CEMENT and CONCRETE RESEARCH. Vol. 18, pp. 852-962, 1988.

Printed in the USA

0008-8846/88. $3.00+00. Copyright (c) 1988 Pergamon Press plc.

PFA IN STRUCTURAL PRECAST CONCRETE: ENGINEERING PROPERTIES

R.K. Dhir I, J.G.L. Munday 2 and N.Y. Ho I

The University, Dundee, DDI 4HN, Scotland

(Communicated by C.D. Pomeroy)

(Received April i, 1988)

ABSTRACT
The effects are investigated of including pulverized-fuel ash (pfa)
on the strength development (compressive and tensile) and deformation
behaviour (elastic, creep and shrinkage) of concretes subjected to
initial accelerated curing and tested at a~es ranging from 18 hours
to i year. It is shown that (for the test conditions and materials
used) concretes containing pfa perform as well as, or better than,
concretes containing rapid-hardening portland cement (RHPC) alone
and it is suggested that suitable blends of pfa and RHPC can be
confidently specified for use in precast prestressed concrete.

Introduction

This is the third paper in a series arising from work carried out to assess
the use of pulverized-fuel ash (pfa) in structural precast concrete. The
first two papers (1,2), while reporting strength data up to ages of 90 days,
concentrated largely on the early-age development of strength. This emphasis
was believed to be justified in view of the normal requirements of the
precast concrete industry for rapid turn round of moulds and prestressing
equipment. Concrete units must be able to withstand handling stresses and/or
transfer of prestress sometimes within much less than 24 hours after casting.
In order to achieve this more readily the use of rapid hardening type cements
and acceleration of the cement reactions by exposure to elevated temperatures
up to the maximum allowed by British Standard (70°C, BS 5400 (3)) are common.

The demonstrated achievement of comparable early age strength development

while clearly necessary is not a sufficient condition for the acceptance of
pfa as a mix component in precast structural elements. As with all concretes,
precast or in-situ, it is equally necessary to demonstrate that the long-term
properties, both strength and deformation response, are satisfactory.
Numerous studies have shown that this can be achieved with pfa concretes at
standard curing temperatures (20°C), but the use of high temperature curing
cycles adds an extra dimension which must be considered.

I. Department of Civil Engineering, University of Dundee

2. Department of Civil Engineering, Dundee College of Technology

852
Vol. 18, No. 6 853
PRE-CAST CONCRETE, FLYASH, STRENGTH, DEFORMATION

Work on continuous high-temperature curing (4) and simulated in-situ mass

curing (5) has shown that, compared to plain cement concrete, pfa concrete is
affected differently when exposed to high temperatures. While such studies
are useful in alerting the user of pfa to the possible beneficial effects, the
temperature rise in accelerated precasting operations is generally more rapid
and occurs at an earlier age, while the initial concrete microstructure is
developing, and thus conclusions drawn from such studies (4,5) of pfa concrete
behaviour cannot readily be applied to the precast situation. Some earlier
work (6,7,8) has been reported on studies of 'accelerated' strength
development, but the mixes used were based on direct replacement of cement by
relatively coarse ash and the results give an incomplete and largely unhelpful
indication of long-term engineering properties in general.

For this reason, at the same time as full scale factory trials were conm~enced
(2), an investigation into strength development (compressive and tensile) and
deformation (elastic, creep and shrinkage) following initial accelerated
curing was also initiated, the results of which form the basis of this paper.

Experimental Details

For this part of the overall investigations of the use of pfa in precast
structural concrete a single rapid-hardening Portland cement (RHPC) and a
single pfa (Plla, complying with the requirements of BS 3892:Part 1:1982 and
equivalent to a good class F ash) were used. Their characteristic properties
have been reported in the first paper of this series (i). Gravel coarse
aggregate (20 and IO ~=n single sizes) and a medium grade sand were used
throughout. A range of equivalent mixes were designed in accordance with the
DoE method for the RHPC concretes and the method described in the first paper
in this series (I) for the pfa concretes; see Table I for details of the mix
proportions used. All mixes had slump of 45 n~n, this being achieved for the
two richest pfa mixes (M4 and MS) with the aid of a water-reducing admixture
to offset the stickiness of the high cement + pfa volume.

