Department of Mechanical Engineering

CHAPTER 3
Sub-system Design using machine elements
Introduction

Machine design deals with the creation of machinery that works safely, reliably, and well.

Machine Design is the creation of new and better machines or improving existing ones. A new
or better machine is one which is more economical in the overall cost of production and
operation.. In designing a machine component, it is necessary to have a good knowledge of many
subjects such as Mathematics, Engineering Mechanics, Strength of Materials, Theory of
Machines, Workshop Processes and Engineering Drawing.
Classifications
Machine design may be classified as follows:
1. Adaptive design. (don’t reinvent the wheel) Modifying technology that has already been
proven effective can save engineers time and businesses money, and is often far more effective
than trying to design apart from scratch.
2. Development design. (existing concepts and technology but adds or combines new machine
elements and components to create something unique) e.g motorcycle= a
bicycle + a combustion engine.
3. New design. one-of-a-kind innovations; far less common, and requires a lot of time, money,
and research.
The designs, depending upon the methods used, may be classified as follows:
1. Rational Design: This type of design depends on mathematical formulas of the principle
of mechanics.
2. Empirical Design: This type of design depends on empirical formulas based on practice
and past experience.
3. Industrial Design: This type of design depends on the product features for
manufacturing any machine component in the industry.
4. Optimal design: It is the best design for a given objective function under specified
constraints. This can be achieved by reducing undesirable effects.
5. System Design: It is the design of any complicated mechanical system like a motor car.
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6. Element Design: It is the design of any part of a mechanical system such as a

crankshaft, piston, connecting rod, etc.
7. Computer-Aided Design: This type of design relies on the use of computer systems to
aid in the construction, modification, analysis, and optimization of a design.
Machine (Definitions)

An apparatus consisting of interrelated units (machine elements), or

A device that modifies force or motion.

A machine is a mechanism or collection of mechanisms which transmit force from the source of
power to the resistance to be overcome. i.e the internal-combustion engine.
A mechanism is a combination of rigid or resistant bodies so formed and connected that they
move upon each other with definite relative motion. An example is the crank, connecting rod,
and piston of an internal-combustion engine as shown diagrammatically below;

A mechanical system is a set of physical components that convert an input motion and force into
a desired output motion and force.

Mechanical systems have at least three elements: input, process and output.

 The input part of the system is any type of motion and force that drives the mechanical
system. The input motion and force may be from any power source including human
effort, energy from the wind, water, heat etc., from a chemical reaction or from an
electrical, pneumatic or hydraulic device.
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 The process part of the system is where mechanisms are used to convert the input motion
and force into an output motion and force.
 The output is the change created in the input motion and force by the mechanism

The notion of useful work is basic to a machine’s function, as there is almost always some
energy transfer involved.

The mention of forces and motion is also critical to our concerns, as, in converting energy from
one form to another; machines create motion and develop forces.

The engineer’s task is to define and calculate motions, forces, and changes in energy in order to
determine the sizes, shapes, and materials needed for each of the interrelated parts of the
machine. This is the essence of machine design.

Each part’s function and performance (and thus its design) are dependent on many other
interrelated parts within the same machine.

In this course we to attempt to “design the whole machine”, rather than simply designing
individual elements in isolation from one another (as in Design of Machine Elements course).

The ultimate goal in machine design is to size and shape the parts (machine elements) and
choose appropriate materials and manufacturing processes so that the resulting machine can be
expected to perform its intended function without failure.

The engineer should be able to calculate and predict the mode and conditions of failure for each
element and then design it to prevent that failure.

Analysis of the forces, moments, torques, and the dynamics of the system must be done before
the stresses and deflections can be completely calculated.

Stress and deflection analysis should be done for each part.

If the “machine” in question has no moving parts, then the design task becomes much simpler,
because only a static force analysis is required.

If the machine has no moving parts, (and doesn’t meet the definition above); it is then a
structure.
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Structures should to be designed against failure, i.e large external structures (bridges, buildings,
etc.) are also subjected to dynamic loads from wind, earthquakes, traffic, etc.,

If the machine’s motions are very slow and the accelerations negligible, then a static force
analysis will suffice

If the machine
ne has significant accelerations within it, then a dynamic force analysis is needed and
the accelerating parts become “victims of their own mass.”

