ALIA NAZIRA

∆ Small intestine
∆ Large intestine
∆ Anus
⌂ The other organs in the digestive
⌂ The human digestive system is made system are
up of a long and muscular alimentary » Liver
canal that starts from the mouth to » Gallbladder
the anus » Pancreas
⌂ The parts of the alimentary canal ⌂ Digestive juices that secreted into
include the alimentary canal by
∆ Mouth ▪ Salivary
∆ Oesophagus ▪ Gastric
∆ Stomach ▪ Intestinal glands

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◊ The pH of the saliva ranges between

6.5-7.5 which is suitable for salivary
❑ Digestion is the process that breaks amylase to act at its optimum
down large and complex pieces of
food into smaller and simple pieces
that can be dissolved for easy
absorption ◊ Saliva helps food to form bolus and
❑ There two parts of digestion makes it easier to be swallowed
1) Physical digestion ◊ When swallowing, the epiglottis will
2) Chemical digestion close the trachea opening to prevent
food from entering the trachea
PHYSICAL DIGESTION ◊ In oesophagus, the food bolus is
ꚛ The chemical breakdown of food to moved by peristalsis
form small particles ◊ Peristalsis is the rhythmic
ꚛ Involves contraction and relaxation of
I Chewing muscles along the alimentary canal
II Peristalsis ◊ Peristalsis pushes the bolus through
the oesophagus until it enters the
CHEMICAL DIGESTION
stomach.
The decomposition process of
complex molecules into simple
molecules
Involves enzymes reaction

◊ The digestive process begins in the

mouth
◊ The presence of food in the mouth
stimulates the secretion of saliva
from the salivary glands
◊ Saliva contains salivary amylase that
hydrolyses starch to maltose → The surface of the stomach wall is
lined with epithelial cells that have
undergone adaptation in structure
and function to form gastric glands
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→ These epithelial cells are

a. Chief cells that secrete
pepsinogen
b. Parietal cells that secrete → The food in the stomach is mixed
hydrochloric acid with gastric juice made up of
c. Mucous cells that secrete hydrochloric acid and pepsin
mucus → Food is churned by the peristaltic
→ Pepsinogen is an inactive enzyme action of the stomach wall muscles
that is activated by hydrochloric for a few hours
acid to become pepsin → The contents in the stomach finally
→ Pepsin then hydrolyses proteins into change to a semifluid called chyme
polypeptides → Chyme enters the duodenum slowly
when the sphincter muscle relaxes

THE FUNCTIONS OF HYDROCHLORIC ACID

❖ To prepare a medium with a suitable

pH (pH 1.5-2.0) for pepsin to act
❖ To stop the enzymatic action of
salivary amylase
❖ To kill bacteria in food
∆ The small intestine consists of
THE FUNCTION OF MUCUS a) Duodenum
b) Jejunum
↘ To protect the stomach wall from
c) Ileum
the reaction of hydrochloric acid and
digestive enzymes

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PANCREAS

➢ Product that secreted by the

pancreas into the duodenum through
the pancreatic duct is
1 Pancreatic amylase
2 Trypsin
3 Lipase

LIVER

 Produces bile
 The gallbladder stores bile
 The bile flows into the duodenum
through the bile duct
 The functions of bile
I To neutralise the acidic chyme ILEUM
II To prepare an alkali condition
(pH 7.6-8.6) for enzyme ↘ Glands on the ileum wall secrete
action in the duodenum mucus and intestinal juice that
III To emulsify lipids by breaking contains
down lipids into tiny droplets a) Maltase
to increase surface area for b) Sucrase
lipase activity c) Lactase
d) Lipase
DUODENUM e) Erepsin
∆ Duodenum is the first part of the ↘ The alkali medium in the ileum allows
small intestine which receives chyme enzymes to act at its optimum
from the stomach CARBOHYDRATE DIGESTION
∆ Duodenum also receives
i. Bile produced by the liver ❑ Maltase hydrolyses maltose into
ii. Pancreatic juice secreted by glucose
the pancreas
∆ Pancreatic amylase hydrolyses starch ❑ Sucrase hydrolyses sucrose into
to maltose glucose and fructose

∆ Trypsin hydrolyses polypeptides into

shorter peptides ❑ Lactase hydrolyses lactose into
glucose and galactose

∆ Lipase hydrolyses lipids into fatty

acids and glycerols
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LIPID DIGESTION

⌂ Lipase hydrolyses lipids into fatty acids and glycerols

PROTEIN DIGESTION

ꚛ Erepsin hydrolyses peptides into amino acids

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MICROVILLUS

 On the surface of the villus

- Simple molecules produced from the
epithelium, there are many tiny
digested food are absorbed in the
projections called microvillus
ileum of the small intestine
 Microvillus provides a large surface
ILEUM area to increase the rate of nutrient
absorption
» The long ileum is adapted to absorb
nutrients because its internal layer is
folded and covered by tiny
projections called villi (singular:
villus)

VILLUS (plural: villi)

Villus has the following adaptations to

absorb nutrients:

◊ The epithelial layer of the villus is

one cell thick that helps accelerate
nutrient absorption
◊ Goblet cells secrete mucus to aid
digestion
◊ The network of blood capillaries
helps to transport digestive products
to the whole body
◊ Lacteal carries droplets of fatty
acids and glycerol
◊ The intestinal glands secrete
intestinal juices that have digestive
enzymes
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METHOD OF FOOD ABSORPTION IN THE ILEUM

DIGESTED FOOD ABSORBED THROUGH METHODS OF ABSORPTION

Fructose Facilitated diffusion
Glucose and galactose Epithelial cells into blood Active transport
Amino acids capillaries Active transport
Vitamins B and C Absorbed with water
Water Osmosis
Fatty acids and glycerols Simple diffusion
recombine through the
condensation process to form Epithelial cells into
tiny droplets of lipids in the lacteal
epithelial cells
Vitamin A, D, E, K dissolve in Simple diffusion
the lipid

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METABOLISM OF DIGESTED FOOD

❑ Glucose is used for cellular

respiration
❑ Amino acids are used for synthesising
◊ The human circulatory system plasma proteins and enzymes
consists of the blood circulation ❑ Through the deamination process,
system and the lymphatic system to excess amino acids are turned into
help transport nutrients to be urea to be excreted through the
assimilated urine
◊ In the assimilation process that
occurs in cells, nutrients are used to DETOXIFICATION
form complex compounds or ↘ Liver cells expel toxic substances
structures of components from the blood
◊ The blood capillaries in the small ↘ Toxic substances are expelled
intestine combine to form the through the urine
hepatic portal vein that transports
blood to the liver STORAGE OF NUTRIENTS
◊ Lacteals combine to form bigger ⌂ Excess glucose is converted to
lymph vessels in the lymphatic system glycogen to be stored
◊ Then, the contents of the lymph Glucose
insulin
glycogen
vessels enter the thoracic duct that
flows into the left subclavian vein LIVER CIRRHOSIS
◊ This lipid is then transported by Liver cirrhosis is a type of liver
blood throughout the body disease caused by factors such as
→ Alcoholic drinks
→ Toxic substances
→ Hepatitis
Liver cells are replaced by scarred
cells that can cause failure in the
liver functions
▪ The liver is the regulator that Hepatitis is an inflammation of the
controls the quantity of nutrients liver caused by viral infection, toxic
that enter the blood circulatory substances or autoimmune reaction
system

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Assimilation process in ∆ When the glucose supply is

insufficient, the liver converts amino
acids into glucose
the liver GLUCOSE
AMINO ACIDS o Glucose in the liver is used for
∆ The liver synthesises plasma protein cellular respiration when required by
and enzymes from amino acids the body and the excess is converted
∆ Excess amino acids cannot be stored to glycogen and stored in the liver
in the body and are broken down o When the glucose level in the blood
through the deamination process to decreases and the body needs energy,
form urea which is then expelled glycogen is converted to glucose
o When the glycogen supply reaches a
maximum level, the excess glucose is
converted to fats

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Assimilation process in » Excess glucose is kept as glycogen in

muscles
» Energy is used for cell processes such
cells as protein synthesis

AMINO ACIDS LIPIDS

• Amino acids are used to synthesise ꚛ Lipids such as phospholipid and

new protoplasm and also repair cholesterol are the primary
damaged tissues components that build the plasma
membrane
• Amino acids are used to synthesise
ꚛ Excess fats are kept in adipose
hormones and enzymes
tissues found underneath the skin as
GLUCOSE stored energy
» Glucose is oxidised through cellular ꚛ Fat is oxidised to release energy
respiration to release energy, water when there is insufficient glucose
and carbon dioxide

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❑ Faeces contains dead cells from the

inner layer of the intestine, waste
products such as
1. Bile pigments
⌂ After the absorption of nutrients is 2. Bacteria
completed in the ileum, undigested 3. Toxic substances
food, dead cells epithelial cell, fibre ❑ The walls of the large intestine
and water enter the large intestine secrete mucus to smoothen the
and move slowly through peristaltic movement of faeces until the anus
action ❑ The movement of faeces takes about
⌂ Fibre consists of cellulose walls of 12 to 24 hours before entering the
plant cells rectum
⌂ The large intestine carries out two ❑ The faeces will accumulate in the
main functions rectum until the pressure in the
a) Absorption of water and rectum increases and triggers the
vitamins need to expel faeces from the body
b) Formation of faeces ❑ The rectum muscles will contract to
expel faeces from the anus and this
ABSORPTION OF WATER AND VITAMINS
process is called defaecation
Substances absorbed are

→ Water and mineral salts

→ Metabolic byproducts of some
bacteria such as
✓ Vitamin B
✓ Vitamin K
✓ Folic acid