In this investigation the following progran~nes of work were completed:

(i) compressive strensth development: IO0 mm cube specimens of mixes MI

to M_5, tested at ages 18 hours, 7, 28, 90, 180 and 365 days following
either initial accelerated curing with various combinations of
subsequent air and water curing or standard water curing, see Table 2.

(ii) flexural strensth development: IO0 x iOO x 500 mm prism specimens of

mlxes MI to M5, tested at ages 18 hours, 7, 28 and 90 days following
initial accelerated curing (AI) , 2 days water curing at 20o C then
storage in air at 20°C and 55% RH (A2).

(iii) elastic deformation: i00 mm~ x 300 mm cylinder specimens of mixes MI,
M3 and M5 tested for E-value (BS 1881) and complete stress/strain
curve; test ages as for compressive strength series, curing as for
flexural strength series.

(iv) creep deformation: IOO ~ x 300 mm cylinder specimens of mixes MI, M3

and M5; curing as for flexural strength series; sustained load
applied at ages of 18 hours and 180 days, stress/strength ratios of
20, 40 and 60% of the cylinder strength at start of test.
854 Vo!. 18, Eo. 6
RoK. Dhir, et al.

TABLE i
Mix Proportions Used (Slump: 45 mm)

MATERIALS, kg/m 3
F
MIX
C+F Cement Pfa Free Stone Sand
(% by wt) (C) (F) Water

(a) RHPC Concrete

MI - 250 - 180 1157 804
M2 - 295 - 180 1175 751
M3 340 - 180 1172 707
M4 - 405 - 180 1170 658
M5 465 - 182 1153 621
(b) RHPC/pfa Concrete
MI 45 165 135 157 1182 760
M2 36 215 120 157 1217 684
M3 31 260 115 157 1237 610
M4* 26 320 iiO 157 1245 560
M5* 22 380 105 157 1279 500

* with water reducing admixture.

TABLE 2
Curing Conditions Employed

CODE DESCRIPTION

A1 Accelerated curing, llOO°C hr, max temperature 70°C

A2 AI then 20°C water to 3 days then air
A3 AI then 20°C water to 7 days then air
A4 AI then 20°C water to 14 days then air
A5 AI then continuous 20°C water
E Standard curing, 20°C water continuously

(v) drying shrinkage: 50 x 50 x 200 mm prism specimens or I00 mme x 300 mm

cylinders of mixes MI, M3 and M5; curing as for flexural strength
series; test period for prisms 3 days to 365 days, for cylinders I
day to 180 days; drying environment air at 20°C, 55% RH.

In all cases the initial accelerated curing cycle provided a curing maturity
of ii00 centigrade degree hours with a maximum temperature of 70°C, the
specimens in all cases being sealed in their moulds throughout the cycle.

Compressive Strensth

The compressive strength data obtained for both RHPC and RHPC/pfa concretes
over a period of I year are shown in Table 3. It is apparent that for the
same strengths at the design age of 28 days, the pfa concretes achieved a
slightly higher immediate post-accelerated 18 hour strength and consistently
Vol. 18, No. 6 855
PRE-CAST CONCRETE, FLYASH, STRENGTH, DEFORMATION

TABLE 3
Strength Development of RHPC and RHPC/pfa Concrete (Curing A2)

CUBE STRENGTH, N/~n 2

MIX
18hr 7 28 90 180 365 days

(a) RPHC Concrete

M1 16.O 28.0 34.0 34.5 32.5 32.5
M2 22.0 35.5 42.0 43.0 42.5 42.5
M3 29.5 42.5 52.5 54.0 52.5 52.5
M4 35.0 49.5 60.0 62.5 59.5 59.0
M5 42.5 60.0 67.5 67.0 66.5 67.0

(b) RHPa/pfa Concrete

MI 17.O 28.0 34.0 35.0 35.0 35.5
M2 24.0 36.0 41.5 43.0 43.0 44.5
M3 30.0 43.5 52.0 54.5 54.0 54.5
M4 37.0 51.0 60.5 62.5 61.5 62.0
M5 44.0 59.0 67.5 67.0 68.5 70.0

show marginally higher long-term strength development. Neither concrete in

fact shows any large change in strength after 28 to 90 days but whereas the
RHPC concretes exhibit, if anything, the slight decrease in strength noted by
previous investigations (9,10,11), those containing pfa exhibit slight
increases. The reason for this difference in behaviour is not clear. It may
be due to differences in internal microstructure affecting their rate of
drying after wet curing and hence their degree of continued hydration, or it
may more simply be due to variations which arise due to the specimens being
dry when tested.