Example of a mechanical system showing the INPUT, PROCESS and OUTPUT stages

A simplified diagram of the crank and slider mechanism found in a single cylinder internal
combustion engine is shown below;

The system shown above is a small part of a larger and more complex system,

 In order for the fuel to ignite, an ignition system must be in place.

 The fuel must ignite at precisely the correct time so a timing system
 A measured amount of fuel must be injected into the combustion chamber at precisely the
correct time so a fuel injection system must be place.
 Exhaust gases must be evacuated from the combustion chamber at precisely the correct
time so a valve system must be in place.
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An internal combustion engine is a system that gives a motor vehicle the power to move. The
ignition system, the timing system, the fuel injection system and the valve system are
subsystems of the internal combustion engine system

Subsystems are systems that are part of a larger system. Mechanical systems usually comprise of
a number of subsystems.

Feedback and control

The system described above consists of input, process and output elements that result in a
crankshaft rotating. The system does not allow for control over the speed of rotation of the
crankshaft. In order to control the speed of rotation, there must be a monitoring and control
subsystem built into the system. Thi
This can be achieved by:

Using
sing sensors to monitor the input part of the system and feeding the information to a to a
controlling device that makes changes to the input.

Using sensors to monitor the mechanisms in the process part of the system and feeding the
information to a controlling device that makes changes to the input and/or the process part of the
system.
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Examples of sensors used on a motor vehicle

Example1. A sensor senses the speed of a vehicle and feeds information back to the driver
through a speedometer. Feedback is through the speedometer. The driver has control of the
vehicle and decides whether to increase, decrease or maintain current speed.

Example 2. A sensor senses the temperature of the internal combustion engine and displays the
information on a meter (thermometer). The information is also fed to a controlling device. When
the temperature reaches a predetermined point the controlling device switches on an electric fan
that cools the engine. The fan continues cooling the engine until the engine temperature is back
within normal working limits and is then switched off by the controlling device.

Example 3. An engine control unit (ECU) uses information from sensors together with settings
programmed by the driver to control the fuel and ignition systems and so control the speed of the
vehicle. Other uses of the control unit can be to:

 Maintain optimum revolutions of the crankshaft for any given driving condition
 Maintain a constant speed by the use of a cruise control
 Control brake pressure to prevent the vehicle brakes from skidding
 Disengage vital systems in order to prevent theft of the vehicle.

Exercise
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Microwave radiation can heat body tissue the same way it heats food. Exposure to high levels of
microwaves can cause painful burns. Two areas of the body, the eyes and the testes, are
particularly vulnerable to RF heating because there is relatively little blood flow in them to carry
away excess heat. Explain how "feedback" in the microwave machine could prevent the
magnetron from running when one of the doors is open.

Case Study: Design of a Power Transmission system

Many industrial applications require machinery to be powered by engines or electric motors.
The power source usually runs most efficiently at a narrow range of rotational speed. When the
application requires power to be delivered at a slower speed than supplied by the motor, a speed
reducer is introduced. The speed reducer should transmit the power from the motor to the
application with as little energy loss as practical, while reducing the speed and consequently
increasing the torque

A company wishes to provide off-the-shelf speed reducers in various capacities and speed ratios
to sell to a wide variety of target applications.

The marketing team has determined a need for one of these speed reducers to satisfy the
following customer requirements.

