UNIT 2.
1: CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Topic 1 Types of Cells
Name four things that ALL cells have in
common.
Draw a picture of a phospholipid bilayer.
Label a phospholipid and an embedded
protein.
How do you think the embedded proteins
contribute to making the cell membrane a
“selective, semi-permeable membrane”?
Ribosomes and genetic material are useless
without one another. Describe the
relationship between ribosomes and the
genetic material.
A biologist was looking under a microscope
and found a microorganism made of a
single cell. Is this enough info for the
biologist to determine if the organism is a
prokaryote or eukaryote? If not, what else
should the biologist look for?
THE BASIC UNIT OF LIFE
The Fundamental Units of Life
• All living things (organisms) are made of cells.
• The cell is the simplest collection of matter that can be alive. They
are the “basic unit of life”
• Cells only come from preexisting cells. All cells are related by their
descent from earlier cells.
• Though cells can differ substantially from one another, they share
common features
Common Features of All Cells
• Unifying characteristics of all cells include having a plasma
membrane, cytoplasm, genetic material, and ribosomes.
• The plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer embedded with
proteins that separates the cell from the surrounding
environment.
o It functions as a selective barrier for the material that goes
into and out of a cell.
o The plasma membrane is called a semi-permeable membrane
because some substances can move across the membrane,
while other substances cannot.
• The cytoplasm is all the material contained inside the plasma
membrane. It consists of the cytosol and all the particulates
suspended in it.
o The cytosol is the semifluid substance found inside the cell
(intracellular fluid).
• All cells have chromosomes containing genetic material, which
have all the instructions needed for growth, development,
functioning, and reproduction.
o The genetic material found in almost all cells is DNA. There
are some exceptions, however, in which RNA is the genetic
material.
• Ribosomes are small structures made of ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
and protein.
o Made of a small and a large subunit.
o Ribosomes build proteins using instructions from genes found
in the DNA.
o Cells that make a lot of proteins have large numbers of
ribosomes:
o Ex: A human pancreas cell, which makes digestive enzymes,
has a few million ribosomes.
Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells
• All organisms on earth can be classified as either prokaryotic or
eukaryotic.
• Prokaryotes are single-cell organisms made of prokaryotic cells.
o Prokaryotic cells are simple cells that are characterized by not
having a nucleus
• Eukaryotes include both single-cell and multicell organisms made
of eukaryotic cells.
o Eukaryotic cells are complex cells that are characterized by
having a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.
Prokaryotic Cells
• Prokaryotic cells are structurally smaller and simpler than
eukaryotic cells.
• Contain the following structures:
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UNIT 2.1: CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Label 7 things on the bacteria cell below.
If you were looking at DNA inside a cell,
what are two things about the DNA you
could look for to support your claim that
the cell is eukaryotic.
In what domain(s) do eukaryotic organisms
fall into?
In what domain(s) do prokaryotic
organisms fall into?
While standing next to your friend you hear
them pass gas, which is a combination of
oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide,
hydrogen, and methane gas. Your friend
insists it wasn’t them. In what way are they
technically telling the truth?
When looking at a cell under a microscope
a student discovers a nucleus and
mitochondria. The student claims that it
must be an animal cell. How would you
correct this student?
THE BASIC UNIT OF LIFE
o Cell membrane
o Cytoplasm
o Ribosomes
o Nucleoid: a region in the cell where DNA is located (not
surrounded by a membrane).
 Prokaryotic chromosomes are circular.
o Cell wall: rigid structure outside the cell membrane.
 In prokaryotes, the cell wall is made of the carbohydrate
peptidoglycan.
o Capsule: jelly like outer coating of many prokaryotes.
o Flagella: locomotion organelles of some bacteria.
Eukaryotic Cells
• Eukaryotic cells are much larger and more complex than
prokaryotic cells.
• Like prokaryotes, eukaryotes also contain a cell membrane,
cytoplasm, and ribosomes.
