general biology 1

Colegio San Agustin – Biñan

Cell: The Basic

Unit of Life
Mr. John Edward C. Santos, LPT
General Biology 1
2024
 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
o explain the postulates of the cell theory

o distinguish prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

according to their distinguishing features
learning objectives

o describe the structure and function of major

and subcellular organelles

o classify different cell types (plant/animal

tissues) and specify the function(s) of each
The cell is all organisms’
basic unit of structure and
function.
 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
Cell Size. It takes a microscope to see most cells and lower levels of
biological organization. Cells are visible with the light microscope, but
not in much detail. An electron microscope is necessary to see
organelles in detail and to observe viruses and molecules.
 Organisms are either
prokaryotic or eukaryotic
cells.
All living things have cells that

GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
share fundamental parts:
• a selective barrier, outer boundary, called plasma
membrane (or the cell membrane)
• a gel-like substance (cytosol), in which subcellular
components are suspended (cytoplasm)
• chromosomes, which carry genes in the form of DNA
• tiny complexes that make proteins according to
instructions from the genes called ribosomes
 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
o Prokaryotic cells are characterized by having..
✓ no nucleus, prokaryotic means “before
nucleus” (from the Greek pro, before),
reflecting the earlier evolution of
prokaryotic cells
✓ DNA in an unbound region called the
Prokaryotic Cells

nucleoid
✓ no membrane-bound organelles
✓ cytoplasm bound by plasma membrane
Prokaryotic Cells
 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
o Eukaryotic cells are characterized by having..
✓ DNA in a nucleus that is bounded by a
double membrane, “true nucleus”
✓ membrane-bound organelles
✓ cytoplasm in the region between the
plasma membrane and nucleus
Eukaryotic Cells

o Eukaryotic cells are generally much larger than

prokaryotic cells
Eukaryotic Cells
Eukaryotic Cells
A TOUR IN CELL
 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
From cell to
a big city.
What would the requirements
of the city be in order for it to
function?

Relate these requirements to

the parts and functions of the
cell.
Colegio San Agustin – Biñan

Cell: The Basic

Unit of Life
Mr. John Edward C. Santos, LPT
General Biology 1
2024
 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
o distinguish prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
according to their distinguishing features

o describe the structure and function of major

learning objectives

and subcellular organelles

o classify different cell types (plant/animal

tissues) and specify the function(s) of each
REVIEW:

Organisms are either

prokaryotic or eukaryotic
cells.
 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
PROKARYOTES EUKARYOTES
no nucleus All cells have: true nucleus
DNA in the nucleoid plasma membrane DNA inside the
region (or cell membrane) nucleus
no membrane-bound 10 cytoplasm (internal membrane-bound
organelles environment of cell) organelles

cytoplasm bound genetic material or cytoplasm bound

by the plasma DNA by the nucleus and
membrane plasma membrane
ribosomes
simple, single- generally complex
celled organisms organisms
GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
 chloroplast cell wall

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mitochondria

nucleus

cytoplasm

cell membrane
The Cell’s Intricate Machinery
 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
organelles: “little organs”
• in eukaryotic cells, the machinery of the cell is
compartmentalized into organelles.

• an organelle is a subcellular structure that has one or

more specific jobs to perform in the cell, much like an
organ does in the body.
 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
From cell to
a big city.
What would the requirements
of the city be in order for it to
function?

Relate these requirements to

the parts and functions of the
cell.
Cell: Structures and Functions
The Cell’s Intricate Machinery
Cell Structures for Protection
 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
Cell Membrane
• also called plasma membrane, it is a living system that
controls the passage of needed materials into and
out of the cell

• it acts as gatekeeper for regulating the passage of

important molecules, ions, and gases between
outside and inside of a cell

• it consist of a double layer of phospholipids

embedded with a variety of molecules
GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
Cell Membrane
• Cholesterol molecules
help strengthen the
cell membrane,
making it more flexible
but less fluid, which
makes the membrane
less permeable to
water-soluble
substances such as
ions or simple sugars.
 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
Cell Membrane
• Carbohydrates
attached to
membrane
proteins serve as
identification
tags, enabling
cells to distinguish
one type of cell
from another.
 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
Cell Membrane
• Membrane proteins are proteins attached or
embedded to plasma membrane which determine
most of the membrane’s function.

• Different types of cells contain different sets of

membrane proteins, and the various membranes
within a cell each have a unique collection of
proteins.
 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
Cell Membrane
• Integral proteins penetrate
the hydrophobic interior of
the lipid bilayer.