FORMATION OF FAECES

❑ After the water is absorbed, the

remaining waste is a semisolid called
faeces

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ENERGY VALUE

ꚛ Energy value is the total amount of

energy released when one gram of
food is oxidised completely
◊ A balanced diet refers to a diet that ꚛ The energy value in food is measured
contains of all seven food classes in in the form of heat energy, that is,
the correct proportion and balanced in kilojoule per gram (kJ g-1)
quantity according to individual ꚛ Another unit of heat energy is
needs so that optimal health can be calorie
maintained ꚛ 1 calorie or 4.2 joule is defined as
◊ Seven classes of food the quantity of heat energy needed
1. Carbohydrates to raise the temperature of 1 gram
2. Lipids water by 1 degree Celsius (○C) at a
3. Proteins pressure of 1 standard atmosphere
4. Vitamins ꚛ 1 calorie (cal) = 4.2 joule (J)
5. Mineral salts ꚛ 1 kilojoule = 1 000 joule
6. Fibre ꚛ 4.2 J g-1 ○C-1 refers to the specific
7. Water heat capacity of water, that is, the
energy required to increase the
temperature of 1 g of water by 1 ○C
Energy value of food (kJ g-1)

𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑔) × 4.2 𝐽 𝑔−1 ℃−1 × 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 (℃)
=
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑑 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 (𝑔) × 1 000

◊ Thus, fruit or vegetables must be

kept at a suitable temperature range
to preserve vitamin C

◊ The nutrient content in various types

of food is different
∆ A balanced diet for each individual
◊ Therefore, vitamin C contents in
will vary according to lifestyle,
each fruit and vegetable is different
health conditions and specific
◊ One of the factors that affect the
nutritional requirements
loss of vitamin C content is
temperature
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∆ Each individual must take wise THE CAUSE OF OBESITY

choices based on a nutrition guide
» Obesity caused by the storage of
∆ For example, suggestions for
excess of excess fats as a result of
nutritional needs can be made based
imbalanced food intake and use of
on Pinggan Sihat Malaysia
energy
∆ Pinggan Sihat Malaysia illustrates
the relative quantity of various EFFECTS OF OBESITY
food classes in a balanced diet
↘ Individuals who are obese need to
∆ Excessive food intake that is rich is
reduce the intake of carbohydrates
saturated fats can cause health
and fats as well as increase the
problems such as
intake of vegetables and fruits
- Obesity
↘ Otherwise, a diet excessive saturated
- Cardiovascular disease
fats and high cholesterol may cause
∆ Cancer patients who are undergoing
diabetes mellitus and various
cancer treatment, need to modify
cardiovascular diseases
their diet
(atherosclerosis, hypertension)
• To ensure they receive which may result in heart attacks
sufficient energy (myocardial infarction) or stroke if
• To reduce the risk of not treated
infections
• to enable quick recovery

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Obesity is a health issue on the rise  The food class that is most
throughout the world important in the defaecation process
Although obesity can be controlled is fibre. Intake of diet that is high
through diet management and routine in fibre such as fruits and vegetables
exercise programmes, at time, obesity can smoothen bowel movements
requires medical treatment  This can prevent health problems
Specialist doctors may suggest such as constipation, colon cancer,
surgical procedures to reduce body rectum cancer and haemorrhoid
weight such as gastric bypass  Some of the functions of the fibre
A gastric bypass involves a reduction are
of the stomach size using various a. To stimulate peristalsis
methods of surgery b. To absorb and expel toxic
Among the short-term side effects of substances
this surgery are c. To regulate the absorption of
1 Acid reflux glucose especially for
2 Nausea diabetes mellitus patients
3 Vomiting d. To increase the population of
4 Expanded oesophagus beneficial bacteria in the
5 Certain food prohibitions large intestine
6 Risk of infection  Besides, the intake of a large amount
The long-term side effects are of water can ensure that the faeces
i. Dizziness stay soft and move easily along the
ii. Low blood sugar level large intestine to aid the process of
iii. Malnutrition defaecation
iv. Stomach ulcer
v. Defaecation problems

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because of their normal digestive

system is affected

BULIMIA NERVOSA

GASTRITIS ▪ For people with bulimia nervosa who

are also obsessed with controlling
» Gastritis refers to the inflammation their body weight, they will eat a lot
and corrosion of the stomach and vomit out the food that they
epithelial layer by gastric juice when have eaten or take laxatives that
there is no food in the stomach cause diarrhoea
» Untreated gastritis can result in ▪ In the long run, the patient may
gastric juices suffer from dehydration, nutritional
problems and eventually
» The causes of gastritis cardiovascular disease or kidney
I Eating irregular quantities of failure
food at irregular hours
II Excessive intake of alcohol or MUSCLE DYSMORPHIA
painkillers ⌂ Some individuals feel their size is
ANOREXIA NERVOSA small with not enough growth
⌂ So, they subject themselves to
❖ Anorexia nervosa is quite common extreme weightlifting training or
amongst teenage girls who are exercise
obsessed with their body weight ⌂ Sometimes, they consume steroids or
❖ Anorexics will avoid food to achieve muscle building supplements
their ideal body weight ⌂ This health issue called muscle
❖ They also suffer from psychological dysmorphia
problems and nutrient deficiency

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