• Contain DNA enclosed in a nucleus.
o Eukaryotic chromosomes are linear
• Contain a diverse collection of specialized compartments called
organelles.
o Many organelles in eukaryotic cells are surrounded by a
membrane (membrane-bound)
o Each organelle performs specific functions.
The Three Domains of Life
• Taxonomy is the science of defining and naming groups of
biological organisms based on shared characteristics.
• The largest level of these groupings are domains, which
categorize all life on earth into three overarching groups:
archaea, bacteria, and eukarya.
• Eukarya consist entirely of eukaryotic organism, which can be
single-celled or multi-celled.
o Include four main types of organisms: animals, plants, fungi,
and protists (single-celled eukaryotes).
• Archaea and bacteria consist entirely of prokaryotes, which are all
single-celled organisms.
o Bacteria and archaea are structurally very similar, however,
genetically and biochemically they are very different.
• Archaea include a group of prokaryotes that are mainly
characterized by their ability to thrive in extreme environments,
such as deep sea vents with temperatures over 100 °C, hot
springs, and highly basic, acidic, and salty waters.
o Archaea are also common in more neutral environments, such
as in soil, wetlands, and in the intestines of cattle and humans
(which produce methane gas while helping with digestion).
• Bacteria include a diverse group of prokaryotes that are most
notably recognized for their role in disease, health, important
ecological relationships with plants and animals, and
decomposing dead organic matter.
Animal vs. Plant Cells
• Both plant and animals are made of eukaryotic cells.
• Structural difference between plant and animal cells:
o Plant cells have a cell wall, a large central vacuole, and
chloroplast, which are all absent in animal cells.
o Animal cells have centrioles and lysosomes, which are absent
in most plant cells.
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UNIT 2.1: CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Topic 2 The Endomembrane System
Each cell in the human body contains about
six feet of DNA. How does all of that DNA
fit inside a cell that is on average only 25
micrometers in diameter?
Ribosomes are made in the nucleus but
perform their functions in the cytoplasm.
How so ribosomes travel from the nucleus
to the cytoplasm?
If the drawing below represented the ER,
which part would be the smooth ER and
which part would be the rough ER? What
do the dots represent?
In the drawing above, draw a transport
vesicle being released from the rough ER,
carrying a newly made protein.
What type of proteins are made by the
rough ER?
An enzyme was found catalyzing a reaction
in the cytosol. Was this protein made by
the rough ER? If not, where was it made?
THE BASIC UNIT OF LIFE
The Endomembrane System
• The membrane-bound organelles found inside eukaryotic cells
make up the endomembrane system.
• Includes the following organelles:
o The nucleus
o The endoplasmic reticulum
o The Golgi apparatus
o Lysosomes
o Various types of vesicles and vacuoles
o The plasma membrane
The Nucleus
• The nucleus holds the DNA, which is organized into discrete units
called chromosomes (humans have 46).
o Each chromosome contains one long DNA strand coiled
around proteins which help condense the DNA so it fits into
the nucleus.
o The complex of DNA and proteins is called chromatin.
• The nucleus is enclosed by a double-membrane (two lipid
bilayers) called the nuclear envelope:
o The nuclear envelope is perforated by nuclear pores which
allow material to enter and leave the nucleus.
• The nucleolus is a DNA dense region inside the nucleus where
ribosomes are synthesized.
The Endoplasmic Reticulum
• The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an extensive network of
membrane, which is continuous with the nuclear envelope.
o This membrane hugely increases the surface area found inside
the cell, allowing for the synthesis of many materials.
• Two distinct regions of the ER:
o Rough ER: embedded with ribosomes
o Smooth ER: lacks ribosomes
The Rough ER
• A major function of the rough ER is to synthesize proteins (via
embedded ribosomes)
• The embedded ribosomes build the polypeptide chain so that it is
inserted into the lumen (inside) of the ER.
• The polypeptide is then modified and the finished protein is
wrapped in a membrane that buds off from the rough ER, forming
a transport vesicle, which carries the protein to its next
destination.