Customer requirements
Power to be delivered: 20 hp
Input speed: 1750 rev/min
Output speed: 85 rev/min
Targeted for uniformly loaded applications, such as conveyor belts, blowers, and generators
Output shaft and input shaft in-line
Base mounted with 4 bolts
Continuous operation
6-year life, with 8 hours/day, 5 days/wk
Low maintenance
Competitive cost
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Nominal operating conditions of industrialized locations

Input and output shafts standard size for typical couplings
The list of customer requirements includes some numerical specifics, but also includes some
generalized requirements, e.g., low maintenance and competitive cost.
These general requirements give some guidance on what needs to be considered in the design
process, but are difficult to achieve with any certainty
Develop the customer requirements into a set of product specifications that are measurable.
(Engineering, marketing, management, and customers)
Obtain a product specification that identifies precisely what the product must satisfy.
Design Specifications
Power to be delivered: 20 hp
Power efficiency: 95%
Steady state input speed: 1750 rev/min
Maximum input speed: 2400 rev/min
Steady-state output speed: 82–88 rev/min
Usually low shock levels, occasional moderate shock
Input and output shafts extend 4 in outside gearbox
Input and output shaft diameter tolerance: 60.001 in
Input and output shafts in-line: concentricity 60.005 in, alignment 60.001 rad
Maximum allowable loads on input shaft: axial, 50 lbf; transverse, 100 lbf
Maximum allowable loads on output shaft: axial, 50 lbf; transverse, 500 lbf
Maximum gearbox size: 14-in 3 14-in base, 22-in height
Base mounted with 4 bolts
Mounting orientation only with base on bottom
100% duty cycle
Maintenance schedule: lubrication checks every 2000 hours; change of lubrication every 8000
hours of operation; gears and bearing life: 12,000 hours;
Infinite shaft life; gears, bearings, and shafts replaceable
Access to check, drain, and refill lubrication without disassembly or opening of gasketed joints.
Manufacturing cost per unit: $300
Production: 10,000 units per year
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Operating temperature range: 2108 to 1208F

Sealed against water and dust from typical weather
Noise: 85 dB from 1 meter

This chapter will focus on an overview of a power transmission system design, demonstrating
how to incorporate the details of each component into an overall des
design
ign process.
The following outline will help clarify a logical design sequence
Discussion of how each part of the outline affects the overall design process will be given in
sequence
Details on the specifics for designing and selecting major components are covered in separate
chapters
A compound reverted gear train.

A two-stage,
stage, compound reverted gear train such as shown in Fig. above will be designed. In this
chapter, the design of the intermediate shaft and its components is presented, taking into account
the other shafts as necessary. A subset of the pertinent design specifications that will be needed
for this part of the design are given here.

Power to be delivered: 20 hp
Input speed: 1750 rpm
Output speed: 82–88 rev/min
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Usually low shock levels, occasional moderate shock

Input and output shafts extend 4 in outside gearbox
Maximum gearbox size: 14-in 3 14-in base, 22-in height
Output shaft and input shaft in-line
Gear and bearing life; 12 000 hours; infinite shaft life

-it is necessary to make some tentative choices, and to build a skeleton of a design, and to
determine which parts of the design are critical. However, much time can be saved by
understanding the dependencies between the parts of the problem, allowing the designer to know
what parts will be affected by any given change. In this section, only an outline is presented, with
a short explanation of each step
Power and torque requirements.
Power considerations should be addressed first, as this will determine the overall sizing needs for
the entire system. Any necessary speed or torque ratio from input to output must be determined
before addressing gear/pulley sizing.
Gear specification.
Necessary gear ratios and torque transmission issues can now be addressed with selection of
appropriate gears. Only the transmitted loads are required to specify the gears.
Shaft layout.
The general layout of the shaft, including axial location of gears and bearings must now be
specified. Decisions on how to transmit the torque from the gears to the shaft need to be made
(keys, splines, etc.), as well as how to hold gears and bearings in place (retaining rings, press fits,
nuts, etc.). However, it is not necessary at this point to size these elements, since their standard
sizes allow estimation of stress-concentration factors.
Force analysis.
Once the gear/pulley diameters are known, and the axial locations of the gears and bearings are
known, the free-body, shear force, and bending moment diagrams for the shafts can be produced.
Forces at the bearings can be determined.
Shaft material selection.
Since fatigue design depends so heavily on the material choice, it is usually easier to make a
reasonable material selection first, then check for satisfactory results.
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• Shaft design for stress (fatigue and static).

