AIRCRAFT

LOADS

AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I
Aircraft loads are those forces and loadings applied to the AIRCRAFT EXTERNAL LOADS
airplane structural components to establish the strength
level of the complete airplane.

The determination of design loads involves a study of the

air pressures and inertia forces during certain prescribed
maneuvers, either in the air or on the ground.

Aircraft loads is the science of determining the loads that

an aircraft structures must be designed to withstand. A
large part of the forces that make up design loads are the
forces resulting from the flow of air about the airplane’s
surfaces – the same forces that enable flight and control
of the aircraft.

Aircraft External loads are generally defined as those forces

and loads applied to the aircraft structural components to
establish the strength level of the complete aircraft. The
strength level, or structural criteria, is defined by the aircraft
speed, load factors, and maneuvers the aircraft must be
capable of performing.

AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I
Airplane loads come from diverse sources. These include Inertia loads are primary source of loads for aircraft and
(from FAR subpart ; Structures) arise because of accelerations created by engine thrust,

a. ÷:*
1. Component and payload weight maneuvers or gust conditions.

÷
2. -Air loads: lift, drag, gusts
- AERODYNAMICS The concept of the load factor or g-force is used to
3. Acoustic Loads describe inertia loads created by acceleration and resisted
4. Thermal Loads by the structural components to keep it acting as a unit.
5. Landing Loads: touchdown, arresting
6. Take-off loads: runway taxi, catapult, assisted (e.g jet How do we compute inertia loads?
or rocket) take-off
7. ✓Power plant loads: thrust, engine torque, gyroscopic O
Newton’s Second Law is written as F=ma; we compute
airplane accelerations once we know the airplaneO
-

effects mass,
8. ✓Special loads: towing, refueling, pressurization, cargo, m, and the net forces, F. We include all external forces and
_

weapons recoil, bomb release, blast effects. gravity acting on the airplane in our calculation of F. This
calculation allows us to compute vehicle trajectories, but
Most of the loads resisted by structural elements are due
to aircraft weight (actually the aircraft’s mass) and the fact
-0
structural analysts must compute forces inside the
accelerating airplane structure in a non-inertial reference
-
that the airplane accelerates during flight. system.
-

(
INERTIA MAD
0
Computing inertia forces is simple. While we write the
dynamics equation F=ma so that we can compute the
F- Ma O
acceleration a=F/m, we can also write the equation as F-
ma=0. → DYMAMCEQ.IQ
F Ma -0
.

AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I

Written this way, this equation looks like a static
equilibrium equation so it is called the “dynamic
0
-
equilibrium equation.” The term (–ma) is called the
The aircraft shown has a gross weight of 15,000
lb. and is being launched from an aircraft carrier.
The tension, T, in the cable acts through the
airplane c.g. and is sufficient to give the aircraft
0
a forward acceleration of 3.25g. o

-0
We want to find the cable tension and reaction
◦
“inertia force.” loads on the aircraft landing gear, labeled as R1
and R2 in the figure. Note that the force R1
represents the combined reaction force of both ◦
Inertia forces are also called “D‟Alembert forces” to honor of the main gear.

q§
GIVEN ' REQ'D
the French mathematician Jean le Rond d‟Alembert .

Max = F=
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15000lb 1- ?

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(1717-1783) who first formulated the concept and the W -

a* 3.259 R, - ?
↑
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process of converting the mass times the acceleration of -

Rr= ?
+ I w=mgm
an object into a static load is called d‟Alembert‟s
-
-

120in g-
,

Principle. Rz
70in
Ri
Max
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Max -_ 3.25W