• Peripheral proteins are not

embedded in the lipid
bilayer at all; they are
loosely bound to the
surface of the membrane,
often to exposed parts of
integral proteins.
 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
Six overriding main functions of membrane proteins:

• Enzymatic activity – procession

of metabolites and substrates
for various metabolic pathways.

• Signal transduction – chemical

messengers interact with
membrane protein binding sites
to send forth signals
 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
Six overriding main functions of membrane proteins:

• Transport (active/passive) –
move molecules & other
substances across the different
cell membranes

• Cell-cell recognition –
identification between cells, i.e.
relevant for the immune system
 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
Six overriding main functions of membrane proteins:

• Intercellular joining – different

junctions, such as gap or tight
junctions connect neighboring
cells

• Anchorage / Attachment –
important for cytoskeletal
network, protein locations, and
uphold of certain shapes
GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
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Cell Wall
• an additional boundary surrounding the cell
membrane, it is a rigid layer that gives protection,
support, and shape to the cell

• the cell walls of multiple cells can cling to each other

to help support a entire organism

• in plants and algae, the cell wall is made up of

cellulose; in fungi, cell wall is made up of chitin; in
bacteria, they are composed of peptidoglycan
 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
Cell Wall in Plants
• Primary cell wall – relatively
thin and flexible, secreted first

• Middle lamella – Thin layer

between primary walls,
containing polysaccharides
called pectins
• Secondary cell wall (in some
cells) – Added between the
plasma membrane and the
primary cell wall
Cytoplasm: What’s Inside the Cell
 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
Cytoplasm
• the cytoplasm fills the space between the nucleus
and the cell membrane

• cytosol is the fluid portion consisting of mainly water

and excluding the organelles in it

• many chemical reactions occur in the cytoplasm

where in water acts as a natural solvent
Genetic Control Organelles
 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
Nucleus
• storehouse of the genetic information in the form of
DNA inside the cells

• it directs all activities of the cell following strictly the

instructions in the operations manual DNA

• it protects the DNA from damage and its instructions

must be made available for use at proper times
GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
DNA
GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
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Nucleus
• nuclear envelope is a double membrane that
encloses the nucleus, separating it from the
cytoplasm.

• nuclear pores allow large molecules to pass between

the nucleus and cytoplasm

• nucleolus is a region where smalls organelles

(ribosomes) essential for making proteins are
assembled
 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
Ribosomes: Protein “Factories”
• are complexes made of ribosomal RNAs and proteins
— are the cellular components that carry out protein
synthesis

• ribosomes build proteins in two locations:

✓ in the cytosol (free ribosomes)

✓ on the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum or the

nuclear envelope (bound ribosomes)
 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
Ribosomes: Protein “Factories”
 ORGANELLES STRUCTURE
a double layer of phospholipids
Cell Membrane embedded with a variety of
molecules
cellulose (in plants and algae)
Cell Wall chitin (in fungi)
peptidoglycan (in bacteria)
cytosol (the fluid portion
Cytoplasm consisting of mainly water) and
the organelles in it
a double-membraned organelle
that contains the genetic material;
Nucleus
with nuclear envelope, nuclear
pores and nucleolus
complexes made of ribosomal
Ribosomes RNAs and proteins (free and
bound ribosomes)
FUNCTION
GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
controls the passage of needed
materials (molecules, ions,
gases) into and out of the cell
a rigid layer that gives protection,
support, and shape to the cell
chemical reactions occur in the
cytoplasm where in water acts as
a natural solvent
storehouse of the genetic
information in the form of DNA
inside the cells and protect it from
damage
protein synthesis
Colegio San Agustin – Biñan

Cell: The Basic

Unit of Life
Mr. John Edward C. Santos, LPT
General Biology 1
2024
 Manufacturing, Storage,
Distribution and Breakdown
Organelles
 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
Endomembrane System
• is a group of membranes and organelles in eukaryotic
cells that works together to modify, package, and
transport lipids and proteins

✓ nuclear envelope
✓ endoplasmic reticulum
✓ Golgi apparatus
✓ lysosomes
✓ vacuoles
✓ plasma membrane
 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
Endoplasmic Reticulum
• an interconnected network of thin and folded
membranes that fills much of the larger portion of the
cytoplasm

• ER membranes are arranged like a maze of enclosed

spaces with many creases and folds, the interior of this
maze is called lumen

• the lumen and its surface are the sites for processes
such as proteins and lipids production
 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
Endoplasmic Reticulum
2 distinct region of ER:
• Smooth ER, which lacks ribosomes
• Rough ER, whose surface is
studded with ribosomes
GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
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Endoplasmic Reticulum
• The smooth ER:
✓ synthesizes and stores lipids
✓ detoxifies drugs and poisons
✓ stores calcium ions
• The rough ER:
✓ has bound ribosomes, which secrete
glycoproteins
✓ distributes transport vesicles (secretory proteins
surrounded by membranes)
✓ is a membrane factory for the cell
 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
Golgi Apparatus
• layered stacks of membrane-enclosed spaces where
proteins are processed, sorted and delivered