• Proteins made by the rough ER are ultimately destined to be:
1. Secreted from the cell (Ex: Enzymes released by cells lining
the stomach to help digest food).
2. Incorporated into the cell membrane (Ex: transport and
receptor proteins which function on the cell membrane).
3. Or become the hydrolytic enzymes found in lysosomes.
• It’s important to note that not all ribosomes are embedded on
the rough ER.
o Bound ribosomes: attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.
o Free ribosomes: found suspended in the cytoplasm.
• Proteins made by free ribosomes are destined to remain and be
used inside the cytosol of cell.
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UNIT 2.1: CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Testosterone is a steroid hormone secreted
by cells found in the testes into the
bloodstream. Where inside the cells is
testosterone made?
If the Golgi apparatus was damaged on the
cis face, coordination with which organelle
would most likely be affected?
Macrophages are specialized white blood
cells that engulf pathogens found in the
body and digest them inside the cell. Name
three organelles that you would predict to
be larger or more numerous in a
macrophage?
What are two types of vacuoles whose
functions include filling up with water?
Through what path does plasma membrane
travel inside a cell, starting with where it is
first made?
THE BASIC UNIT OF LIFE
The Smooth ER
• The smooth ER contains many important metabolic enzymes that
have diverse functions (often depending on the type of cell).
• One of the main functions of the smooth ER is to synthesize
lipids.
o This included fats, steroids, and new membrane
phospholipids.
• In some cell types, the smooth ER plays an important function in
detoxifying the cell.
The Golgi Apparatus
• After leaving the ER, many transport vesicles travel to the Golgi
apparatus, where proteins are modified, stored and then sent to
other destinations in new transport vesicles.
• The Golgi is made of flattened membranous sacs called cisternae.
A stack has two opposite sides:
o The cis face: (receiving end) vesicles from the ER fuse with the
Golgi membrane, giving the Golgi its content.
o The trans face: (shipping end) after the contents are modified,
they pinch off inside of vesicles to transported to other parts
of the cell
• While being transported from the cis to the trans face, the Golgi
modifies the products of the ER, and then sorts and targets them
for various parts of the cell.
• Most transport vesicles that leave the Golgi are exported from
the cell or become incorporated into the plasma membrane.
• Some of the transport vesicles produced by the Golgi remain in
the cell and become lysosomes.
Lysosomes
• A lysosome is a vesicle containing hydrolytic enzymes that are
used to digest (break down) macromolecules. Not usually found
in plants.
• The hydrolytic enzymes are produced by the rough ER and
modified by the Golgi, which ultimately produces the lysosomes.
• The enzymes work best in acidic environments found inside the
lysosomes.
• Lysosomes have a variety of functions:
o They fuse with food vacuoles to break down the contents into
simple sugars, amino acids, and other monomers, which are
released to the cytoplasm to be used as nutrients.
o They recycle cell components by breaking down worn and
damaged organelles into material that can be reused by the
cell.
o They play an important role in apoptosis, which is when a cell
programs itself to die and be destroyed.
 During apoptosis, lysosomes release their hydrolytic
enzymes within the cell, which begin to break down
important structures such as the cell membrane.
Vacuoles
• Vacuoles are large vesicles created by the ER and Golgi that
perform a variety of functions:
• Food vacuoles are formed by phagocytosis, which is a process in
which a cell engulfs materials from outside the cell.
• Contractile vacuoles, found in many freshwater protists, pump
excess water out of cells.
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UNIT 2.1: CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
What benefits does an internal system of
membranes, such as the endomembrane
system, give eukaryotic cells over
prokaryotic cells (who lack them)?
Topic 3 Energy Organelles
In what type of organisms would you NOT
find mitochondria?
Add these label to the mitochondrion
below: outer membrane, inner membrane,
matrix, intermembrane space, and cristae.
What are the reactants and products of
cellular respiration?
In what type of organisms would you NOT
find chloroplast?