The data of Table 4 obtained for varying post-acceleration curing indicate

a slight improvement in strength for the RHPC concretes between 28 and 365
days with an increase in water curing duration up to 14 days (curing A4)
although the difference is hardly sufficient to warrant such a complication
in the normal production procedures, units often Being in service before 14
days have elapsed. Table 4 also clearly shows not only the advantage of
accelerated curing to the initial development of strength but also how this is
paid for in reduced long-term strength compared to the strength achieved under
standard 20°C water. If anything, the pfa concrete appears to suffer more in
this respect than the RHPC concrete, although it seems to be more a result of
the subsequent air curing rather than the accelerated curing itself (compare
data for curing A2, A5 and E), especially when the difference in moisture
condition at test is taken into account. Having said this it must be
emphasised that for the same 28 day strength, in all cases the pfa concretes
achieve higher long-term (I year) strengths than the RHPC concretes
irrespective of the curing employed.

Flexural Strensth

Although flexural (tensile) strength is not normally of any significance in

concrete, knowledge of its magnitude may be of interest in connection with
cracking and deflection calculations. The modulus of rupture results obtained
856 Vol. 18, No. 6
R.K. Dhir, et al.

from tests up to 90 days age are shown in Figure I, plotted in comparison with
the compressive strength results. In all cases the typical ratio of approximate-
ly i:IO for tensile : compressive strength was observed, and while separate
linear regression analyses provided slightly different relationships for RHPC
and pfa concretes, the differences are so slight as to be negligible. Thus,
for practical purposes, there can be assumed to be no difference in flexural
behaviour occasioned by the inclusion in a mix of a ~fa to BS 3892:Part i.

TABLE 4
Effect of Post-Accelerated Curing on Long-Term Strength (Mix M3)

CUBE STRENGTH, N/ram2

CURING
18 hr + 28 days 365 days

(a) RHPC Concrete

A2 29.5 52.5 52.5
A3 29.0 52.5 53.5
A4 29.5 52.5 55.0
A5 28.5 43.0* 59.5*
E 15.0 47.5* 62.0*

(b) RHPC/pfa Concrete

A2 29.0 52.0 55.0
A3 29.5 53.0 55.0
A4 30.0 52.0 55.5
A5 29.5 44.0* 65.0*
E 12.0 47.0* 67.0*

+ tested dry, ½ hr after demoulding; * tested wet; others tested dry.

Curing, A2 •
Age at test ~ < 24 hr to 90 days / ~
Z
• RHPC Concrete
O RHPC/pfa Concrete ~ o

~- 5
n
cr
u_ 4
0 ~ Pfaconcrete,
rJ3 R =-0.04 * 0 0 9 9 f c
J 3 RHPC concrete,
R =-0.06 + 0.103fc
n
Combined data=
0 2
R,-0.05 ÷ 0.102fc
(r =0.98)

20 39 40 50 60 70

CUBE STRENGTH,(fcI N/mm2

Fig. 1 Relationship of Flexural Strength to Cube Strength
Vol. 18, No. 6 857
PRE-CAST CONCRETE, FLYASH, STRENGTH, DEFORMATION

Elastic Deformation

Modulus of Elasticity

In addition to its importance for calculations of member deflections under

service loads, for prestressed precast concrete elements a knowledge of the
modulus of elasticity is necessary for calculations of prestress losses at
transfer. Table 5 shows data relating to the development of modulus of
elasticity from 18 hours up to I year. It is apparent that for ages of 7 days
or more there is little consistent difference in modulus of elasticity for
either concrete. Again there may be a suggestion of a slightly greater
increase in modulus value for the pfa concretes between 28 and 365 days than
for the RHPC concretes, but as for strength the difference is of little
practical importance. While the difference in modulus value at 18 hours
test may simply reflect the sensitivity of the BS 1881 test method, further
work on very early age modulus of elasticity development is in progress since
small differences at this age could have proportionately more significance
through their effect on prestress losses at transfer.

