Summary of Notes

 As rock fill has a relatively high permeability it is usually necessary to provide

a watertight element such as a clay core within the embankment.
 Some of the most complex deformation situations involving rock fill occur
with embankment dams where there are several different types of fill
materials in various zones within the embankment. However, the most difficult
situations occur in those applications where even small movements may cause
problems such as where a road passes from a rock fill embankment onto a
rigid structure such as a bridge. In these case, it is imperative to reduce post
placement fill settlement. Applied stresses within the rock fill will increase
during fill placement due to the weight of overlying layers of rock fill, but the
compression of the rock fill that occurs at this stage will normally be of little
practical con- sequence. It is the movements that occur subsequent to fill
placement which are normally of most significance.
 Compression of rock fill is associated with crushing of points of contact and
rearrangement of rock fragments and particles which may be caused by a
change in effective stress or changes in moisture content. Changes in effective
stress can be caused by the rise and fall of the groundwater level within the
rock fill. Poorly compacted, unsaturated rock fill is likely to be susceptible to
collapse compression when first inundated as an increase in moisture content
may weaken the parent rock material and lead to further crushing at points of
contact. An increase in moisture content could occur as a result of
submergence of rock fill by a rising ground water level and downward
percolation of surface water through the rock fill. The major mechanism for
compressibility of rock fill is the crushing of highly stressed points of contact
between particles which in turn results in some reorientation of particles.
Therefore, strength of rock particles and increased density are important
characteristics of rock fill.
 Vibration can cause compression of a rock fill by the rock particles being
rotated and rearranged into a denser packing. Therefore, compaction of rock
fill during placement can be achieved by the use of a vibrating roller. Such
compaction is beneficial and the more effective the compaction, the less
vulnerable the rock fill will be to volume reduction when subjected to any
subsequent dynamic loading which could be associated with, for example, a
seismic event.

Properties of rock material

  Particle strength and hardness will control the amount of particle
breakdown and crushing of points of contact which occur during
compaction and subsequent loading. (Uniaxial compressive strength, qu)
 Long-term performance of the fill will be affected by the durability of the
rock. Rocks are affected by wetting and drying; the strength of saturated
rock fragments may be much less than the strength of the fragments
when dry. Weak rocks such as shales will swell or disintegrate when
exposed to atmospheric wetting and drying and are thus permanently
weakened. (Water absorption or saturation moisture content).
 The behavior of rock fills will be influenced by their particle size
distribution (PSD). The percentage of silt and clay size particles (i.e. finer
than 0.06mm) is important as, when this percentage is high, the rock fill
will cease to perform as a granular soil. The critical magnitude of the fines
content is likely to be in the range of 10% to 25% by weight with regard
to shear strength and 10% to 15% with regard to permeability.
 Rocks should be durable, especially resistant to degradation by wetting
and drying cycles.
 Rocks should have a coarse grading with very little fine material which
would tend to be removed by the water.

Placement and compaction

 Where large quantities of rock fill are to be placed, it will usually be

advisable to carry out placement trials prior to commencement of the
main earthworks.
 Use rock smaller than the minimum rock size to choke the larger rock
solidly in position and to fill voids between the large rocks.
 The rock fill should be spread so that the coarser material does not
accumulate on the surface of the layer. Experience has shown that this is
best achieved by dumping the rock fill on top of and behind the edge of
the advancing fill surface and using a heavy bulldozer to push the material
beyond the edge. This causes the larger particles to roll to the bottom of
the layer and fines to fill the voids between them, thus creating a dense
layer, the surface of which consists mainly of the finer material.
 The spreading of a separate layer of fine material on the surface of the
rock fill should be avoided as it could substantially reduce the effective
depth of compaction by vibrating rollers.
  The fines mixed with the coarser material must be non-cohesive so as to
be capable of being vibrated or washed through the layer. The presence of
cohesive fines makes the achievement of a satisfactory state of compaction
extremely difficult.
 A heavy vibrating roller with a large amplitude of vibration is required to
ensure that vibrational stresses extend to the bottom of the thick layer.
Towed vibrating rollers or self-propelled single roll vibrating rollers are
generally most appropriate for this purpose. Forssblad (1981)
recommended amplitudes of 1.5 to 2mm and frequencies of 25 to 30 Hz
for rock fill compaction. The shell of the vibrating roll must be of high
grade steel to accommodate the large stresses that arise during the
vibratory compaction of rock fill.
 The type of compaction plant in use will determine the thickness of layer
that can be compacted, and the maximum particle size remaining in the fill
should not exceed two-thirds of the layer thickness.

Specifications for rock fill

1. British Practice

Because of the large particle sizes involved and the thicknesses of layer that
these sizes necessitate, the compaction of rock fill is normally to the
requirements of a method specification, that is, the type of compaction plant, the
maximum thickness of layer and the minimum number of passes are laid down.

2. German Practice
A useful description of the requirements for rock fill is given by Rosenheinrich
(1978). Rock fill has to be placed evenly over the whole area to be filled and only
well graded material should be placed in the upper 1 m of the fill. The largest
particle size used should not exceed two-thirds of the allowable layer thickness.

3. US Practice
In the construction of rock fill, it is recommended (Transportation Research
Board 1990) that the correct sequence of operations is to dump the rock on
to the layer under construction. The material is then pushed by a bulldozer
over the leading edge of the layer, is thoroughly wetted, and then compacted
with heavy equipment. Finer material must be applied to the top of the layer
being compacted to fill any voids.
4. South Africa

Specific mention of rock fill procedures is made in National Institute for

Transport and Road Research 1982) where it is recommended that the rock is
spread by bulldozing to its correct position to avoid arching within the
dumped material. Rock should not exceed a maximum dimension of two-
thirds of the layer thickness. Materials which fracture easily or weather readily
should be grid-rolled in order to break them down to satisfactory dimensions
for the layer, since this may otherwise result in loose zones within the layer.