Add these label to the chloroplast below:
outer membrane, inner membrane,
intermembrane space, stroma, thylakoid,
and granum.
THE BASIC UNIT OF LIFE
• A common type of vacuole found in plant cells are large central
vacuoles, which store water, nutrients, pigments, and waste
products.
o These are not found in animal cells.
Importance of the Endomembrane System
• Internal membranes facilitate cellular processes by minimizing
competing interactions and by increasing surface area where
reactions can occur.
• Membranes and membrane-bound organelles in eukaryotic cells
localize (compartmentalize) processes and reaction occurring
inside the cell.
The Mitochondrion
• Mitochondria are found in nearly all eukaryotic cells, including
plants, animals, fungi, and protists.
• The mitochondrion is made up of a double membrane (two
phospholipid bilayers).
• The two membranes divide the mitochondria into two
compartments:
o The intermembrane space between the two membranes and
the mitochondrial matrix inside the inner membrane.
• The inner membrane contains foldings called cristae, which
increases surface area for cellular respiration reactions.
• Enzymes and other molecules found in the mitochondria are
responsible for the process of aerobic (oxygen-requiring) cellular
respiration.
• Overview of aerobic cellular respiration:
o If oxygen is available, sugar molecules (like glucose) are
completely broken down into carbon dioxide and water in the
mitochondria.
o Energy stored in the chemical bonds of sugar molecules is
released, which produces ATP.
o Overall Reaction:
sugar + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + ATP
• Cells can contain many mitochondria
o Ex: Muscle cells have hundreds.
The Chloroplast
• The outside of the chloroplast is made up of a double membrane
(two phospholipid bilayers), separated by a narrow
intermembrane space.
• Inside the chloroplast is another membranous system in the
shape of flattened, interconnected sacs called thylakoids.
• A stack of thylakoids is called a granum.
• The membranes of the chloroplast divide the space into three
compartments: the intermembrane space, the stroma (fluid
space outside the thylakoids) and the thylakoid space (inside the
thylakoids).
• Chloroplast contain the green pigment chlorophyll, along with
enzymes and other molecules that function to perform
photosynthesis. Found only in plants.
• Overview of Photosynthesis:
o Converts solar energy (from the sun) into chemical energy
(such as sugar) that can be used by cells.
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UNIT 2.1: CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
What are the products and reactants of
photosynthesis?
According to the endosymbiotic theory,
which evolved first in the history of life on
Earth, the mitochondrion or chloroplast?
Why?
What are FIVE pieces of evidence that
support the endosymbiotic theory:
Topic 4 Cytoskeleton, Cell Wall, and Cell Junctions
Which type of cytoskeletal fiber would be
easiest to see using a microscope?
THE BASIC UNIT OF LIFE
o Uses light, water and carbon dioxide to synthesize
carbohydrates. Oxygen is also created in the process.
o Overall reaction:
light + carbon dioxide + water → carbohydrate + oxygen
o The sugar created by photosynthesis can be given to the plant
cell’s mitochondria to perform cell respiration.
• Plant cells can contain many chloroplasts
Origin of the Eukaryotic Cell
• According to the endosymbiotic theory, an early prokaryotic
ancestor of eukaryotic cells engulfed an oxygen-using (aerobic)
prokaryotic cell, forming a mutually beneficial symbiotic
relationship between the two.
o The aerobic prokaryotic cell was able to perform aerobic cell
respiration, which provided energy to the cell that engulfed it.
In return, the large cell provided nutrients and other materials
to the cell that it engulfed.
o This relationship evolved over time to a point at which the
two cells became fully dependent on one another for survival.
o The engulfed cell would evolve into the modern-day
mitochondria organelle found in all eukaryotes.
• Later in the history of life on this planet (according to the theory)
one of these mitochondria-containing cells may have engulfed a
photosynthetic prokaryote, forming another mutually beneficial
symbiotic relationship.
o The engulfed cell would evolve into the modern-day
chloroplasts found in plant cells, and would explain why plant
cells contain both mitochondria and chloroplasts.