In recognition of the normal practice of estimating modulus of elasticity from

a knowledge of concrete cube strengths, the data of Tables 3 and 5 are shown
plotted in Figure 2 together with previously published data (12) for normally
cured concretes covering a similar range. It is apparent that the shape of
relationship for the accelerated/air cured concretes is similar to that of the
water cured concrete, but that for the same strength a slightly lower value of
modulus of elasticity is obtained. Non-linear regression analysis in fact
gave a best-fit relationwhip as

E= /fcul N/nzn2 kN/mm 2 .

for the accelerated/air cured concretes. The lower value for the constant in
this relationship (3.54 compared to 3.87 for the water cured concrete) is
more likely to be the result of the air curing than the accelerated curing,
concrete tested dry normally giving a lower modulus for a given strength than
the same concrete tested wet (13).

Complete Stress-Strain Response Throush Failure

Previous work on pfa concrete cured normally in water has tended to suggest
that while modulus of elasticity is virtually unaffected by the inclusion of
pfa, the strain response at and after strength failure may be modified (12).
To confirm this for the accelerated cured situation, the cylinders used for
the determination of E values were subsequently loaded to strength failure and
beyond, under displacement controlled loading, and their strain response noted.
Results relating to three strain parameters (12) were collected: (i) strain
at maximum stress, (ii) strain differences between stresses at 90% of maximum
before and after strength failure and (iii) the strain at 30% of maximum
stress on the descending branch of the stress-strain curve (a parameter more
usually associated with flexure). The results relating to strain at maximum
stress are shown in Table 6 in comparison with the strengths recorded for the
cylinder specimens. It is clear from this Table that as shown previously for
water cured concretes, the strain at strength failure is generally of the
same order for both RHPC and pfa concretes.

For strain difference at 90% max. stress and strain at 30% max. stress post-
failure, the results obtained were more clearly consistent, the pfa concrete
858 Vol. 18, No. 6
R.K. Dhir, et al.

TABLE 5
Development of Modulus of Elasticity (curing A2)

~DULUS OF ELASTICITY, kN/mm 2

MIX
18 hr 7 28 90 180 365 days
(a) RHPC Co~r~V~
Ml 16.0 19.O 20.5 21.0 20.5 21.0
M3 20.5 24.0 25.5 24.5 26.0 26.0
M5 23.0 25.5 27.5 28.5 30.0 30.0

(b) REPC/pfa Concrete

MI 14.5 19.O 20.5 20.5 19.O 22.0
M3 20.5 22.5 26.0 24.0 24.0 27.0
M5 24.5 25.5 27.0 28.5 28.5 31.O

Normal pfa
O4 Concrete Concrete Curing
E
• ~ P r e c a s t - cured
40 • o 20 'C water (Ref. 12) _ I-- . . . .
Z
3

20 C w a t e r cunng _~----f o%
o•
cO
30

CO
nl
- 20
CO Precast curing
iii
J
X o
/
~/ ( 2 0 ' C w a t e r curing)
IJJ /
J J 1 J I J I I /
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
CUBE STRENGTH (fc), N / m m 2

Fig. 2 Relationship Between the Modulus of Elasticity and Strength

exhibiting lower values and hence more brittle behaviour than the RHPC
concrete particularly at early ages of test in the weaker concretes. While
these differences in post failure brittleness may not be of practical
significance, they are unexpected since for both the accelerated cured and
normally cured pfa concretes microscopic examination of the internal micro-
structure suggests a structure better able to resist microcracking.
Investigation of this aspect of pfa concrete behaviour is thus continuing.
Vol. 18, No. 6 859
PRE-CAST CONCRETE, FLYASH, STRENGTH, DEFORMATION

