of the unit is focused
heavily upon supply and demand' analysis.)
Finally, pupils suggest alternative courses
of action and investigate these, both
through economic analysis and through
a discussion of the value questions involved.
Unit 4: The Auto industry
This unit uses the auto, in which ninth
grade pupils are interested, to introduce
the study of a different kind of market
and a number of new economic concepts. The
unit has two purposes. F7rst, it illus-
trates a market in which there is oligopoly
rather than the kind of competitive market
found for farm products. Pu-pils learn a
number of economic ideas related to adminis-
tered prices, non-price ways of competing
for consumers (e.g. the use of advertising
and product differentiation), mass production
and the use of capital to increase production,
and third party costs. This last concept
is related to an analysis of the car-safety
issues of recent years, costs of highway-
traffic congestion, the problem of disposal
of junked cars, and the problem of air
pollution.
Second, this unit offers many oppor-
tunities to teach pupils consumer eco-
nomics in connection with a topic which
can also be used to teach them much about
the operation of the American economy.
Pupils can investigate topics such as
advertising, credit, budgeting, the role
of consumer agencies in providing infor-
mation for consumers legal responsi-
,
bilities of car owners, and car insur-
ance.
In, schools where pupils study drivers
training at the ninth grade level, they
might move from this unit to such a
study, using the transition at the end
of 111,e unit provided by the issues
raised about car safety in recent years.
Unit Poverty in the United States
This unit is organized as a problems-
solving unit. Pupils are introduced
to problems of poverty, which they then
attempt to define more carefully.
They
look at both statistical and other ways
of analyzing and defining the problem.
Pupils then study the causes of poverty,
including such factors as old age, lack of
education, discrimination agEinst mino-
rity groups, automation, exhaustion of
resources in an area, the loss of business
because of the competition of new resources
or products, and factors related to the
economic growth rate.
Finally, pupils turn
to an analysis of alternative courses of
action.
This analysis involves both a
study of non-normative questions and of
normative issues.
Schools that teach an occupations unit in
the. ninth grade might find, that the study of
school drop outs and problems arising from
lack of education and other training as our
I ndustry becomes more highly automated,
could provide a useful background and intro-
duction to the occupations unit.
Unit 6: Units which elternate in election
and non-election years.
a. Election Year: Political Campaigns
and Elections.
This unit is to be taught as a part of
the current affairs program during the
election campaign..
It should build
and. draw upon what pupils learned in the
eighth grade course on political parties
and elections. Emphasis should be
placed upon some of the economic issues
in the election campaign and so 'e other
economic aspects of, the campaign such
as alternative costs facing candidates.
 -10-
b. Non-election Year: The Middle East:
An Area Study
When taught at this grade, level,
this area study should emphasize
comparative economic Systems and
socio-economic problems. However,
it should not omit the other major
topics discussed in the resource
unit.
THE PLACE OF THE COURSE
IN THE OVERALL CURRICULUM
It is
important for teachers to under-
stand how this course fits into the rest
of the Center's curricular framework.
If pupils have come through, the Center's
courses for the elementary school, they
will have developed considerable under-
standing of the culture concept, in-
cluding the concepts of norms and values
and how these cultural values affect
other aspects of the total' social system,
including the economic system. In the
fourth grade course, they will have studied,
in simplified fashion, not only our own
economic system but several contrasting
systems such as a modified command economy
(in the U.S.S.R.), an exchange system
based largely upon traditional reciprocal
relationships (in the Trobriand' Islands),
and the system in India which combines
heavy dependence upon such reciprocal
relations, a growing emphasis upon a
market system in villages and heavy emphasis
upon it in the cities, and aspects of a comment(
economy related to centralized' economic
planning. Studying these units will have
introduced pupil's to many of the economic
concepts analyzed in more detail in this
ninth grade course. Therefore, it is impor-
tant for the teacher to examine these units
if his pupils have come through the earlier
course_
In grade five, and to a lesser extent in
other elementary school grades, pupils will
have learned much about the cultural use of
the physical environment, about factors
affecting where things will be produced,
and about economic interdependence of differ-
ent regions and countries.
In grade six, they will have looked at
diversity in economic systems as they studied'
some of the Indian cultures in this country.
They will also have been introduced to the
historical background for the civil rights
problem in this country which is at the
basis for the poverty of one of the groups
studied in the ninth grade unit on poverty.
Pupils who have studied the seventh grade
course should have developed a fairly good
understanding of a number of sociological
concepts such as culture, norms and values,
socialization, role and role conflict, insti-
tutions, conflict, and accommodation.
These
concepts are important when studying the
 problems units in the ninth grade course
and the unit on the Middle. East.
They
should also have analyzed aspects of the
civil rights problem in some depth,
thus providing more background for one
part of the poverty unit in the ninth
grade course.
The grade course focused upon the
ii
political system of the United States.
It developed a series of concepts such
as political power and political decision-
making, (including institutional factors
affecting decision-making such as federal-
ism and separation of powers), aggio
moration of power through the organiza-
tion of political parties and interest
groups, political conflict and accommo
dation, These and other political con-
cepts are useful when analyzing the prob-
lems units in the ninth grade course.
Therefore, the teacher should examine
the eighth grade guide and units in
to know how he can draw upon pupils' order
backgrounds as they study the problems
units.
The Center's curriculum also calls
the alternative use of two units in for
both,
the eighth and ninth grade, courses.
an election year when the ninth grade
In
teacher is building upon what pupils
learned the previous year about political
parties and elections, he
must
with the eighth grade teachers consult
about what
they have done on this topic.
teaching some of the current He will be
aspects of the
unit but needs to know what_has
In non-election years when the ninth gone before.
grade
st der14.s are studying the area study
Middle East, the teacher will need toon the
draw
upon the sociological and anthrolopogical
concepts developed in grade seven and
many of the political science concepts upon
developed in grade eight. More particularly,
he should examine the unit on the executive
process and the foreign policy case studies
used in that unit in the eighth grade course.
The ninth grade course can be taught even
though p pils have not come through the
junior high courses. Teachers then earlier
must spend
more tine developing the sociological, anthro-
pological, and political science concepts
and generalizations which are used in the nintl-
grade course. This means, that
be able to teach all of the unitsthey may not
or may have
to spend' much less time on the last
units.
Economics is not dropped once pupils have
completed the ninth grade course. In grade
ten there is a heavy emphasis upon economics
as pupils analyze American hibtory.
P up 1 s compare the modern market
with the economic system of the 17theconomy
as they study the colonial age. century
They study
economic growth in several of the units, with
specific emphasis upon this topic in the unit
on the Industrialization of the U.S.
focus upon the rise of labor unions andThey
collective bargaining in the same unit.
The last unit of the year on the Consump-
tion Economy is devoted primarily to
economic, topics, including an analysis
of the causes of the ups and downs of
business activity and the role of the
government in attempts to even out
business fluctuations. This study
includes an analysis of monetary and
fiscal policies and built-in-stabili-
zers.
In the twelfth grade, pupils organize what
they have learned earlier about economic
growth and then focus upon the role of
the government in promoting economic
growth and other aspects of growth in
the short unit on economic growth which
precedes the unit on the Underdeveloped
Countries. As pupils study underdeveloped
countries they draw heavily upon economic
concepts as well as upon anthropological
concepts. Moreover, there is considerable
emphasis upon economics in the area study
of Africa. It would be helpful, therefore,
if the ninth grade teacher were to examine
the charts showing the development of
economic concepts in later grades.
By doing so, he can develop greater per-
spective on the course he teaches and can
understand why certain economic topics
are omitted from the ninth grade course.
In the eleventh grade there is a through
study 'of comparative economic systems in
the U.S.S.R. China, three western European cour
tries, and India.Pupils test the theory about
economic growth and other generalizations
learned in the tenth grade, against data
from these foreign cultures to find out if
the theories and generalizations are culture-
bound or if they apply equally well to other
cultures.
THE FORMAT T E RESOURCE UNITS.
The main part of each resource unit is set up
in a double-page format to help teachers see
the relationships among objectives, content,
teaching procedures, and materials of in-
struction. The objectives are found in the
first column on the left- Ihandl page. This
column answers the questions: Why should we
use this procedure or teach this content?
What should be the focus of the procedure?
The second column on the left-hand page pre-
sents an outline of content. This column
answers the question: What topics should we
teach? The first column on the right-hand
page includes suggested teaching procedures.
This column answers the question: How can
we teach these objectives and this content?
The final column on materials of instruction
answers the quest ion: With what materials
can we teach these objectives and this content'
A key is used' in the objectives column to make
the type. of Objective. stand 'out clearly.
Generalizations are preceded by a G, and are in
 plain type. Skills are preceded by an S and The materials column does ot include
are underlined. Attitudinal behaviors are
preceded by an A and are in capital letters. complete bibliographic data which can be founc
in the bibliography at the end ot the main
body of the unit. The bibliography fre-
If no objective is found in the left-hand quently includes other books and materials
column fo.. a particular procedure, the which may be used in the unit but which
teacher should look at the last objective are not so necessary as those listed in
(.$) listed in the column for a single pro the body of the unit. Teachers are en-
cedure. An objective is not repeated
until a different object;ve intervenes. couraged to add,other materials as they
are published or suitable meter' Is which,
are in their school libraries but which
It should be noted that any one teaching are not listed in the bibliography.
procedure may help develop several generali-
zations, one or more skills, and one or
more attitudes. Indeed, the most useful
procedures are frequently those which help
achieve several types of objectives.
By knowing what generalization (s) are listed
for a particular procedure, the teacher can
direct her handling of the procedure to
appropriate ends. As stated earlier, however,
she should not feel that children should
learn a generalization as the result of
this one procedure. The "procedure should
help lead to the development of the gen-
eralization but is rarely the only pro-
cedure aimed at accomplishing this end,
even within the same unit.
If nothing is printed! in the content column
opposite, a particular procedure, the teacher
should. look at the last content presented
for...an earlier procedure. It-is not re-
peated for each new procedure.
 - 1/4 -