• Ultimately this theory would explain the evolution of eukaryotic
plant and animal cells from prokaryotic ancestral cells.
Evidence for the Endosymbiotic Theory
• Both mitochondria and chloroplast have a double membrane
(two membranes) surrounding them, unlike other organelles
found in the cell.
o This is consistent with what happens when a cell engulfs
another cell.
• Mitochondria and chloroplast contain their own ribosomes, as
well as multiple circular DNA chromosomes, separate from the
ribosomes and DNA that the rest of the cell contains.
o Both the ribosomes and circular DNA are similar to those
found in prokaryotes.
o The DNA even contains genes that control the synthesis of
some proteins used in the mitochondria and chloroplast.
• Mitochondria and chloroplast are autonomous and grow and
reproduce within the cell, independently from when the cell
divides.
The Cytoskeleton
• The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers extending throughout the
cytoplasm
• Functions include: helping support the cell and maintain its
shape, providing anchorage for organelles and molecules within
the cell, and assisting in movement of the cell and the movement
of material within the cell.
o Inside the cell, vesicles and other organelles can “walk” along
the tracks provided by the cytoskeleton.
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UNIT 2.1: CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
What type of human cells have flagella?
What is the role of cilia in the respiratory
system?
What is the difference between the cell
wall found in plants and the cell wall of
bacteria cells?
Plant cells are able to send chemical signals
to one another without secreting anything
from their cells. How is this possible?
Radiolabeled calcium ions were inserted
into a cardiac muscle cell found in heart
tissue. After a couple heart beats, the
radiolabeled calcium ions were found
dispersed in many nearby cardiac muscle
cells. What type of cell junction is most
likely responsible for this observation?
THE BASIC UNIT OF LIFE
• There are three main types of fibers that make up the
cytoskeleton:
o Microtubules are the thickest of the three components of the
cytoskeleton
o Microfilaments, also called actin filaments, are the thinnest
components
o Intermediate filaments are fibers with diameters in a middle
range
Cilia and Flagella
• In eukaryotes, specialized arrangement of microtubules created
protrusions from the cell called flagella and cilia.
o Flagella are long protrusions and are usually limited to just
one per cell.
o Cilia are shorter protrusions and occur in large numbers on
the cell surface.
• Sometimes their function is to move the cell.
o Such as propelling unicellular organisms through water.
• Other times, it's to move fluid and material over the surface of a
tissue
o Such as the ciliated lining of the trachea which moved debris
trapped in mucous away from the lungs.
The Cell Wall
• The cell wall protects the plant cell, maintains its shape, prevents
excessive uptake of water, and helps hold up the plant against
the force of gravity.
• In plants, the cell wall is composed of the polysaccharide cellulose
• In bacteria, the cell wall is made of peptidoglycan (a polymer of
sugar and amino acids).
Cell Junctions
• Cells in plants and animals are often organized into tissues, in
which neighboring cells often adhere, interact, and communicate
with one another via sites of direct contact.
• In plant cells, the cell walls are perforated with plasmodesmata,
which are channels connecting the cells.
o The plasma membrane of each cell lines the channels and are
thus continuous (along with the cytosol of each cell).
o Water and materials can freely pass from one plant cell to
another.
• In animal cells, there are three main types of cell junctions: tight
junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions.
• Tight junctions:
o The plasma membrane of neighboring cells are tightly pressed
against one another, bound together by proteins.
o Creates a seal that does not allow extracellular fluid to cross a
layer of epithelial cells (such as skin).
• Desmosomes:
o Function like rivets, fastening cells together into strong
sheets. Anchored by keratin protein filaments
o Used to attach muscle cells to one another
• Gap Junctions:
o Membrane proteins create pores/channels between cells that
allow ions, sugars, amino acids, and other small molecules to
move across cells.
o Very important for communication between cells in many
types of tissues
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UNIT 2.1: CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION THE BASIC UNIT OF LIFE