TABLE 6
Variations in Short-Term Strain Parameters

CYLINDER STRENGTH STRAIN AT MAXIMUM

AGE AT FAILURE (N/mm 2) STRESS (x 10 -6 )
MIX
(days)
RHPC RHPC/pfa RHPC RHPC/pfa

MI 18 hr 12.5 13.5 1425 1400

7 18.0 19.5 2230 2230
28 25.5 26.0 2880 2895
90 25.5 26.5 2530 2500
180 24.5 26.5 2450 2380
365 24.0 28.0 2400 2450

M3 18 hr 22.5 24.0 2665 2590

7 35.0 35.5 2930 2815
28 41.5 42.0 3280 3270
90 40.5 41.0 3000 3010
180 40.0 41.0 2990 3000
365 40.0 43.5 3010 3050

M5 18 hr 34.5 37.5 2650 2660

7 47.5 47.5 3110 3210
28 54.0 53.0 3365 3380
90 57.5 56.5 3430 3440
180 54.0 55.5 3250 3080
365 54.5 59.0 3250 3180

Creep Deformation

Creep tests were carried out for periods of 180 days on two sets of specimens.
The first set of tests were started as soon as the concretes were demoulded
following accelerated curing, i.e. at 18 hours old. This is virtually the
earliest age that stress transfer would be carried out in prestressed
concrete members and thus gives a measure of the differences in prestress
losses due to creep which may be expected for pfa concretes compared to RHPC
concretes. In this set of tests, loads equal to 20, 40 and 60% of the
concrete strength at 18 hours were applied. The second set of creep tests
were carried out under loads equal to 40 and 60% of the concrete strength
only, load being applied at age 180 days by which time the majority of the
drying shrinkage could be expected to have taken place so that the creep
strains measured would more closely approximate basic creep in the concrete
under test.

The creep-time curves obtained for the specimens loaded at 18 hours are shown
in Figure 3, the creep strains being determined by subtracting the initial
elastic strain on loading and the shrinkage strain measured on a companion
unloaded specimen from the total strain recorded for the loaded creep
specimen. While the creep strains for the pfa concretes follow the same
trends with time, stress level and concrete grade as the P,HPC concretes, it
is very apparent that the pfa concretes exhibit much lower levels of creep
strain. Similar relationships were obtained for the tests on 180 day old
860 Voi. 18, No. 6
R.K. Dhir, et al.

200 Stress Level: 60% ~ M5

~ ; _
X f
! .
M3
160 " __~_~_~_____~= M5
M3
MI
120 MI

°/o t ,o
80

- - RHPC concrete
40
o
. . . . . RHPC/pfa concrete

o~
uJ
0
Stress L e v e ~ _ .~_
~-M3M5
w
n-
O 8O -~:-~--~ M5
-~---~ M3

40

0
80 Stress Level: 20
~-M3
•~, M5
¥ % M5
40 -/~ -~ M1
Z-M3~-M1

J 1 i i
3O 60 9O 120 150 180
AGE, days

Fig. 3 Creep/Age Relationships (Age at loading: 18 hr)

concretes, the actual creep strains being smaller due to the relative absence
of drying creep but the differences between the pfa and the RHPC concretes
being marginally greater than at I day. The lower creep values for pfa
concretes cannot be ascribed to a greater increase in strength under load
since, as has already been demonstrated, both concretes exhibit virtually
identical strength development with time. The inclusion of pfa must in some
way alter the nature of the gel within which creep takes place in concrete.
However this alteration is accomplished, the resultant reduction in creep
strain is obviously of significant benefit to prestressed concrete through
reduced prestress losses.

Drying Shrinkage

As for creep, drying shrinkage strains are important in a general sense, in

that if excessive they may lead to unacceptable deflections or cracking in
structural members, and in particular to prestressed concrete in their effect
on stress losses.
Vol. 18, No. 6 861
PRE-CAST CONCRETE, FLYASH, STRENGTH, DEFORMATION

6O ~ _ _ ~ ' .... :-_-{___: .... ~___I___-: M5

~tZZ-.~ : = . . . . . M~
_ . : . .
5O
LU

40 i
z__
rr - - RHPC concrete
30
03 ....... R H P C / p f a concrete
(.9
Z 20
>-
rr
10 J f L l ~ L L i i