i U, 10',011kfi UMW, 10 %Pl.LIFIC COURSES

2. The genera abili y level of the class.
110.7 units pividrd by thr Lrntrr are re-
c-out uroi Ilattual ly. tr.tit het s are For example, in a class with largely
c"i :111:04 M
ar.h t. nwn t
low-ability pupils, the sections in the
ideAc fro maitPt iPlc. nod trar_hlog pro-. Poverty unit on some aspects of
cr du m r ihrce units are intended to and government monetary policies causation
possihilifier,. not to' preslr2ut n omitted or modified considerably. might b,E
On th(
other hand, the material on
consumer
nomics in the unit on the Auto eco-
thrsr units nzp: itc,ourcp. units, might be expanded. Industry
The teacher might
P...x,pecthed to use all of wish to adapt some of the readings
to
sugq.s ,F=4 res make them easier to read.
CIIb mmlmut
Indeed, they Some of the
dt4 c.t; in arty r.inf class. readings now suggested for all
ttrithrt. they --;hould qpirct and acid used by part of the class. More might be
trvinrc.c whith pro audio-
mot litahle for each visual materials might also he used.
Thy zzhoodd f,m14idier a number
faftT,tz; az;
of
rhrlt tale this selection: The different abilities and
class members. interests of
The ohjertMvet: which thy wish to em
p in- t 7r, to Ow WI i t This criterion is particularly
in selecting individual and important
small nrunp
trafher discovers that activities and reading materials.
pupiis mirur help on r.ertain
sU 1 Is sn( It ns dist inguishing between Previouc experiences of pupils in the
oo1,m.711 ive nnd nmu% oormat lve class.
5 tate-
mruts. i . this might be
nddir-d lcn oitc The ceirctioo uf hipctiv
ill which it does cm-mtrni,
nul_woo nrrnr n: nirm ubjective. Or procnoures. and mntrtials will depeod in
t .rt part upon:
1.,
might he developed (n) previous experience-, out-
im i h n;
dr:yr-110p this skill. side of s(hool including those re-.1111-
*outh r"'.1F,10 tould be based upon ing from pupils
r eot
socio-er.nnomic hackql,mn,
awl rt uch letters to and their work and travel eyperloote%; ant
rill current (b) eerlier school experience',.
inrludiog
ntth whether or not pupils have (nme through
earlier courses in the Center's
currir
 - 15 -
It will make a difference, too, if some
pupils have had the earlier Project
courses and others have not. Procedures
will have to be included to help those
who have not had the other courses build
the needed background while the rest of
the class studies new materials.
5. The rest of the school curriculum, both
in social studies and in other fields.
The teacher will need to consider ques-
tions such as the following:
(a) Will pupils study other courses
from this Center's curriculum in
later grade levels? If not, there
should be more of an attempt to
limit generalizations in this one
course and even to include more
content on economic growth or busi-
ness fluctuations in the last unit.
(b)
What are or have pupils studied a-
bout sampling procedures, correla-
tions, or index numbers in math
classes?
What, are or have pupils studied
bout the scientific method in
a adapted to take advantage of current
science classes?
(d) Are any of the pupils also taking
a general business, consumer educa-
tion, or consumer math course in a
different department?
(e) Does the school require that teachers
of ninth grade social studies include
material on driver training or voca-
tional and school planning?
If
possible, any driver trai ing should
follow the unit on the Auto Industry
and any vocational study should fol-
low the unit on Poverty.
6. Materials available for the course.
Some procedures will have to be omitted
if needed materials are not available or
if other materials cannot be substituted.
However, the teacher can attempt to ob-
tain such materials for another year.
The teacher should also begin to build a
file of newspaper and magazine articles
which. have reference to the topics taught
in units three, four, and five. Materials
for these units need to be kept up-to-date.
Moreover, the teacher will find new books
appearing, especially on the topic of
poverty in this country.
Current affairs.
Some of the suggested procedures can be
affairs. For example, current issues
related to urban poverty or government
poverty programs should be included in
the poverty unit. Content and proce-
dures in the farm unit should be adjusted
to take into account current farm prob-
lems, current action of farm organizations,
 - 16 -
and government programs. Current issues
related to auto safety should be included
in the unit on the Auto Industry.
8. Factors in the community which might af-
fect how the teacher can handle certain
controversial issues or the kinds of
resource people available.
9. The need floc variety in procedures from
one unit to the next, from one day to
the next, and within any class hour.
As teachers adapt and add to units, they
should keep in mind certain things about
how the course has been developed. IF
there is a flow to each unit. Certain
things are placed first and other things
later because of the need to develop cer-
tain concepts or present certain data be-
fore other ideas are presented. Before the
arrangement of procedures or content is
shifted, the teacher needs to analyze the
concepts and data needed to teach each pro-
cedure in order to decide whether the shift
is wise or, if it is made, what else needs
to be shifted in order to provide the back-
ground needed for carrying out the proce-
dure. Whatever the teacher does, he should
develop a logical flow. A jumbled order
which has no logical progression may inter-
fere with the pupils' organization and de-
velopment of ideas. Moreover, if many
topics are treated superficially at one
point early in the unit and then treated
again later, pupils' interest needed to
to motivate their study may be blunted. By
all means the flow of the units should not
be determined just lby who happens to be ready
with a report or panel discussion first. Nor
is it wise to set up a series of reports to ,
be presented one after another, with no varia-
tion in procedure or without any attempt to
fit them into their proper place in the sched
ule of other procedures for developing, topics.
The teacher will need, of course, to adapt
the teaching unit from day to day to make sure
that he provides variety of procedures with-
in each day's lesson. Except in unusual
cases, ninth grade ipup ils should not be
expected to maintain a high interest level
if they are asked to do the same thing for
the entire class period. Although the re-
source units have been written to provide
variety within the present order of proce-
dures, the main responsibility for providing
this variety must lie with the teacher. Since
he will not use all of. the procedures sug-
gested in the resource units and since he will
add others, he could end-up with little vari-
ety from day to day or within one class hour.
Moreover, he will get behind in his plans or
shift his plans somewhat from day to day de-
pending upon what happens in class. This
does not mean that he must make marked changes
in the flow of procedures. It does mean
that even a teaching unit must be adjusted
from day to day. Few teachers , if they are
flexible enough to take into account pupil
questions and interests, can build lesson
plans for even one week without making
 - 17 -
adjustments from day to day. These. plans
will fit into the. overall unit, but the
unitcannot be developed ahead of time merel y
as a set of lesson. plans to be followed day
after day. Consequently, small adjustments
in the order of procedures may. have to be
made each day in order to provide. variety
in the lesson.
The teacher must keep in mind other ques-
tions as he decides which procedures to o-
mit or which new procedures to add. First,
has he kept at least some procedures to
teach each of the objectives he has decided
to try to develop? if not, can he add
others to achieve these ends? Second, has
he kept procedures to teach 7_111 of the con-
tent suggested? if not, does he think this
content should be taught? If so, he must
think of other ways of presenting it,. At
the present time there are a number of sug-
gestions to teach most of the objectives
and even a number to teach some of the same
content.
The content must alto be cut if
all of the procedures designed to teach it
are omitted.:
This statement seems self-
evident.
However, sometimes teachers come
to a certain point ire a unit, with no plans
to teach content they think important. They
do the easiest thing at the last moment--
lecture to cover it
An informal lecture
may be used at times, as this guide makes
clear on page four; however, other proce-
dures might be better or the content it-
self might be cut in some classes.
As the teacher shifts activities around, he
should also remember that each procedure is
written to accomplish certain objectives.
If an initiatory activity is shifted to a
later point in a unit, it probably needs mod-
ifying to provide for greater analysis than
is called for in a procedure designed to ex-
plore pupils' existing knowledge, skills, and
attitudes, arouse their interest, relate the
unit topic to previously-studied
material, or
develop, a overview for the unit. Similarly,
if later proced rtes, are shifted to the intro
ductory stage, they will need modification.
Use of a film to introduce a unit will differ
fromL its use during the developmental stage
of a unit which will in turn differ from its
use during the culminating stage of a unit.
its iltroductory use might be designed to
raise questions or provide an overview.
During
the developmental stage, it might be used to
provide data for thorough analysis of a specif-
ic topic or to help teach a skill or develop
an attitude. During a culminating stage it
might be used as a summary or even as a test
device in which pupils are called upon to
suggest limitations of the data or to compare
its presentation with what they have already
learned in the unit. Usually, the same film
is not equally useful for all three purposes;
however, some films could be used at any
stage if the teacher adapts the procedure to
the purpose.
These resource units are already voluminous.
it is impossible to suggest all of the ways
 in wnich one procedure might be varied or
one material might be used. Naturally, pu-
pils could prepare written reports rather
than oral reports on certain topics. Or
an oral report cold be turned into a sym-
posium, a panel discussion, or role-playing.
Or pupils might present the same material
through charts or bulletin board displays,
through mock newspapers, through dittoed
written reports, etc. The decision on
which form to use must depend upon the
teacher's assessment of 'how important it
is for the entire class to obtain the in-
formation, upon the extent to which he has
relied'Upon oral reports in the last unit,
and upon his assessment of the relative ef-
fectiveness of using oral reports in a par-
ticular class. Of course written reports
or other types of written materials can be
dittoed for class use, and charts and bul
letin board materials can be studied by the
entire class. However, the teacher must
decide whether or not the topic suggested
for an oral presentation is important for
the entire class or crucial to the unit
before he decides whether or not and in
what ways to modify the suggested procedure.
THE DEVELOPMENT' OF THESE MATERIALS
The Curriculum Center at the University
of
Minnesota had as its major goal the
develop--
ment and try-out of a new curricular frame-
-work for grades 1(.-12. The basic assumptions
of the staff and the criteria for
selecting
topics are discussed in the Center's
Back-
ground Paper # 1. A tentative curricular
framework was used in developing a series of
resource units and sample pupil materials at
various levels where they were needed.
No
attempt was made to develop a complete set
of materials for pupils. the aim was
to try out the curriculum, Rather,
using as many ma
terials available from other sources as pos-
sible, and supplementing these materials
a few developed by the Center only where with
they
were needed in order to teach the units. At
some future date, members of the staff may
work with publishers and audio-visual
ducers to develop more complete sets ofpro-
ma-
terials. However, tryout of these materials
has shown that the ninth grade course can be
taught with materials currently available.
Drafts of units for preliminary tryout were
prepared by Daniel Eckberg of the Hopkins,
Minnesota Public Schools, Stuart Stockhaus,
then on the staff at University of Minnesota
High School and now social studies curriculum
consultant at Robbinsdale, Minnesota; James
Olson on the staff at University of
Minnesota
High School, and Professor Edith West.
Back-
ground papers for two of the units were de-
veLded by Mr. Stockhaus and Professor Darrell
Lewis, then a %;isiting staff member from
Grinnell College in Iowa and now the executive
director of the Minnesota Council on Economic
Education. The simulation games were de-
veloped by Professor Leo Hurwicz of the
Eco-
nomics Department at the University of Min-
nesota with the help of Douglas Harvey, his
 - 19 -
assistant, and Daniel Eckberg.
The course was tried out by one or more teach-
ers in the following public schools of Min
nesota: Robbinsdale, Richfield, and Golden
Valley. The units were then revised by Mr.
Stockhaus and Professor West, partly in con
sultation with Professor Lewis. The simula-
tion games were revised by Mr. Stockhaus.
The Center's staff wishes to express its
gratitude to all of those who helped to de-
velop and try out the course materials. It
owes special thanks to Daniel Eckberg who
did so much of the original development of
the course and Stuart Stockhaus who not only
prepared one of the units but also worked
with the teachers trying out the course the
first year and then did much of the revision
on the course. The staff also wishes to
thank the following teachers who served as
Project Associates during the first year of
tryout and who provided many valuable sug-
gestions for changes and additions: Mr.
Loren Gel le of the Golden Valley Public
Schools, Mr. Carroll Waller and Mr, William
Opitz of the Richfield Public Schools, and
Mrs. Miriam Kelley and Mr. Earle Anderson of
the Robbinsdale Public Schools. The Center's
staff is indeed grateful to all of these peo-
ple who have contributed so much to the de-
velopment of the course. The staff welcomes
additional suggestions from teachers who use
the course in the future.
 - .20 -
SEQUENTIAL. DEVELO