• it also have enzymes that further modify proteins

• finished products are packaged in this organelle

• it can be described as a warehouse for receiving,

sorting, shipping, and even some manufacturing
GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
Golgi Apparatus
 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
Golgi Apparatus
✓ modifies products of the ER

✓ manufactures certain macromolecules

✓ sorts and packages materials into transport vesicles

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Vesicles
• organelles that are physically interconnected with
each other by means of membrane or by the transfer
of materials through vesicles.

• they can be categorized as storage vesicles, transport

vesicles or secretory vesicles

• the synthesis, storage and export of molecules is

made possible because these organelles are
functionally connected with each other
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Vacuoles
• a fluid-filled sac
for the storage of
material needed
by the cell that
includes water,
food molecules,
inorganic ions,
and enzymes
 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
Vacuoles
• Vacuoles are large vesicles derived from the ER and
Golgi apparatus that perform a variety of functions in
different kinds of cells

✓ Food vacuoles are formed by phagocytosis

✓ Contractile vacuoles, found in many freshwater
protists, pump excess water out of cells
✓ Central vacuoles, found in many mature plant cells,
contain a solution called sap
 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
Lysosomes
• round-shaped, membrane-bound structures
containing chemicals that can break down materials
in the cell

• lysozyme, a powerful enzyme, can defend a cell from

invading bacteria and viruses

• they also break down damaged or worn-out cell parts

 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
Lysosomes
• a membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes that many
eukaryotic cells use to digest (hydrolyze)
macromolecules

• lysosomes carry out intracellular digestion in a variety

of circumstances (such as during phagocytosis)

• lysosomes also use their hydrolytic enzymes to recycle

the cell’s own organic material, a process called
autophagy
 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
Lysosomes (during phagocytosis)
 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
Lysosomes (during autophagy)
 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
Peroxisomes
• surrounded by a single membrane, they contain
digestive enzymes for breaking down toxic materials

• peroxisomes carry oxidative enzymes (that require

oxygen) and these enzymes break down complex
molecules into smaller molecules

• they also break down damaged or worn-out cell parts

Energy-Processing Organelles
 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
Mitochondria
• (singular, mitochondrion) supply energy to the cell
and the site of cellular respiration

• round to oval-shape organelles with two membranes:

a smooth outer membrane and inner membrane
folded into cristae

• the inner membrane creates two compartments:

o intermembrane space
o mitochondrial matrix
 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
• intermembrane space – the narrow region
between the inner and outer membranes.
• mitochondrial matrix – contains many different
enzymes, mitochondrial DNA, and ribosomes.
 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
Chloroplasts
• are organelles that help plant to convert solar energy
to chemical energy; they carry out photosynthesis

• like mitochondria, they are highly compartmentalized

and have both an inner and outer membrane

• the chloroplast is one of a group of plant organelles,

called plastids
• Chloroplast structure includes:

GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
o thylakoids, membranous sacs, stacked to form a granum
(plural, grana);
▪ chlorophyll (found in thylakoids), a light absorbing pigment that give
plants green color and plays a role in photosynthesis
o stroma, the internal fluid or liquid portion of chloroplast
Endosymbiont theory
 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
Endosymbiont Theory
• mitochondria and chloroplasts have similarities with
bacteria, which led to the endosymbiont theory

• it suggests that an early ancestor of eukaryotes

engulfed an oxygen-using non-photosynthetic
prokaryotic cell

• the engulfed cell formed a relationship with the host

cell, becoming an endosymbiont
GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
Endosymbiont Theory
• similarities between mitochondria and chloroplasts
that support this theory:

▪ enveloped by a double membrane

▪ contain free ribosomes and circular DNA

molecules

▪ grow and reproduce somewhat independently in

cells
Organelles for Structural Support,
Movement, and Communication
Between Cells
 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
Centrosomes and Centrioles
• centrosome is a small dense region of cytoplasm that
serves as the main microtubule organizing center
(MTOC)

• in animal cells, it contains two-barrel like structures

called centrioles that are perpendicular to each other

• centrioles are cylinder-shaped organelles made of

nine triplets of short microtubules arranged in a ring
GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
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Centrosomes and Centrioles
• in animal cells, microtubules grow out from a
centrosome near the nucleus