At this point, a stress design of the shaft should look very similar to a typical design problem
from the shaft chapter (Chap. 7).
Shear force and bending moment diagrams are known, critical locations can be predicted,
approximate stress concentrations can be used, and estimates for shaft diameters can be
determined.
Shaft design for deflection.
Since deflection analysis is dependent on the entire shaft geometry, it is saved until this point.
With all shaft geometry now estimated, the critical deflections at the bearing and gear locations
can be checked by analysis.
• Bearing selection.
Specific bearings from a catalog may now be chosen to match the estimated shaft diameters. The
diameters can be adjusted slightly as necessary to match the catalog specifications.
• Key and retaining ring selection.
With shaft diameters settling in to stable values, appropriate keys and retaining rings can be
specified in standard sizes. This should make little change in the overall design if reasonable
stress-concentration factors were assumed in previous steps.
• Final analysis.
Once everything has been specified, iterated, and adjusted as necessary for any specific part of
the task, a complete analysis from start to finish will provide a final check and specific safety
factors for the actual system.
1. Power and torque requirements.
Determine appropriate tooth counts to reduce the input speed of ω 2 =1750 rev/min to an
output speed within the range 82 rev/min< ω5 <88 rev/min
With a constant power, a gear ratio to decrease the angular velocity will simultaneously
increase torque gear ratio, or train value, for the gear train is

- Choose mean value for initial design, ω 5 = 85 rev/min.

- determine the minimum number of teeth
- rounding off and check if ω5 is within limits.
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Determine Speeds for the intermediate and output shafts determine the torques using the
power relationship power equals the product of torque and speed.
Power in = power out,
Power=T2 ω2 =T5 ω5
2. Gear specification.
1 to 2% power loss in a pair of meshed gears; for double reduction 22-4%
4% loss
Maximum gear ratios 10 to 1 per pair of gears; 100:1 achievable from double reduction
numbers of teeth on gears must be integers; design with teeth numbers rather than
diameters. Care should be taken aatt this point to find the best combination of teeth
numbers to minimize the overall package size.

For a compound reverted gear train

train,

For smallest package size, let both stages be the same reduction. Also, by making the two stages
identical, the in-line condition on the input and output shaft will automatically be satisfied.

=1/e
For this ratio, the minimum number of teeth
Try rounding down and check if output velocity is within limits (integers)
To determine the torques, return to the power relationship,

Estimate the minimum diametral pitch for overall gearbox height

Overall height of the gearbox is
Y = d3 + d2/2 +d5/2 +2/P+
P+ clearances + wall thicknesses
where the 2/P term accounts for the addendum height of the teeth on gears 3 and 5 that
extend beyond the pitch diameters.
Estimate the minimum diametral pitch for overall gearbox height Y
Allow 1.5 in for clearances and wall thickness
Start with an estimated value for diametral pitch P
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Shaft speeds were previously determined