Affluent II
J. Fa Auto Poverty Middle
Society Economy Problems Industry 1
ATTACKS PROBLEMS IN A RATIONAL MANNER. East
a, Is alert to incongruities, recognizes
prob-
lems, and is concerned about them.
.
Defines problems by isolating basic issues,
defining terms, identifying assumptions and
1

1
values involved, and determining sub -prob - X
lems which must be investigated.
*a. Identifies value- onflicts.
b. Defines problems by isolating the basic X
issue.
.
Identifies basic assumptions.
1 Identifies cultural assump ns.
d. Defines e .
e. Identifies factual questi 4
which need
to be answored in debates over courses
X
1

1
of action involving value-conflicts.
.
Sets up hypotheses and or alternative courses.
of action.
a. Deduces possible
X X X
consequences or if-then
statements from hypotheses. X
*b. Refines h ',theses b
defining terms.
*c. Sets up experiments X
or figures out some
other appropriate technique for testing
his hypothe es.
X 1

*11 Figures out appropriate techniques

1

r ways for testing hypotheses.

Considers possible consequences of al-
1
ternative courses of action.
1

LOCATES INFORMATION.
...
Chooses appropriate reference books aid H

sources to locate information. H

.
.
1
1
Uses yearbooks and specialized statisti-
cal.references. 1

X
* Introluced in earlier course. # Taught but not 1161...1A as an objcetive in
* Taught in part in earlier course.
an earlier course.
 Affluentl Am. :
Fa rm Auto Poverty .Middle.
Society Economy Problems Industry 1
East
2. Uses card catalogue to locate boo...s, on a.
topic, .

.
. Uses Reader s Guide to locate information. H
X
,
'4, Locates information by using the index in 1
books.
1
GATHERS INFORMATION'.
1. Uses sub-questions or deduced consequents of
hypotheses to guide him in collecting. rele- X
vent data.-
X
2, Interprets tables, graphs, nd charts. . I X Graphs
, Drams inferences from. tables, graphs, and Tables, Tables Charts
charts. x Graphs
-H.
,
H
Graphs GraPhs,
Gains, information through interviews and
Inter'-
.
.
field trips, ,
.
4. views H
Gains information by studying, pictures,
il
fms, realla, and things, seen, around, him. ,
. Increases accuracy' of Observations, through 1
Index
the use of scales, indexes, and question- Numbers
naires, X
H6. Uses simple sampling techniques. .
7. Uses modals to make sese out of complex data
,
1

.! X
and to, help analyze data. X
H X
, Reads for main ideas.
19. Reads for details. 1
10. Gains information from listening.
e.. Gains information by listening for main,
ideas, details, and to evaluate what is
said.
*1) Listens for main ideas- i
*b. Takes effective notes on oral. presenta-
tions. ..
H
H
. 1) Takes effective notes on structured
.speeches,
X
 - 22 -
:
Affluent Am. Fax Auto: Poverty ,' Middle,
Society .,Econo Problems industry East
Adjusts type of note -taking to typ
of oral presentation- H X
.

11. Uses a variety of sources. of information. I X

,
EVALUATES INFORMATION ANa SO,CES OF .IIIFORMATION.
L. Distinguishes between. relevant and irrelevant
information such as persuasion. devices.
..
*a. Detects persuasion device, .
1
2. Checks. , on the bia s. of authors (or on values,
I

held which might affect, his statements) or H X X.

other sources of information. .11

3. Recognizes differences in the difficulty. of

proving stateuents. X I

a. Differentiates: between descriptive:

I
causal, predictive and normative. clues-
tions and. between inferences and value
judgements.
. Distinguishes between facts, inferences,
estimates, and -value, judgements. , ,

.- X
..
Identifies, and examines assumptions to de- ,

. ,

clde Wheer
th he can a: cept them.
7' . Checks on completeness of data and is wary H

of generalizations based on insufficient, X. X I

X X. X
,
evidence.
,---
. Detects inconsistencies. ,

USES, EFFECTIVE' GEOGRAPHIC SKILLS .

.

,
1- Uses maps to organize! :.:,nd illustrate: data. H 1

*a. Uses maps to depict information. in order

Hx
to.identify patterns, in data- X
:... Drams inferences from maps.
X
*a. Draws, inferences, from a comparison. of
.

differentmap patterns of the same. are .

ORGANIZES A ANALYZES INFORMATION AND DRAWS
CONCLUSIONS.
El. Identifies differences in data. X X
 - 23
Affluent Am, Farm- Auto. Poverty Middle
,
Society. ,Econom, Problems, Industry
2. Identifies similarities in data. East,
3. Classifies or categorizes data. X
X ,
X ,
,
'4, Applies previously-learned. concepts and
,
,
generalizations.
5- Draws, inferences from data.
,
I

X ,
X
...
.6. Uses simple. mathematic 1, and statistical dc-
vices to analyze, data.
7. Develops charts and graphs, to clarify. data, ,
and. ideas o .'. to aid. in the analysis, of data. ,
!
, Tests, refines, and eliminates hypotheses ,
1
and works out new
I
ones where necessary. ,
a- Tests, h. he, against data. ,
9. Gene,. -lizes from data. X I
-. .e-ises, generalization.
,
X
of
,
,
,
in the. 11.:.. ,
new. data. .
10. Checks heck. over reasoning against basic, I
principles of logic, and. looks, for inconsist- ,
encies limitations "of data,. and. irrele- X. X
vancies. .
,
al. Having determined, the causes of a social.
!
problem., scrutinizes, possible. consequences ,
of alternative courses of actionl evaluates ,
,
them, in. the. light of basic values, lists ,
agruments for and against such proposals, X.
X
1
and selects course of action most, likely to
1,
achieve .goals.
.
,.
Considers possible conseqperces, of al-
-ernative courses of action.
WORKS WELL WITH. OTHERS. ,
X.
4 1-
Accepts. his share of responsibility. for the
work. of a group;. participates actively with.-
out, trying to dominate, X. X
.2. Helps create and preserve an at. osphere in .
which all members of the group feel. secure.
and anxious to participate. ,
X
 - 2L

Affluent Am.. I
Farm Auto Poverty Middle
i
Society lEtonopy, Problems Industry East
a. Is of other people's feel,
, ,
lugs. 1,
X
. Criticizes ideas, not personalities, and
,

does so tactfully. H -
c. Respects the rights and opinions of
,

,
others.
- . During discussions, keeps to the point,. helps
move, the discussion alongi and searches for 1,
X
points of agreement,
WES EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION SKILLS.
1. Males effective group oral presentations.
2. Presents, effective oral reports. I
 - 25 -
SEQUENTIAL DERCLOPMENT OF .ATTIODINAL BEHAVIORS
Affluent , American, Farm. Auto, Poverty ,!, Middle .
I
Society Economy ProblaisI industry, ' East
1. Is urious about social. data and human behzv-
ior and wishes to read and study further. in.
X
1,
X.
X.
the social. sciences. X.
2. Is sceptical. of "conventional truths" and de-
.1
mends that widely-held and. popular notions be. !! ,
II
I
X'
judged in accordance with standards of empiri-
cal validation, I

;
H
1
1
. is sceptical of the finality of knowledge; ,
considers, generalizations and theories as
tentative, always subject to change in the
light of new evidence. II
1
4, Is committed to the free, examination of so-
1
cial. attitudes and data- Searches actively
for different points of view and interpre- 1
X
tations. Values independent thought. I
1
1
5, Values Objectivity. and desires to keep his 1

,
!
values. from. affecting his interpretation. . 1
1! ,
of evidence, although. recognizing. the im-
I
,
I
X
1
portant role of values in. the process of 1

,1
X
making decisions about problems Which de- 1
;
mand action. II
*a. Searches for evide ce to disprove hy-
potheses, not just to .rove, them. X
*b. Respects evidence even when it contra, ,

!
Il
!