• in animal cells, the centrosome has a pair of

centrioles, each with nine triplets of microtubules
arranged in a ring

• other eukaryotic cells organize microtubules in the

absence of centrosomes with centrioles
 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
Cilia and Flagella
• two locomotory projections in eukaryotes allowing the
cell to move

• microtubules control the beating of flagella and cilia

— microtubule-containing extensions that project from
some cells

• many unicellular protists are propelled through water

by cilia or flagella
GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
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Cilia and Flagella
• both have the same structural composition,
containing nine microtubules doubles arranged in a
circle around two central microtubules (9+2 pattern)

• cilia look like little hairs with much shorter strength and
move in coordinated fashion like the motion of oars in
a rowing team

• flagella look like a whip or a tail

GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
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Cytoskeleton
• cytoskeleton is a network of fibers extending
throughout the cytoplasm which organizes the cell’s
structures and activities, anchoring many organelles

• it helps to support the cell and maintain its shape

• made up of a small protein subunit, forming long

threads that can crisscross the entire cell, thus
providing sturdy mechanical support
 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
Cytoskeleton
• Microtubules – lengthy and the thickest among the
filaments; they are stiff, hollow tubes that give the cell
shape and serves as anchorage for the organelles

• Intermediate Filaments – smaller than microtubules and

ropelike in appearance; give the cell tensile strength or
ability to stretch without breaking apart

• Microfilaments – thinnest among the cytoskeletons; tiny

flexible filaments that provide protective meshwork
under the plasma membrane
GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
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Cell Surfaces and Junctions
• cells in an animal or plant are organized into tissues,
organs, and organ systems.

• neighboring cells often adhere, interact, and

communicate via sites of direct physical contact (by
structures called junctions).

• many plant cell walls are perforated with

plasmodesmata (singular, plasmodesma; from the
Greek desma, bond), channels that connect cells.
 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
Cell Surfaces and Junctions
• the plasma membrane and the cytoplasmic fluid of the
plant cell extend these plasmodesmata for water and
other small molecules to pass from cell to cell.

• it play an
important role in
the sharing of
water, nutrients,
and chemical
messages among
plant cells.
 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
Cell Surfaces and Junctions
• In animals, there are three main types of cell junctions:
tight junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions.

• Tight junctions join two cells tightly together and form

a barrier that prevents leakage of extracellular fluid.

• Desmosomes function like rivets, fastening cells

together into strong sheets.

• Gap junctions provide cytoplasmic channels from

one cell to an adjacent cell.
GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
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ORGANELLES STRUCTURE FUNCTION
an interconnected network of thin secrete glycoproteins, distributes
and folded membranes with its transport vesicles, secretory
Rough ER surface studded with ribosomes proteins surrounded by
membranes, produces new
membrane
an interconnected network of thin synthesizes and stores lipids;
Smooth ER and folded membranes; it lacks detoxifies drugs and poisons;
ribosomes stores calcium ions
stacks of flattened membranous modification of proteins,
sacs; has polarity (cis and trans carbohydrates on proteins, and
faces) phospholipids; synthesis of many
Golgi apparatus
polysaccharides; sorting of Golgi
products, which are then released
in vesicles
 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
ORGANELLES STRUCTURE FUNCTION
physically interconnected with the transport, storage, secretion of
Vesicles endomembrane system (made molecules and other materials in
out of membrane) the cell
large membrane-bounded vesicle storage of material needed by the
(derived from the ER and Golgi cell that includes water, food
Vacuole
apparatus) molecules, inorganic ions, and
enzymes
membranous sac of hydrolytic breakdown of ingested
enzymes (in animal cells) substances, cell
Lysosome
macromolecules, and damaged
organelles for recycling
specialized metabolic contain digestive enzymes for
Peroxisome compartment bounded by a breaking down toxic materials
single membrane
 ORGANELLES STRUCTURE
bounded by double membrane;
Mitochondria
inner membrane has infoldings
typically two membranes around
Chloroplasts fluid stroma, which contains
thylakoids stacked into grana
a small dense region of
Centrosomes cytoplasm which has a pair of
(Centrioles) centrioles (with nine triplets of
microtubules arranged in a ring)
microtubule-containing
Cilia and Flagella extensions that project from some
cells (9 + 2 pattern)
a network of fibers extending
throughout the cytoplasm
Cytoskeleton
(microtubules, intermediate
filament, microfilaments)
FUNCTION
GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
cellular respiration
photosynthesis (chloroplasts are
present in cells of photosynthetic
eukaryotes, including plants)
main microtubule organizing
center (MTOC)
locomotory projections in
eukaryotes allowing the cell to
move
organizes the cell’s structures
and activities, anchoring many
organelles, support cell, maintain
cell shape