Get pitch-line velocities and transmitted load
Start with the smallest gear, transmitting the largest load
Start with wear by contact stress, since it is often the limiting factor
Face width F is typically from 3 to 5 times circular pitch (estimate) check for commonly
available face widths
3. Shaft layout.
General layout of the shafts, including axial location of gears and bearings, must now be
specified in order to perform a free-body force analysis and to obtain shear force and
bending moment diagrams.
The use of shaft shoulders is an excellent means of axially locating the shaft elements and to
carry any thrust loads
In cases where axial loads are very small, it may be feasible to do without the shoulders entirely,
and rely on press fits, pins, or collars with setscrews to maintain an axial location
Free-body force analysis can be performed without knowing shaft diameters,
The axial positioning of components is often dictated by the layout of the housing and other
meshing components. In general, it is best to support load-carrying components between
bearings. The axial distances between gears and bearings should be known
It is extremely important to keep axial distances small. Even small forces can create large
bending moments if the moment arms are large. The length of the cantilever should be kept short
to minimize the deflection. Only two bearings should be used in most cases. For extremely long
shafts carrying several load-bearing components, it may be necessary to provide more than two
bearing supports. In this case, particular care must be given to the alignment of the bearings.
Shafts should be kept short to minimize bending moments and deflections. Some axial space
between components is desirable to allow for lubricant flow and to provide access space for
disassembly of components with a puller. The components must be accurately located on the
shaft to line up with other mating components, and provision must be made to securely hold the
components in position. The primary means of locating the components is to position them
against a shoulder of the shaft.
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With helical or bevel gears, or tapered roller bearings, as each of these produces axial force
components. Provide a means to transfer the axial loads into the shaft, then through a bearing to
the ground
It is generally best to have only one bearing carry the axial load, to allow greater tolerances on
shaft length dimensions, and to prevent binding if the shaft expands due to temperature changes.
This is particularly important for long shafts.
Most shafts serve to transmit torque from an input gear or pulley, through the shaft, to an output
gear or pulley Common torque-transfer elements are:
• Keys
• Splines
• Setscrews
• Pins
• Press or shrink fits
• Tapered fits
Many of these devices are designed to fail if the torque exceeds acceptable operating limits,
protecting more expensive components
Consideration should be given to the method of assembling the components onto the shaft, and
the shaft assembly into the frame. This generally requires the largest diameter in the center of the
shaft, with progressively smaller diameters towards the ends to allow components to be slid on
from the ends. If a shoulder is needed on both sides of a component, one of them must be created
Sketch for shaft layout
Bearing widths are guessed, allowing a little more space for larger bearings on the
intermediate shaft where bending moments will be greater.
Wider face widths on gears require more shaft length
-gears with hubs allow the use of set screws instead of high-stress concentration retaining
rings.
-extra hub lengths add several mm to the shaft lengths and the gearbox housing.
-allow space for a bearing puller to have space to access the back of the bearing.
Each bearing is restrained axially on its shaft, but only one bearing on each shaft is
axially fixed in the housing, allowing for slight axial thermal expansion of the shafts.
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4. Force analysis.
Once the gear diameters are known, and the axial locations of the components are set, the
free-body diagrams and shear force and bending moment diagrams for the shafts can be
produced. With the known transmitted loads, determine the radial and axial loads
transmitted through the gears by checking that deflections and slopes at the gears and
bearings on the intermediate shaft are within acceptable ranges.
5. Shaft material selection.
Deflection is not affected by strength, but rather by stiffness as represented by the modulus of
elasticity, which is essentially constant for all steels. Therefore rigidity cannot be controlled by
material decisions, but only by geometric decisions
Necessary strength to resist loading stresses affects the choice of materials and their treatments
start with inexpensive, low or medium carbon steel for the first time through the design
calculations. If strength considerations turn out to dominate over deflection, then a higher
strength material should be tried, allowing the shaft sizes to be reduced until excess deflection
becomes an issue.
-cost of the material and its processing must be weighed against the need for smaller shaft
diameters
A trial material for the shaft can be selected at any point before the stress design of the shaft,
and can be modified as necessary during the stress design process. an inexpensive steel, 1020
CD, is initially selected. After the stress analysis, a slightly higher strength 1050 CD is
chosen to reduce the critical stresses without further increasing the shaft diameters.
6. Shaft design for stress (fatigue and static).
It is not necessary to evaluate the stresses in a shaft at every point; a few potentially critical
locations will suffice. Critical locations will usually be on the outer surface, at axial locations
where the bending moment is large, where the torque is present, and where stress concentrations
exist. Most shafts will transmit torque through a portion of the shaft. Typically the torque comes
into the shaft at one gear and leaves the shaft at another gear. A free body diagram of the shaft
will allow the torque at any section to be determined. The bending moments on a shaft can be