X
diets prejudices and preconceptions. 1
-. Evaluates information and sources of infor-
!
X
mation before, accepting evidence and gen,
X
erall2ations.
7. Believes that the social sciences can con,
tribute to me ,i's.welfare by providing, in- ,
fOrmation and explanatory' generalizations
which help them achieve their goals.
8. Respects the scientific method and ration-.
I
al thought as 'zpplied to social. as well as X
to natural data. H 1
, I
 -26-
Affluent American rm Auto Poverty Middle
Society Economy Problems r Industa East
. I s alert to i.ncongruites, recognizes b-
[
1 and is concerned about them.
10. Is sceptical of ngle-factor
causationn
the sociel sciences. X
11. Is ceptical p ceas. X X
12. Believes in the possibilities of improving
social con.rtions.
13. Evaluates proposals and actions to part 0
the basis of their effects upon individuAls X X
as humrmamu beings.
14. Believes in equality of opportunity for all
15.-Feels W s,e,.se of esponsibility for keeping
informed about current problems.
16. Values initiative and hard work, but es
not scorn those who lack ability or cannot X
find jobs
 - 27 -
SEQUENTIAL DEV LOPL VT OF G I' ',MONS
1
Affluent Farm
,
Auto
Societ
,,P verty ,Middle
Econoir Problems Indust.
.
Economics focuses upon problems related. to ,
East
the production. and distribution of goods and.
services and thus deals with problems of X
great. importance in the lives of people in ,1
any society. 1
,
2.. Every society. faces scarcity' or a, lack. of'
enough productive resources-to satisfy all X.
bloman wants-
,
1
Economic wants of people, seem, never to
,
..
he satisfied, since many goods and ser-
vices must be replenished constantly as
they are used up, since population. is, ,
X
expa ding, and since new inventions, ,
create new wants.
If resources are used to satish one
want, they cannot he used to satisfy X
another.
,
X
1 Misallocation of resources costs 1,
consumers. What, they could. other-
,
1 1
,
,
1
wise have had. The alternative
cost of unemployed resources is ,

,
1
1
what. could have been. produced if 1
X
existing resources had been put.
to work. That is, the alter-
native, cost is a. lag in or drop
in G.N.P.
2) The alternative cost of producing
more of somethi,z, than consumers, wish ,
to consume is toe failure to produce
.
as much of some other products or ser- 1
X 1
1 ,
vices, which c:onaumers do wish to con- ,
.
.
 28
Affluen. t Aga. Farm I
Auto Poverty Middle
Society Econ Problems Industry East
some now or in the future , e.g. per_
haps ekhaustion, of resources for
future ., se).
3. Production. satisfies: human wants by convert-
ing resources into goods and services which
people desire. People mio perform. services 1

X
1
for which, others, are willing to pay are pro-
clueing, just as Ate those uho are making,
goods for which, people are willing to pay.
4 Certain basic economic questions, related 0,
allecation are resolved in some fashion in
every society, although, perhaps in no other
way than by tradition. These, questions, are:
(1) What, and 4ow muth, of each good, and ser- X. X X, X
vice shall-be produced? (2) How much shall 1,314 1,3,4 1-4
be produced. in total? (3) How shall, these
goods and, services be, produced? (4) How
shall, these goods and services be distributed
1
among, the population?'
,5. In all societies people. have certain. economic,
goals. A
much, alike, different societies place differ - X X X X
Yang emphases upon them.
a. In all societies people. have certain
economic goals, although these goals may
differ. X
People frequently use their governments
to hel,s, achieve their economic goals.
c. ]i)eoplels: ideas of what constitutes an
X
,

"adequate level. of living on the one

,
hand and " "poverty "" on the other change, X X
as average living levels change, and dif-
fer from one country to another.
 - 25 -
Affluent.' Am.. Farm :!,
Auto ,Poverty Middle
, People generally would. like to see their Society:Econoy Prohieis Industry East
economic systems provide both. economic
X.
growth (and sohigher levels of living)
and stability (and so, economic security).
1
X 1
*e. People differ in the degree to which they 1 ,
1
desire economic. justice or a reduction in ,
inequalities, of economic opportunity or
income. H
f, Economi. . g al.,:
1,.
ay. not, be compatible,
People tend to work. hardest at those jobs,
for which they receive the greatest:incen- 1
tives (monetary and non-monetary). X ,
X.
*a. In general people wish. to sell their
labor, land, or capital for the highest, 1

.
incomes. possible in order: to obtain. the 1
largest amount, of desired goods and X
ser-
vices possible, I
1.) In general business, firms try to
1
maximize- profits. 1
4.b. The incentive to achieve the largest
,
,
1
income possible is modified by other ,
incentives such as a desire for securi-
ty, a desire to remain. in. a certain. .
see-
tion of a country, a desire. for certain X. X
kinds of working conditions, a desire for
more leisure, occupational preferences,
a:,
desire for prestige, etc.
7. Levels of living, are affected by the
of goods and services, Which amount H
money incomes,
can buy, not just by changes in money
in,
comes, Which. may:be
offset-by changes in
X H
i X
prices. H
a- People, on fixed. inco: _s can buy
more with H
their money: in periods of low prices
and H
less, in periods of inflation. I
X
:
 - 30 -
Il'Affluent ,1 Am. Farm. Auto, Poverty Middle
Society 1
Economy Problems, ,Industr Fast
. Purchasing costly items on credit raises the
1 1

cost to the consumer. and frequently proves. X

more profitable than cash sales to the seller.
9. People, buy insurance to reduce the risk to ,
1

,
themselves; the risks are spread. among. many

0. It is difficult to , pare real. wages between.

,
countries and over time within one country 1

because of differences in the importance. of 1

different types of goods for consumers.

ers, be-.
cause of differences, in the quality of goods,
because of difficulties of assessing. the
,
,
comparative purchasing. power of different X, ,
X
monetary systems or the sane system over
,

tine, because of variations in living, levels

i
I

among different groups in each country, etc. ,

andpecauseof differences in the amount of

socialized benefits provided in. different
,
countries or eras. 1

Li. Living levels in the U.S. are very high com-

pared to those in most countries; neverthe-
1

less, a, large number of people still live 1

, 1

1st
I

in poverty by present-day American standards .'

X
I part,
of What is needed for an adequate: level of
1

living.
,

a. Living levels in the U.S. have been ris-

ing rapidly, although at an uneven. pace. X
b. Even in so-called. prosperous times, not
au l. people enjoy levels of living, which
most consider necessary for an adequate
level of living. Productive goods and X X
services, are divided unequally among the
population.
1) Even. during. prosperous, time there ,

,1
will be some structural unemployment. X.
 - 31
. .
Affluent. Am. I
Farm. 1
Auto '
Poverty I Middle
Society Economy Problems Industry I
East
nong those changing jobs.; those 1
,
I
without, any skills, are made obsolete I
by technological changes. There may I

,
also be some un
I., miloym ent among cer-
tain groups, because of discrimination. 1 ,
12. Poverty and unemployment have both c.z.terial
and psychological effects upon people; these
effects may help keep them in continued. .
X -
,overty. .
13. In the long. run, a rise in real. wages, will
.
be achieved only by a rise in labor producti,
.
X.
vity.
14. Living levels, do not rise unless output of
production grows at a faster rate than popu- X,
I

, .
lation. X
a. Changes in _ birth and death, rates may
have important, effects on arsociety.
1.'
. In an agricultural economy the rate of food ,

X
production, must increase, as rapidly as the
population if a given level of living is to X I
be maintained.
I,
16. At any specific time, economic output is af-
fected. by the quantity and quality of pro-,
ductive recoureet. (lend or natural, resources, X
labor, and capital goods), by the level of r
.
technology' and by the efficiency of the or- 1
ganizational structure.
II
.
Output is affected, by the quality. as ell.
as the quantity of natural. resources
(land); quality is affected by access as X. X
well as by fertility, richness, etc.
*b. Output is affected by the quality and.
the quantity of labor.
X
I
1 The quality of labor is usually. in-
1
creased by education and training, 1
X ,
 - 32

!
ffluent An. Farm. Auto '1Poverty Middle .1

iociety Economy Problems, Industry

1
*c. New inventions open up whole new fields, ofH,
1

.1

production or substitutes for natural re-, X X

sources.
*d. Output, c n. be increased. by technological ,

.
progress in the development of tools. and X. X
1 i

machines and 'ower to replace, manpower.