0 80 160 240 320 400

A G E , days

Fig. 4 Drying Shrinkage/Age R~lationship (Prism Specimen)

TABLE 7
Drying Shrinkage Values Obtained from Prism and Cylinder Specimens

DRYING SHRINKAGE (xlO -6)

MIX Prism Specimen Cylinder Specimen

1 28 90 180 days i 28 90 180 days

(a) REPC Concrete

M1 130 460 490 495 40 340 530 550
M3 170 480 560 560 60 345 545 600
M5 210 530 595 610 70 380 575 635

(b) RHPC/pfa Concrete

MI 125 430 470 470 30 330 490 515
M3 160 460 515 535 40 350 530 570
M5 175 510 580 590 35 400 550 615

Shrinkage strains measured on prism specimens for a period of 1 year starting

from 3 days after casting (curing A2) are shown in Figure 4 for the three
mixes MI, M3 and M5. It is apparent that while the pfa concretes consistently
show lower drying shrinkage values than their RHPC concrete equivalents, the
differences observed (on average approximately 30 x i0 -° at age i year) are
essentially insignificant. Inclusion of pfa to BS 3892:Part I may thus be
taken to have no practical influence on drying shrinkage whether the concrete
is accelerated cured or, as has previously been demonstrated (12), normally
cured in water.

The drying shrinkage values measured up to 180 days on the cylinder specimens
used as companions to the creep tests were similar in the sense that again the
pfa concretes exhibited consistently less total shrinkage than the RHPC
862 Vol. 18, No. 6
R.K. Dhir, et al.

concretes, but again the differences were marginal. More strikingly, however,
as Table 7 shows, the early shrinkage of the cylinder specimens was much lower
than that of the prisms but it continued at a higher rate for longer so that
at the completion of the cylinder tests at 180 days they exhibited higher
values of drying shrinkage than the prisms. While this may be due either to
the different initial curing and datum age (datum readings on the cylinders
were taken at approximately I day old without any wet curing) or to the
different shapes and volume / surface area ratios of the prism and cylinder
specimens, it clearly illustrates the importance of considering such factors
when interpreting shrinkage data, especially when trying to scale up to full
size structural members.

Conclusions

The objective of this investigation was to determine the effect of pfa

inclusion on the engineering properties of concretes cured under an
accelerated, simulated precast, regime. From the results obtained it is clear
that pfa concrete performs similarly to RHPC concrete under the test conditions
used and in some senses, for example creep strains, marginally outperforms
RHPC concrete. On the basis of the results reported here and those published
in the first two papers of this series (1,2), it is suggested that pfa (to
BS 3892:Part i) in suitable blends with RHPC (to BS 12) can be specified for
use in heat-cured precast prestressed structural concrete.

References

i. Dhir, R.K., Ho, N.Y. and Munday, J.G.L., Concrete, 19, 32 (1985).
2. Dhir, R.K., Ho, N.Y. and Munday, J.G.L., Concrete, 20, 40 (1986).
3. BS 5400: Part 7, 1978, London, British Standards Institution.
4. Dhir, R.K., Munday, J.G.L. and Ong, L.T., Proc. Instn. Civ. Engrs.,
77, Part 2, 239 (1984).
5. Bamforth, P.B., Proc. Instn. Civ. Engrs, 73, Part 2, 777 (1980).
6. Kohno, K., Emura, K. and Kinoshita, K. Ninth Japan Congress on Testing
Materials (Non-metallic materials), 122 (1966).
7. Dalziel, J.A., Proc., Seventh Int. Conf. on the Chemistry of Cement,
Paris, 93 (1980).
8. Ravina, D. J. Am. Concr. Inst. Proc., 78, 194 (1981).
9. Price, W.H. J. Am. Concr. Inst. Proc., 48, 417 (1951).
iO. Waters, T. Mag. Concr. Res. 2, 79 (1955).
ii. Dhir, R.K. and Tham, K.W. 'Superplasticized normal-workability concrete:
strength properties, Tech. Report DT/4, University of Dundee, (1984).
12. Dhir, R.K., Munday, J.G.L. and Ong, L.T. The Structural Engineer, 64B,36
(1986).
13. Mindess, S. and Young, J.F. Concrete, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
(1981).