determined by shear and bending moment diagrams. Axial stresses on shafts due to the axial
components transmitted through helical gears or tapered roller bearings will almost always be
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negligibly small compared to the bending moment stress. The stress analysis process for fatigue
is highly dependent on stress concentrations.
Stress concentrations for shoulders and keyways are dependent on size specifications that are not
known the first time through the process. Fortunately, since these elements are usually of
standard proportions, it is possible to estimate the stress-concentration factors for initial design of
the shaft. These stress concentrations will be fine-tuned in successive iterations, once the details
are known.
7. Shaft design for deflection.
Deflection analysis at even a single point of interest requires complete geometry information for
the entire shaft. For this reason, it is desirable to design the dimensions at critical locations to
handle the stresses, and fill in reasonable estimates for all other dimensions, before performing a
deflection analysis. Deflection of the shaft, both linear and angular, should be checked at gears
and bearings. Allowable deflections will depend on many factors, and bearing and gear catalogs
should be used for guidance on allowable misalignment for specific bearings and gears.
Local factors such as fillets, grooves, and keyways do not have much impact on deflection. Many
shafts will include forces in multiple planes, requiring either a three-dimensional analysis, or the
use of superposition to obtain deflections in two planes which can then be summed as vectors. A
simple planar beam analysis program will be used. By modeling the shaft twice, with loads in
two orthogonal planes, and combining the results, the shaft deflections can readily be obtained.
A deflection analysis is straightforward, but it is lengthy and tedious to carry out manually,
particularly for multiple points of interest. Consequently, practically all shaft deflection analysis
will be evaluated with the assistance of software. Any general purpose finite-element software
can readily handle a shaft problem.
Solution
A simple planar beam analysis program will be used. By modeling the shaft twice, with loads in
two orthogonal planes, and combining the results, the shaft deflections can readily be obtained.
For both planes, the material is selected (steel with E = 30 Mpsi), the shaft lengths and diameters
are entered, and the bearing locations are specified. Local details like grooves and keyways are
ignored, as they will have insignificant effect on the deflections. Then the tangential gear forces
are entered in the horizontal xz plane model, and the radial gear forces are entered in the vertical
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xy plane model. The software can calculate the bearing reaction forces, and numerically integrate
to generate plots for shear, moment, slope, and deflection
8. Bearing selection.
Bearing reaction forces and the approximate bore diameters are known. Rolling-contact
bearings are available with a wide range of load capacities and dimensions, so it is
usually not a problem to find a suitable bearing that is close to the estimated bore
diameter and width
The problem specifies a design life of 12 000h.
The intermediate shaft speed is 389rpm
-reliability of 99%
Try a ball roller bearing
Recalculate using roller bearing if greater capacity is required.
The bearing widths are close to the original estimates. Slight adjustments should be made
to the shaft dimensions to match the bearings. No redesign should be necessary.
Solution
From the free-body diagram determine the reactions
Determine the bearing life in revolutions
Check on the Internet/datasheets for available bearings
Start with ball bearings and move to roller bearings if the load is too big
Get the dynamic load rating C, ID, OD, width W, shoulder diameter, fillet radius
The actual bearing dimensions can be checked against the initial assumptions.
The fillet radii can be increased (based on selected bearing) from the original design,
decreasing the stress-concentration factors.
Adjustments should be made to the shaft dimensions to match the bearings width if
necessary.
1. Key and retaining ring selection.
The cross-sectional size of the key will be dictated to correlate with the shaft size The design
decision includes the length of the key, and if necessary an upgrade in material choice. Checking
for failure by crushing, we find the area of one-half the face of the key is used. Since both gears
have the same bore diameter and transmit the same torque, the same key specification can be
used for both
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Retaining ring selection is simply a matter of checking catalog specifications. The retaining rings
are listed for nominal shaft diameter, and are available with different axial load capacities. Once
selected, the designer should make note of the depth of the groove, the width of the groove, and
the fillet radius in the bottom of the groove. The catalog specification for the retaining ring also
includes an edge margin, which is the minimum distance to the next smaller diameter change.
This is to ensure support for the axial load carried by the ring. It is important to check stress-
concentration factors with actual dimensions, as these factors can be rather large
The final shaft should be updated with these dimensions

Table: Inch Dimensions for Some Standard Square and Rectangular-Key Applications

2. Final analysis.
- determine dimensions and tolerances for appropriate fits with the gears and bearings.
Any small changes from the nominal diameters already specified will have negligible effect on
the stress and deflection analysis.
For manufacturing and assembly purposes, the designer should not overlook the tolerance
specification.
For documentation purposes, and for a check on the design work, the design process should
conclude with a complete analysis of the final design. Remember that analysis is much more
straightforward than design, so the investment of time for the final analysis will be relatively
small.
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