*1) New technological developments bring
1

improved efficiency to tools, and

machines, and increased labor pro-
ductivity,
2j Investment, in technological research
.,

and develo,nest may lead to higher

.

i levels, of technology' and SO to great- 1

er productivity.
*e- Capital formation through saving is a
major means of increasing an economy's.
total, output over time because it in-
creases productive. capacity. ,

1) Most businesses, in mature 1 economies

depend more upon, corporate savings
for new investment than upon, invest-
ment from outside, the business..
,

The larger the productive capacity

in relationship, to the population, 1,

the less. hardship involved to con-

symers in making the savings (and
investments) needed to achieve a
given growth rate.
*f. Output can be increased, by ,
no, ,e effi-
1

!
1,
cient combination of productive resources X
(by the way which. production is organized).
1
1

1) The most efficient cou41 , tion of re-

sourceais the one Which produces the
,

largest output give, the same cost or X

value of resource input-
 Affluent ,
Farm Auto. ,
Pover y', Middle
Problems
1
HSociety Econo Industry' East
ivisio:n of labor and specialization.. 1
can increase, a person's output. I
*a) Mass production, with its greater
specialization and substitution. 1
, ,
of capital goods for labor) per- X
nits reduction of costs. 1
b) Mass production needs a mass iir -,
1
ket with mass consumers, as well
as standardization of products
and. parts and a high proportion
of capital goods. 1
Mass production, permits reduction
in costs, but it is dependent upon.' H
a 'big enou market to make it X,
profitable!
3) up to a certain degree,. large-scale,
production, is likely to leadtoredao ed
costs by spreading fixed costs over X
a larger output. of' goods and. by in-,
creasing pro uctivit of labor,
When more of one productive resource 1
iS combined with a fixed amount of I
another,Ipnder, any given state of X
technology) the output per unit of
the first will eventually diminish, 1
TT. Prices are affected by changes, in supply and ,
demand and price changes affect supply and X __X,
d
+a, It is,demandl backed by the dbility and ...
willingness to . ay for goods at specific.
prices which affects the market; peoples X
wants do not affect the market unless
they are turned into effective demand.
 - 34 -
Affluent. km. Farm Auto, Poverty Middle
Society Economy Problem: il Industry '' eaSt
,

b. Other things being equal, the price of

a, good rises, when. the, good. is in. short
1

supply as compared to the demand. for

the good and falls, when the- supply cf'
X X
the good. is larger than the demand. at
the existinL price. I

1) It purchasing power increases with-

out some corresponding increase, of
available materials, there is an up-
. ,
ward pressure on prices; if it falls. X
without an equal decline in avail,
able materials, there is a downward
.1

pressure on priees.
2.' If producers are unorganized, harder
work by each one may. lead. to greater
production, a fall in prices, and X
so less, income: for each one.
+c. Other things being egpal. in a competi- H

tive market), the higher the price of a

good, the larger the quantity which will
become available for sale; the lower
,

the price) the smaller the uantity-which X X

will become available for sale. However
there maybe a time lag before producers
increase or decrease production.
1) If total. spending by consumers, busi-
ness, government, and foreign coun-
tries (aggregate demand)does not,
equal total production, business, I.
X,

'1
will cut, back on production and em- I

ployment,
d. .
Other things being equal (in a oupeti-
.
I
tive market), the lower the price, the ,

greater the demand usually is; the high, X, X

er the price) the less the demand:usually H
is.
 35
Affluent Am. Farm Auto Poverty 'Middle
Society Feo. omy, Problems Indust.. .East
) The quantity a specific. product
.
I
or service which will be demanded
at a. specific. price depends! upon.:
,
1
(a) consumer desires, (0) availabi-
lity of alternative goods and ser- ,
X
vices, (c) the prices of alternative 1 !
goods, and services, (d) the amount
of money consumers have ,alnd are
willing to spend-
When the, demand for ,' . good is in-,
elastic, a relatively large decline!
in the price of the product brings, X
about only a small increase in the ,

I,
.
1
consumption of the product. ,

1
The elasticity of the demand for
goods, varies; for some essential
goods, the demand. does. not differ I
X. 1
X H
much. regardless of the price.
People with higher incomes tend to
spend. a smaller percent of their in-
come. on food than do people with
lower incomes. H
18,. The American economy is made up basically of ,1
three major components: householders (who
both consume. goods and services and supply H H .
productive services), business firms (which
hire productive services from householderd 1
1
and pay out income to them), and. government X
(which buys goods and productive services, I
pays out income and modifies, the flow of in-, H
come through a variety of policies). How
each component acts in our system. depends 1
.
largely upon economic! incentives.
.
 -3 -
Affluent'' Farm. Auto, Poverty 1. Middle .,

1,
Octet Econo Problemns .
Industry
19. The circ , J r flaw of income' in a private
en.,
Last
terprise system, can be broken down. into three'
general types of flows: between. business
and the pUblie, between the. government, and X X 1

the public (including business) and between.

savers and investors'. 1,

II
,

Business buys productive, resources:

(labor, capital, and, natural. resources.
,

from the public and pays them wages,

interest and rent which the public: uses,
to buy goods and services from business.
1
The public pays taxes to government. and.
the government..provides, services to the,
public and. also buys productive resources
from the puiblic-
c ,
Many people save part of their ice by I

putting it in banks which lend the money.

H
to business, which in turn pays interest
and eventually repays. the loan
20. In a private enterprise system, it is the
1
1

,
market vbichpermits,.buyers and sellers. to
deal with-one anothe;yhith. translates demandL
and supply' into a price system, and Which. is
Chiefly responsible: for the. way in WhiCh the
1
basic economic questions are worked, out., The
market serves, to determine largely what shall
X.
be produced, how, much shall, be produced.haw
it shall, be produced, and who Shall get What
F art of production.. However, government
policies, and factors which, interfere with
perfect competition also affect the ailoca-
tion, of resOurces.
a. In a private enterprise,
system, it is
the market which determines largely what
shall be.produced. and bow much shall. be X.
pro. ced.
 37
Affluent. Am. !

,...,
Auto. Poverty !Addle 1
Society Economy Problem; Indust. y
1,
East
*1' The market is the! chief allocating, H
H
.
device, for scarce productive re-, 1
sources. It determines largely. how
things, shall be produced, and who I

X 1
,
!
shall get What, part of the produc-
tion.
. In a private enterprise. system, alloca-
tion of' resources to different kinds. of
production is achieved largely by chang- 1
ing. patterns of consumer demands and by X X
,
'
responses of producers who wish to make, !
a. profit.
- Competition among, producers determines.
how things will be produced in a private ,
H
enterprise economy, since each producer
will try to arrive, at the most efficient X
use of productive resources in order to
H
X
compete with others and make the greatest. !
profits, possible. .
d. In the long run in a, private enterprise !
1
economy, the quantity of a specific pro-, I

I
11
duct which is produced depends upon. the I
difference between the cost, of production H
and selling prices (and so the mar" et )..
Producers, tend to produce those goods, H
H
.
on vhich they make, the greatest profits.
The profit, motive not only encourages ..

1
X ,
1
producers to produce, but it provides
the incentive for the production of
H
specific kinds of goods and services. 1
rather than others, thus shifting! pro H
duction in terms of change in consumer 1
demands. 1
.
 38
11
il

I
kffiuent Farm. Auto. ,, Poverty"' Middle 1.
'
,

Ilk.ociet'. ,
Economy Problems Indust .1
East.
21- Competition exists w.ere there are a number 1
,

of sellers, of a product or service, and no, 1"

1

single seller can. dominate or. control. the X. I

X
market. price. However, price competition.
is not the onl fOrm Which competition takes.
a. When there, is a. monopoly or such a con- 1

centration. of production. in the hands of

a few firms that these firms can dominate
,
x
prices, cow*etition is reduced and. supply
1:
44..:y be restricted in lieu of cutting.
prices. 1
,

b. Competition is affected. by the end. of' 1

entry of new competitors into a field.

c. Competition does not always lead to lower 1

prices; it : ay actually lead to monopolls- X 1.

tic practices and higher. prices.

d. in a competitive system, many of the p. 1

ducers and. consumers do, not have a per- H

H .1
1

feet knowledge of prices and quality of 1

.1

goods and methods'' used by others, to pro- X, H X.

1

1
duce goods consequently, the market .1

system does not always work out in prac-

tice as described. in theory.
1

..
Collective bargaining by labor unions
11

may help restore, competition at times, X X,

1
.1

or it ma hurt competition. 11
,

H
'f. Firma may. compete, with each other. by
cutting prices.
H '

.., Fi....,, may compete with each. other by in- 1

,
troducing substitute products which will 1

'
X, . 1

be more attrattive to consumers or cheaper.'

*h. Firms may compete with each other by try- H
H

1
ing to improve the quality of their pro- '
_ X
duct, or by product differentiation. I

,
H.
 39
Affluent. - Farm 'Poverty
.
Auto
I
_
Society
,
Econoy
H
Middle
I. Firms may compete with each other by
I
Problems. Indust
1

i
:
East
heavy advertising to make their pro-
ducts better known and so increase the L
X
.
demand for the,: rather than for compet-
ing products. ,

i
2.2. Adjustment of supply to demand is
hampered
by factors which decrease mobility of
pro- X
,
ductive resources. X I
a- Wage laws H I
and minimum age, laws make 1
it difficult, to adjust, wage rates to I
changes in supply and demand for labor. X X
1..
People ,s attitudes toward where they
live. .. reduce labor mbbility.
c. Increasing specialization and diversity
of skills needed for different jobs re- ,
duces labor mobility -X. ,
X
d-
increase H ,
Artificial, payments. to income 1
i
over and above. that which labor or ,
pro-, 1
, .
ducer could. receive in the co petitive
, ,
1
,
market, tends to reduce mobility of ,
,

X
labor and producers- .
23. Barter is inefficient; the I
I
development of a,
monetary system pro. otes, exchange and
so, a 1

,
X
division of labor and greater productivity. I
.,..Unless goods can be exchanged. easily,
people must remain. fairly self-sufficient H
H
.
Money pro4otes exchange and so speciali- 1
zation. and division of labor and X
th
the
higher productivity which. acco mpanies
1
,1
,
such division of labor.
, 1
+1) Money. makes exchange
easier than bar- 11
,
ter does, since many objects Nbieh
H X.
people might. want to trade are not of 1
1
i
 - 40
Affluent Farm Auto 'Poverty iddle
Society Economy Problems Industry fast
equal value, do not last well, ca not
be divided, or are bard to transport.
Nbney serves as a medium of exchange,
as a measure of value, and as a stor- 1

er of value, and is divisible.

Demand deposits or checkbook money. make 1

up the largest Part of the U.S. money 1

Money i nted for what it can buy; pa-

per none has no value in and of itself.
2 . Governments affec business activity.
I
a. Government policies can either help re-
duce or exaggerate fluctuations in busi- X
ness activity and 'so unemployment. ,

1 ' Governmentexpenditures act just like

consumer expenditures to. affect allo-
cation of resources to the production X
of different goods and services and
to affect the total amount produced.
a) Government spending on goods and
services and for transfer pay-
ments (pensions, social security, X
welfare) may make up for a lack
of demand by the private sector.
A reduction in tax rates when pro- 1

ductive resources are not fully used,

increases money available for con -
sumption. (disposable income) in the X
private sector and may lead to higher
,
production and employment and not I

much or ze loss in tax revenues.

Government monetary policies can be
,

used to influence lending, the amount

of money in circulation, and so ag- .

gregate demand for goo

 1. -
Affluent Am. Farm. Auto poverty Middle,
Society Economy , Problems, Industry, East,
Raising, or lowering interest
rates tends to affect borrowing
from banks and so the amount, of !I,
X.
money in circulation.
,
Government policies may tend to reduce,
or increase, pressure toward concentra-
tion of industry or monopolistic tend- ,
encies.
25. Industries sometimes involve third party ,1
costs Which the industry does, not pay.
Such costs sometimes lead to government
regulatioh or expenditures.
26. The money incomes people receive, whether
in the form of wages, interest, rent, or. ,
, ,
,
profits, is the Chief determiner of their 1
share of the national output. 10wever, let
,
1,
sentence
general socialized benefits, (shared by all)
and transfer payments by government fOr
1,
only
welfare! purposes, add goods and services to-
the money incomes.
a. Any group which faces declining income
for whatever reason such as declining
pricesifortheir products; declining,
wages, etc.) will face reduced levels ,
of living if the prices of things they 1
1
buy remain the same or increase. 1
1
27. Government policies' affect the allocation
of goods and services, among the population,. 1
+a. Government spending affects the distri-
_
bution of goods and services.
i-h., By its taxation policies, governments 1
1

X
influence who shall get, what proportion
of certain kinds of output of the eco-
nomic system.-
 42 -
11
' Affluent Am. Farm, Auto !''Poverty Middle
1
Society Economy. Problems H Industry East
28. Economic systems differ .1s to how questions,
are resolved about what and howmueh. to pro-
duce, how it shall be produced., and. who .

, ,
six:al get. what goods and. services. I

a. Economic systems are usually mixed.

i

. 41) The fundamental difference between.

economic systems is in how and by .

whom the basic econo ic decisions,

X
over allocation of resources are
made rather than in who owns, the
resources.
.

. 1
2) Many. econoni systems are affected
heofily by tradition and reciprocal .

relationships which have grown. up in

the past. In all systems, reciprocal 1 1.,

relationships, are combined. with a

market system or a.- command. system. or
.both.
29. Economists have worked out a.nuMber of sta- '

tistical. measures, to help them analyze and.

X ,

compare living levels and. economic produc-

tion..
. .

a. Index-nudbers make it easier to compare

1
!

prices,.e c. over a period of years. ,

b. National income statistics make it ezzier

to compare output and living levels over
X 'I

a, period. of years, and from one country

to another. !

30. Economic, models simplify the economy to ke

it easier to understand. X
31. It is impossible to understand. the meaning:
1

of a piece of writing: without understanding,

X:
the author 4s, frame of reference and use of .
1

vocabulary.
 - L3 -
Affluent Am. Farm Auto Poverty. Middle, 1
Societ., Economy
32 . People join their paver with others in order .

Problems md try East

o agglomerate their po .
,
a. The interes group a L X x
!
Hpts, to. TO, , ag-
gregates of influence to bear on decision-
.
makers,by attempts to frame the possible
choices the decision-makers have: by
direct, influence: by education: and. by
1
.
,
X
attempts to control the selection of de-
cision-makers. .
*1) The effectiveness of interest,
groups ,
may depend on the degree of internal
cohesion they cz,,n maintain within.
the organi2ation and on the human X
and material resources, they can mo-
bilize.
b. Laborers may join
together in labor unions
to agglomerate, their power. - -
+c .As compared with individual. ,
,
X
enterprises
and partnerships, corporations: make
pos- ,
sible both ,a larger investment .
in capi-
tal goods, (with, an accompanying.
mass pro-
duction and lower costs) and a control
of this investment with a much smaller. .
X
amount of money than the capital
goods ,
are worth. 1
,
1) Corporations make i.
possible a larger 1
investment in capital goods, than do .
most individual enterprises and part- !
. ,

,
nerships since shares of stook can X
be sold to many people.
A' few large
stockholders can control I
a corporation with a. relatively small
,
investment, of money as. compared. to
the capital goods owned by the X
car-
poTation.
I
h
.
! ,
r
 44
Affluent Am. -Paxm Auto verty 'Middle
Society Economy Problems Indus East
Holding companies permit a few in-
dividuals to pyramid their control
over a nuMber of other corporations
with. just a small amount of money a
compared to the total, worth of all.
of the companies.
1133. Decision-making, is affected by a nudber
factors.
*a. Any decision is, in 'art, the product of
the internalized values, the perceptions,
and the experiences of the persons making
the decision.
]very decision-maker is dependent on ad-
vice, knowledge, information, political
intelligence, and as a result, those ad-
visors who can provide them have
an important base for exerting p r and
influence on the official.
The decision -maker eacts to pressures
from other decision-makers as well as
from the outside.
Decision-makers react to public opinion,
but in differing degrees, depending upon
the political institutions.
The institutions of government informal
as well as formal) constitute the arenas
or the structure within which the au-
thoriative decisions of the political
process are made. They thus influence
those: decisions. (Informal institutions
include traditional norms.)
The /knit access to decision-makers.
2 They set the procedures of decision-
g.
 1
Affi-at . Am. Farm Auto
Society Economy
1
Poverty Middle
They set he powers of the decision- Problems Inthztj East
makers.
) They set the boundaries and dimensions .
of the political playing field and fix
the rules of the game r..1yd in it. X
*f. Executive decisions
are limited by many
factors: permissability, available
re-
sources, available time, available in-
,
.
formation, and previous commitments.
.
g. Foreign policy considerations are affect-
ed by ideology,
considerations of nation- .
al self-interest, perceptions of power
relationships among countries, expects.-
tions about how other nations will act,
and, domestic prOble4,s at home.
. A law or policy-must be effectuated
and
applied; in that process the whole de-
cision-making process goes on again.. .
4. Every legislature is directly I
a product of
the electoral and constituency
system which
produces it; the composition and loyalties
of the meibers affect access of
different X
groups in society to the legislative body.
35. The number of political parties in '.
the sys- ,
tern will depend on the basic nature of
the
cohesions and conflicts in the
the government structure, and society, on
on the elec- X
toral system. .
.
36. Compromise is more easily
achieved in those 11
political systems in which there is
merit on questions agree_
touching the fun.iental
social economic, and X
7. Political scientists havepolitical institutions.
long assumed that
there are social conditions which
a societ
,
 kiffientH Am. Farm Poverty
Econio;vi:.
must meet before it oc,c. "iczke a go" of Le-
mocracy; they. hardly agree OA what they a7:e.
but most suggest colEllon V3 : , a CG1:
tian system, a stabl -nd a min.:.cLum
econo ic well-being.
+38. Democracy does not bear up veil i.i
in which basic dissatisfactions wi the so-
- cial institutions prevail and becue the fo-
cus of political competition.
*39. Freedom's relationship to demot..z.ey is
close and obvious one; the organization e'
majorities, the competition in goals, and
the ability to oppose which democracy p1
supposes all depend on a high degree of
personal freedom.
*40. The contrast between democratic and non-
democratic political systems may be looked
at as a conflict in basic underlying values.
it a. The democratic system includes the fol-
lowing values: respect for individuals
and for individual freedom, belief in
rationality, equality, justice, rule by X
law, and constitution,: lism.
#1) There is a difference in value as-
sumption about the individual, his
worth and glisetence. X
1. Political power is unevenly distributed
through a population.
* a. Political power is affected by accesz, to
political decision-makers; groups differ
in the degree of access they have with X
congressmen.
 - 47 -
Affluentl Am. Farm Auto ,
Poverty Middle
1.2. Political activity, by which the individual Society Economy Problems Industry East
seeks his goals and interests through the 1
political system, takes any number of forms,
depending on the nature of the system, and X
varies greatly in incidence. .
11-3. Individuals know the political system
as a
set of images and pictures created for the
by coewunicators; they react to these
images
rather than to the real world and real peo- I
ple. (aemay know nothing of the political
system and so may be forced to take all of 1
x
his political cues from a political leader
OT organiznction; or he may be knowlee:able
about the political yste ,)
a. Control of political
1
communication is
effective control of political behavior.
k4. Constitutions change by formal 1
:1, ndment, ,And
by changes in custom and interpretation.
45. It is unlikely that one could find, 1
.
X
many ,
genuine au cc! (rule by one) in complex
modern government; tl..a very likely
th .....
really oligarchies. .The scope of government
.
and the variety of clienteles devand a va- ,
X
riety of skills that one man does not pos-
sess.
767: Recentoligarchies have been often symbolized
and epitomized by the political leader. In-
stezld of demanding the full and total
to the abstraction loyalty
of the state, the regime X
personalizes the loyalty in the leader.
47. In contemporary oligarchies
the political
party becomes the instrument by which the
few govern in the name of the many. X
 48

'Affluent . Farm Auto Poverty .

Middle
IlSociety 1
Economy Problems Industry East 1.

48. Since democracy is the chief political ex-.

H
pectation of the times, oligarchy has had to I

accept the symbols and forms of democracy, _

if not its substance. I

a. Oligarchies maintain theaselves within

the forms of democracy by control of re-
1

sources, information, attention, and X

expertise.
47317: One-party systems tend to develop a competi- I

tiveness within the duldnant party, but this

factional competitiveness lacks the stability
and predictabilit of inter-party co 6,11etition.
O. Although culture is always changing, certain
parts or elements may persist over long, peni-
ods of time. ,
X
a. People change their culture if they feel
a real need fhr change, if they are dis-
satisfied with present aspects of their
1
culture. (People do not change their X
culture unless they feel a need for
change. ) I 'I
H

1) Culture .ai s may change or spread

as a:result of diffusion.
a Migration of people from one
,
11 rt of the world to another in-
volves the movement of culture
and material objects, thus re-
sulting in changes in the area
to which people migrate.
b People who are in contact with
each other are likely to bor-
row cultural traits from each X
other.
 49
Affluent Am. Farm Auto Poverty Middle
Society Economy Problems Indust East
Culture traits may change a re-
sru]Lt of innovation from within, 11
Change in a society is likely to oc-
.
X
cur more frequently or more readily
in the less basic, less emotionally
charged, more instrumental or techni-
cal. aspects than in such things as
basic values, primary group relations,
territorial and religious stability, 1
and e tige systems. .
Changes in one aspect of a. culture will 1
have effects on other aspects; changes
will ramify, whether they are techno-
logical, in s oeial organization, in X
ideology, or whatever else is a part of
the cultural system.
1 All of the institutions in a society
i
are interrelated; because of this..
interrelationship: a change in one
institution is likely to. affect
other institutions.
I
-1-a) Changes In the family.are re-
flected in other institutions,
and changes in other institu-
tions are reflected in the X
family.
Technological change may cre e se-
rious oblem in a soci.et
. Persistence of cultural. traits may re-
1
X
suit from a lack of conditions which
further change.. X
*d. The more a social change threatens
appears to threaten the traditional
values of a society, the greater the X
resistance to that change.
 5 0

Affluent Farm Auto, Poverty Middle,

Society' VEcono". Problems Indust,. East 1

!
*e. So v lues, are conducive, to change; 1

8 .e make change, difficult.

I Cultural, Change' is more likely to
occurin. societies in which people
.
I

believe that-a high degree of '

,

mastery over nature and social

conditions, is possible.
,
People usually dp not discard a cul,
aural trait completely; they are more
I

likely to Modify. it to fit- new situa- X,

tions.
*1) Even-when a major reorganization
,

of' society' takes place, not all

culture is camp ietel modified:. X
h. To be successful, a person who tr'ie's to
introduce 'tech4ological change into a
,

,
countrytiust-analyze many factors be- .1
I
fore, selecting. techniques to be used.
,

Securing participation by the people

1
in all phases of the innovation proc-
ess gives people a. chance to, develop. '1

'

a feeling of need for it and enables

,

them too murk out adjust ents i.n their

1
,

rl.,. In political conflict there is a struggle

over scarce values or go Is. Each side
tries to use the political system to dbtain, X
its ©, 1. I

a. Conflicts in which people :feel that they

are fighting, -for ideals are likely to be-,
fiercer than .those which involve only
H
personal reasons. Reli gi ous. conflict. is,
l'

likely to be fierce and to aim, at the X

complete annihilation or conversion of
the enemy.
 51
Affluent.' Am.
,
;
Farm. Auto !Poverty ltddle,
Society ,
Ecoioj PrOblems, 1:Ineusti Et.
-*b. Struggle may bring together. otherwise! ,
unrelated persons and groups.'Coali-
tions 'and temporary associations may .

,
result from co,,,,flicts Where pragmatic. ,
X
interests of the participants are in-
1
11;
vblved.
.
Conflict with another group, leads, to
the mobilization of the-energies of
group; me-goers-and. hence to increased. X
cohesion of the group.
*1) Conlliet serves to establish, and
maintain the identity and boundary
lines of societies and groups. X
*d. Compromise' is easier where there is not
an ideological perception of the issues,
that is, whers the issues are not mor-,
alized and not seen as related to other .

X
issues. 1
;
!.;
.
CoApromise ls.more easily achieved in
those political systems; in which. there ,
is agreement on questions touching the ,
fundamental. social, economic., and po- X
litical institutions.
52. Frustration may result in aggression; when
cultural norms are strongly opposed to ag-
gression toward certain people (e.g.. parents)
or people are ;frustrated by events beyond.
their control or the control of the people
Who they...know, the aggression may be
.
turned against others who become scape- ,
goats,
53. The nature of disc imination and prejudice
against, a specific group is the result of
partievinr group interactions over time. X
 5Z

'Affluent Aln. Farm Auto o 'y Middle

Economy Probleun A Indust 1 East
1Societ
.54,.. People try to work out rationalizations for
behavior Which is inconsistent with their
1

basic values. Racism is a relatively recent

development which has served as a rationali-
,,

zation for discrimination against other

races
*a. Racial beliefs involve strongly
attitudes which affect behavior both X
,

at the conscious and uw onscious level.

55. The structure of the family varies from s
ciety to society and- even within the same
.
ociety.
a. Althatth age and sex are principles used
,1
in all societies to differentiate status
1
and role within the limn-11y, the specific ,

roles 'differentiated by these principles,

,

are organized very differently from so!-

to society.
et
1

56. Families in afferent cultures have differ-

1

ent functions. Family functions` may vary X

l

'
over time and from group to group within
1
a society. 1
1

F5T. An individual or group brought up in one

1

mature and thrust into "another faces se-

rious problems of adjustment to ,the near X
1
1

culture; the resulting culture conflict in- 1

wave e tal conflict and tensio '

, Discrimination against a minority group
tends to isolate members of the group and i
X
promotes retention of their cuatural norms
and values.
59 whenever things valued by a society are
scarce, there :will be 'differentiated access ,
to and control of' those scarce, and valned
things by sub!-groups within the society.
 53
1 Affluent 1 Am. 1 Farm Auto Poverty
1
Middle.
S--hr Erxmory I
P...:,' Tr-::
11
a. Societies differ in the relative L.....;.cr
of ascribed and achieved, statuses they
provide and tho relative enphasis upon X
each.
.60. Ideologies are i portant for the structure
they give to a social'syste,, the answers
they give to ambiguous situations, and the
cues for redponses they suggest.
a.. Ideologies affect people's perceptions -
of the facts.
*b. A person's frame of reference affects I
X
1
his perceptions and interpretations.
l. A given culture is an integrated whole,
based an fundamental postulates or values.
a. The basic values and organization of a
society both affect and are Affected by
X
I
the religious values and. organization..
62. The international system may be looked at
as a series of power relationships. 1
+a. There are many sources or bases of na-
.
1
1
X
tional power in dealing with other
nations.
*1 Military capacity is an important
factor in the development of na-
tional power but not the only one.
2 Differences in population, resources,
.

and industrial capacity are reflected

in differences in national power;
that is to say, they are important
bases components of national power.
Nationalism leads to a high degree of
intense support within the country
for the goals and means or instru-
ments a nation chooses to use to a-
I
X
chieve goals in international affairs.
 54

Affluent, Am. r Farm Auto Poverty. Middle

:

.
Society Economy Problems Industry
Nations may pool their !ower behind com- 1
East
mon goals in varying, systems of alliances
!

and combinations., X
,. The world is acommunity of interdependent.
1
countries. (Important happenings in one
part o the world affect other parts.)' x
!a- War seems to be the result of multiple,
I
interrelated. causes.
1

h. Imperialism and particularly

dttitudes
of superiority by meMbers of the imperi-
alist country, give rise to feelings of
frustration; when coMbined with the die-
fusion of nationalistic ideas from other X!
1

countries, it helps, give rise to feelings, .1

. 1

ct"nationall ,H.
a. Temperature is affected by such factors
as
distance, freq.:, the equator, elevation, dis-
,
tance from warm water bodies, prevailing
.

X.
,
winds, and physical features which. block
winds from certain directions.
65. Precipitation is affected by factors such
!

I
as distance, from warm water bodies,. wind.
direction, tei..erature, ocean currents, and
physical features Which.. force winds to
,

1
.66. yegetation is affected by temperature, rise.
1
.
1
pre-
cipitation, and soil.
61. Soil in a particular place is
affected by I

the type of basic rock. in the region.; ,

the ,

II
climate; vegetation; erosion; wind. and riv-
-ers which move-soil.; and by how man treats
the soil.
I

!
0:, Nature th.aiges the face. of the
earth through
I
biotic: and ph sical processes.
,

X.
 55
Affluent Am. Farm Auto Poverty 1 Middle
Society Econo :
Problems In&stx7 H.ast
69. Phenomena are is Muted. unevenly over the 1
1
earth's surface, resulting in great diversity. , H
XI.
:
or variability from one place to another.
*a. Population is distributed unevenly over,
the. earth's surface; many of the. land. J
1
X,
areas are thinly populated. il
1) Overpopulation represents a lack. of 1

1
I
balance between available income and I
H
population.- The concept is relztive 1,
and is defined by the value patterns V
and. expectations, of a particular. cui-, ::

1 1
1
X
ture. The starvation of a large pro-
portion of the society amounts to
absolute overpopulation. 1
!
*b. Unevenly distrfbuted phenomena. form 1
distinctive patterns; on the map. 1
, I
70. Changes in birth and death rates may have
important effects on a society. ,
,
.72, A region. is an area of one or more homoge-
neous, features. The core: area is highly
1
I
1
,
homogeneous, but there are transitional, !
zones where: boundaries, zre drawn between 1

,
!

X
H
different regions.
*a. Regions are delimite d on may differenti
I
1
bases" depending upon the purpose! of I
!
the study. Some are delimited, on the 1

.
basis, of a, single. p4enomenon; some. on
1
,
!
,
,
X.
the basis, of multiple phenomenal and . 1
some. on the basis of functional. rela..., .
l
tionships.
72. Man. uses his physical environment in terths, H
of his cultural values, perceptions, and I
'level of technoloff. X
1
 56

I
Affluent, Am. Farm. Auto Poverty Middle,
- Society Econorny Problems Industry East
a. Societies inhabiting similar areas tend
to. have similar environmental problems,.
However, the solution. to those problems
X.
will depend -upon the cultural perceptions,
of the various peoples, as well as upon. I

the environmental situation.

. The significance, of location depends
,

upon. cultural. developments both within I

X
.
II

and outside of a country.

,.. Political boundaries are man-made and
frequently do not follow any natural.
physical boundaries. 1,

,,

*d. Man changes the character of the earth; 1.

1
irrigation makes it possible to grow'
crops on land. Which otherwise would. he X
1 , ,

too dry.
*e. Types of agriculture in a region depend.
upon man's cultural values, perceptions, H

and technology, as well as upon climate, 1,

X
ils, . and topography.
1

,f. The topography of a region. may pre- I

.
sent limitations given a specific level. X.
I

of. technology. L
.
.

*g. A number of factors --climate, surface

features, natural resources, annessibili _ ,

X.
ty, history, and culture affect settle-
1
ment patterns.
*1) Moist areas .. end to have a higher 1,
1

population density than dry areas..

However, population distribution. i

reflects man's values, and his tech- I

.
X
I
nology as well as physical features '

.
of an area.
 57'
Affluent Pm. Farm Auto Poverty' Naddle 1
Society
1
21 con 14' Problems ndust,
Men carry on more activities; on plains 1,
East
than in hills, =Amore in. hills than
in. mountains, exce in. the low lati-
tudes. 11
3 A country with a large population. and 1
R. limited. amount of fertile
land mill, I

1
have, extremely hig h. population, densi-
ties on fertile land..
4) Given, cultural assumptions, in Which. 1
a large proportion of the population ,
is engaged in agriculture, the popu- II
iation distribution will be related
to the distribution. of usable, agri-
cultural land.
1
13, Some things can . be p duced better in
one,
place than in another because of climate, I ,
resources, transportation routes, access to
X
11
resources, access to markets, people's skills, '
etc.
a- Differing crops need ,
differing amoun ts I
of rainfall and differing tempera. ure
*I) The amount, of moisture, needed for ,
ve etation and crops is affected by
the time of year when the area re-,
ceives most of its oisture and by ,
X.
the temperature of the area.
*a) The time of yenr mhen
an area re-
ceives, its precipitation iB, im- ,
portant to agriculture. If it
comes during the growing season, X
it makes, it easier' to grow crops.
b The land in t regions dries
,
fast as the warm. ai.r picks up
moisture; therefore, more rain j
 58

Affluent Am. Farm Auto Pova.rty Middle

'
Society Economy Prcblems InCmstrY Et
is needed to grow crops in these
regions than in regions which
'

are not so moist.

74. Specialization of individuals) businesses, r
1

regions and countries makes for interde- X X '

pendence.
*a. Specialization of businesses makes
for interdependence. '

X
b. Companies sometimes diversify their
products to provide for greater security
against risks of a drop in profits from
one product 11
 59
SEQUENT i AL DEVELOPMENT OF CONCEPTS
A can arm Auto Poverty
:.17-
Society Economy P rob 1 ems industry
1'
cs
Economic wants
a. Economic. needs
3. Product ion
4. Product i ve
resources
a. Land OT
natural re-
sources
b. Labor
c. Cap i ta 1
d . Mob i 1 1 ty of
resources
. Scarc ty
a. Alternative
costs
6. Exchange
X X
 60-

Affluent American Fa rrrn Auto

Society Economy Problems Industry

Trade.

b.-Money

7. Circular fle w. of X X
income.

a. Firm X. X

1) individual X X

enterprise..

) partnership X

) Corporation
a) stock

b) holding
company. X

b. .Consumer or X X X
householder
c. Financial insti- X
tutions

1) Bank
 Affluent American Fa rm. Auto Poverty Middle East
Society Economy Prable
Problems industry'
fl Credit
X
3,), Insurance
X
d. Government
X X
) fiscal pclicies
a) taxation'
) spending
(1) sociai
ized
benefits
(2,) Trans-
fer pay-
ments
Sub
sidies
c) Monetary
policies
 62

Affluent American F Im Auto Poverty Middle: East

Society Economy. Problems Industry.

1.jving
x
Standard of
x x

Affluence.

Poverty
x X

1) Underdevel-
oped coun-
try

Employment

Unemployment X X

l) Structural
10. -Distribution.
X

a. Money income X X

b. Real income

Wages
X
Interest
X X X
 63
me r i can Farm uto addle . East
Economy P robl ems 1 ndus t ry
1) Interest
rates
e. Rent
P rof is
1 1 . Econom i c goa i is
a, Economi c
g rowth.
b. E con om i c s
bility
Econom I c
secur r ty
d. Economi c
justice
1 2 . Incentlyes
13. Output
a. Gross
Nat Iona 1
P roduc t X
 64
Affluent American Farm, Auto Poverty Middle. East
Society Ecionomy Problems Industry

Technology X

1) research x

) productiv-
ity X X

investment

1) Capital
goods and X X X X
capital
formation !
11

) Savings. X

Organiza-
tional X X
structure

1) Effi- X X X
ciency

2) Division
of labor X

Speciali-
zation X ,
X
 Affluent American
'Society Economy
(1) Economic
I nterde
pendence
b) Mass pro-
duction
(1) Standardi-
zation of
parts
c) Diversifica-
tion
d) Law of dimin-
ishing returns
14. Business fluctu-
ations and busi-
ness cycles
a. Prosperity
b. Inflation
15. Allocation
a. Econ mic system.
 66
,
Affluent
Society can Prob ertyl cast
Economy 1P-fs try

1) command system I

2) private enterprise system

a) market system
(i) Prices

(a) supplY
(b) demand

(i) elasticity

disposable income

ii) purchasing power

aggregate demand

(2) Competition
(a) Costs

(1).fixed costs
 67
Affluent Amer4- Farm Auto
Society can Prob- I rJul,5try
Ec'Onb'my lems
1
Profits ql
Cc) Advertising
(d) Pr aduct differentiation
third party costs
3) Tra ditional economic system
a) Reciprocal relationships s
4) Mixed economy
-Pore r
Agglomeration of power X
1) collusion
2) labor union
a) collective bargaining
 68.

Society' can
Economy

Interest

political party
f

corporation

6) monopoly

7) oligopoly X

8) coal i ion

9) alliance

Autocracy

Oligarchy

Access

17. Decision-making
 69
i -
can obi ems!
Economy I
Culture.
a. Norms and valises
b tudes
I ) Prejudice
c . Percept i ons
1) Frame of reference
Poi t ca I ce1 to ire.
1 I deal ogy
a) Democracy
e. Int e vated whole
Cha nge
 70

Affluent Ameri- Auto P verty Middle

Society can Industry East
Economy

)9. Political activity' X

20. Ins itutions

a. Social

Poli ical

) Legislative

Electoral system

c Family

Religion

Ec c nomic

2l Socia/ structure

Role
 71
Affluent Ameri,-. -Farm Auto,
Society can Problems
Poverty' Middle.
industry East
Economy'
22. Social function
23 Stratification
a. Scarce. goals
Status
e. Class
24. Social Processes
a. Compet tion V
X p.
Discrimination
1) Scapegoat ing
c. Conflict
) Poll ical
 72.

Amer I - F a rani ,u to Pove

can P r rob 1 ems I n du s
Economy

2) Cultural

3) War

Accommodat n On

1 3i Cb p romi se

5, Modal Personal at y-

1 ob al ism

cat ion

P los i t i Ofl

S u tuat ion,

te
 73
Affluen Ameri- Farm Auto IPcverty iddie
Society can Problems industry East
Economy
) Climate
a) Temperature
b) Precipitation.
3) Soli
4) Vegetation
28. Population.
a. Dispersion
b. Density X
c. Overpopulation X
29. Cultural use of environment
X
a, irrigation
30. Region
31. Interma V nal system
 74
Affluent Ame Pave
Society can
East
Economy

National power

Nationalism

imperialism

0nter dependence.

Multiple causation