An alternative way of calculating the vehicle inertia loads # "" °

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=

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Wsw
Inertia forces have special properties. They are vectors Wsw
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-

that:
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1. act through the object’s center of mass
2.have a direction opposite to the direction of
acceleration
Game :-O
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3. are proportional to the mass of the object.
R, __Rv(%)¥↓ Rz-s7276.344ws-lbsl.PL#
AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I
 ⑧
UH =
LIMIT XFS
The determination of design loads on the various 𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅
structural components involves a study of the air 𝑭𝑺 =
𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒊𝒕 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅
pressures and inertia forces during certain prescribed
maneuvers, either in the air or on the ground. 0
Factor of safety which varies from 1.25 for missile
structures to 0 1.5 for aircraft structures is used in
practically every design because of the uncertainties
To ensure safety, structural integrity, and reliability of
involving:
flight vehicles along with the optimality of design,
1. The simplifying assumption used in the theoretical
government agencies, both civil and military, have
analyses
established definite specifications and requirements in
2. The variations in material properties and in the
regard to the magnitude of loads to be used in structural
standards of quality control
design of the various flight vehicles.
3. The emergency actions which might have to be taken
by the pilot, resulting in loads on the vehicle larger
Terms are defined below which are generally used in the
than the specified limit loads
specification of loads on flight vehicles.

The limit loads used by civil agencies or applied loads

used by military agencies are the maximum anticipated
loads in the entire service life-span of the vehicle.

The ultimate loads, commonly referred to as design loads,

are the limit loads multiplied by a factor of safety (FS)

AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I
Load factors 19 =L/W l=W
In normal straight and level flight the wing lift supports
the weight of the airplane. During maneuvers of flight
through turbulent (gusty) air, however, additional loads
are imposed which will increase or decrease the net loads
on the airplane structure. The amount of additional load
depends on the severity of the maneuvers or the
turbulence, and its magnitude is measured in terms of
load factor
An alternative way of calculating the vehicle inertia loads
is to use the “load factor” concept. Thrust load factor (horizontal load factor)- is obtained
Load factor is a multiplying factor which defines a load in from the equilibrium of the horizontal forces show in

⊖
terms of weight. above figure
"

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𝒂 𝑻−𝑫
𝒏=𝟏+ 𝒏𝒙 =
𝒈 𝑾
𝒍𝒊𝒇𝒕
𝒏=
𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
Equating the lift nW to the sum of the weight and inertia
forces: 𝒂
𝑳 = 𝒏𝑾 = 𝑾 + 𝑾
𝒈

AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I
The airplane shown in Figure 3-8 weighs W = 120,000 lb.
During touchdown its engines apply a reverse thrust of 8,000 pit
→
✗

lb. and the rear wheels exert 30% of their normal force during
braking. Max
↑

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AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I
?⃝
FAR PART 23 SUBPART C – STRUCTURES
§ 23.2200 Structural design envelope.
The applicant must determine the structural design envelope, which describes the range and limits of airplane design and
operational parameters for which the applicant will show compliance with the requirements of this subpart. The applicant
must account for all airplane design and operational parameters that affect structural loads, strength, durability, and
aeroelasticity, including:
(a) Structural design airspeeds, landing descent speeds, and any other airspeed limitation at which the applicant must show
compliance to the requirements of this subpart. The structural design airspeeds must -
(1) Be sufficiently greater than the stalling speed of the airplane to safeguard against loss of control in turbulent
air; and
(2) Provide sufficient margin for the establishment of practical operational limiting airspeeds.
(b) Design maneuvering load factors not less than those, which service history shows, may occur within the structural
design envelope.
(c) Inertial properties including weight, center of gravity, and mass moments of inertia, accounting for -
(1) Each critical weight from the airplane empty weight to the maximum weight; and
(2) The weight and distribution of occupants, payload, and fuel.
(d) Characteristics of airplane control systems, including range of motion and tolerances for control surfaces, high lift
devices, or other moveable surfaces.
(e) Each critical altitude up to the maximum altitude.

AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I
§ 23.2210 Structural design loads.
(a) The applicant must:
(1) Determine the applicable structural design loads
resulting from likely externally or internally applied
pressures, forces, or moments that may occur in
flight, ground and water operations, ground and
water handling, and while the airplane is parked or
moored.
(2) Determine the loads required by paragraph
(a)(1) of this section at all critical combinations of
parameters, on and within the boundaries of the
structural design envelope.
(b) The magnitude and distribution of the applicable
structural design loads required by this section must be based
on physical principles.
§ 23.2215 Flight load conditions.
The applicant must determine the structural design loads
resulting from the following flight conditions:
(a) Atmospheric gusts where the magnitude and gradient of
these gusts are based on measured gust statistics.
(b) Symmetric and asymmetric maneuvers.
(c) Asymmetric thrust resulting from the failure of a
powerplant unit.
§ 23.2220 Ground and water load conditions.
The applicant must determine the structural design loads
resulting from taxi, takeoff, landing, and handling conditions
on the applicable surface in normal and adverse attitudes and
configurations.
§ 23.2225 Component loading conditions.
The applicant must determine the structural design loads
acting on:
(a) Each engine mount and its supporting structure such that
both are designed to withstand loads resulting from -
(1) Powerplant operation combined with flight gust
and maneuver loads; and
(2) For non-reciprocating powerplants, sudden
powerplant stoppage.
(b) Each flight control and high-lift surface, their associated
system and supporting structure resulting from -
(1) The inertia of each surface and mass balance
attachment;
(2) Flight gusts and maneuvers;
(3) Pilot or automated system inputs;
(4) System induced conditions, including jamming
and friction; and
AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I
 (5) Taxi, takeoff, and landing operations on the
applicable surface, including downwind taxi and
gusts occurring on the applicable surface.
(c) A pressurized cabin resulting from the pressurization
differential -
(1) From zero up to the maximum relief pressure
combined with gust and maneuver loads;
(2) From zero up to the maximum relief pressure
combined with ground and water loads if the
airplane may land with the cabin pressurized; and
(3) At the maximum relief pressure multiplied by
1.33, omitting all other loads.
§ 23.2230 Limit and ultimate loads.
The applicant must determine -
(a) The limit loads, which are equal to the structural design
loads unless otherwise specified elsewhere in this part; and
(b) The ultimate loads, which are equal to the limit loads
multiplied by a 1.5 factor of safety unless otherwise specified
elsewhere in this part.

AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I
☆
AERODYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS ✓
The overall aerodynamic characteristics of the aircraft are
important to the determination of structural loads. Some of the
necessary information that must be determined by analysis and
¥-7
wind tunnel tests are:
1. Basic aircraft stability characteristics
2. Pressure distributions over the wing, empennage, and
fuselage
3. Control surface hinge moments
4. Pressure distributions over high lift devices, such as flaps and
slates
These are usually obtained from wind tunnel tests of force and
pressure models. These are conducted in subsonic and
transonic wind tunnels to get the effects of compressibility.
When wind tunnel tests are not available, estimates are made
from wind tunnel and flight tests of past similar models.
Landing gear shock-absorbing characteristics are determined
by analytical means and then verified by drop test of the gear.
LOAD ANALYSIS
Design loads are determined for the various structural
components using computers. Some of the Analyses required
are:
Design loads are determined for the various structural
components using computers. Some of the Analyses required
are:
• Maneuver loads analysis
• Gust loads analysis
- Static approaches
- Dynamic approaches
÷
• Landing loads analysis including both rigid airframe and
dynamic analyses
• Ground handling loads including both rigid and elastic
aircraft characteristics
• Control surface reversal characteristics and load
distributions
• Dynamic analyses for control surface oscillatory conditions
due to "black box" (autopilot or yaw damper) failure
• Flutter analysis and tests including both wind tunnel and
flight testing to verify the adequacy of the damping
characteristics of the aircraft throughout the speed range
AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I
FLIGHT LOADS
Aircraft operating variables for which critical values must be
determined in showing compliance with the flight load
0
requirements are:
Flight altitude
Operating weight
Center of gravity (e.g.) travel-
(A) Maneuver Loads
Symmetrical:

_.,§sg** ¥,,⊖
Use the common maneuver V-n diagram ('V' represents aircraft
speed and 'n' represent load factor), as shown, to represent the
maneuver load requirements for an aircraft. Because of the
effects of compressibility on wing lift and the effects of varying
air density on aircraft speed capability, V-n diagrams have (a) Flap-up case:

O
different shapes at different attitudes. All critical combinations For airworthy transport category aircraft, design to a minimum
of altitude, weight, and e.g. travel position must be positive limit load factor of 2.5 and a negative load factor of -
investigated. 1.0
Within the limits of the diagrams the aircraft must be checked
for both balanced and pitching maneuver conditions. In a
balanced condition the aircraft is assumed to be in equilibrium
with zero pitching acceleration. This can be achieved in a
steady state pull-up or turn. All critical points around the
periphery of the diagram must be checked for this condition.
AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I
 UnSymmetrical:
(a) Rolling case:

0
Rolling occurs due to the application of roll control devices and
it is an unbalanced moment about the aircraft e.g. that is to be
reacted by aircraft inertia forces. The effect of wing torsional
deflections on the rolling effectiveness of the ailerons and
spoilers must be accounted for. Figure shows the load
relationships and symmetrical load factor requirements for
rolling. The aileron and spoiler deflection requirements at each
of the required speeds are as follows:

É
At VA, sudden deflection of ailerons and spoilers to stops
(limited by pilot effort)
At V c, ailerons and spoiler deflection to produce roll rate same
(b) Flap-down case:
as above at VA
Flap-down maneuver requirements are derived in the same
At Vo, ailerons and spoiler deflection to produce roll rate 1/3 of
way as those for flap-up except as affected by the following
above at VA

y
differences:
1. Because greater wing lift coefficients are possible with flap-
down, the aerodynamic lift curve is steeper
2. A maximum limit load factor of 2.0 is required
3. The V-n diagram is limited by a speed (VF) which is equal to
the stall speed multiplied by a factor of 1.6 or 1.8, depending
on the aircraft weight condition and flap setting

AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I
(b) Yawing case:
The yawing maneuver occurs due to rudder deflection and
produces three design requirements:

i
• With the aircraft in unaccelerated flight at a speed VA (the
design maneuvering speed), and at zero yaw, the rudder is
suddenly displaced to the maximum deflection. This causes a
high yawing acceleration
• The aircraft then yaws to a maximum side slip angle. This is a
momentary dynamic overyaw condition
• With the aircraft settled down to a static side slip angle, the
rudder is then returned to neutral

GUSTS
Symmetrical:
6KBcoNMtwnf (a) Flap-up case:
Gust criteria are based upon the fact that turbulent conditions
of varying intensity occur in the air through which the aircraft
flies. As with maneuver requirements, all critical combinations
of altitude, weight, and e.g. position must be investigated for
all critical points around the periphery of the gust V-n diagram
as shown. Special considerations apply when accelerations
caused by gusts are computed for flexible swept wing
configuration.
AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I
 UnSymmetrical:
(a) Rolling case:
The condition of unsymmetrical gusts must be considered by
modifying the symmetrical gusts at B' or C' on the gust Y-n
diagram. 100% loads are applied to one side and 80% on the
other.
(b) Yawing case:
The aircraft is assumed to encounter lateral gusts while in
unaccelerated flight. The derived gusts at the related aircraft
speed of VB (design speed for maximum gust intensity), VC
(design cruise speed), and VD (design dive speed) must be
investigated for flap-up and flap-down conditions.

GUSTS
Symmetrical:
(b) Flap-down case:
The requirements call for positive and negative 25 fps (feet per
second) gusts for speeds up to Y F (flap speed).

AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I
Figure illustrates an airplane landing on a Navy aircraft carrier pit -0

112000lb
ames

*mק
→✗

and being arrested by a cable pull T on the airplane arresting -

d(t)tR(Min]
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hook. If the airplane ·weight is 12,000 lbs. and the airplane is

D= RCM.tn)
given a constant acceleration of 3.5g (112.7 ft/sec^2 ), find the

Me
hook pull T, the wheel reaction R, and the distance (d) between
Train d=LB"
the line of action of the hook pull and the airplane e.g. If the
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AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I
An airplane equipped with float is catapulted into the air from
a Navy Cruiser as illustrated in Fig, A4.16. The catapulting force "
"
P gives the airplane a constant horizontal acceleration of 3g
(96.6 ft/sec^2). The gross weight of airplane 9000 lb. and the
catapult track is 35 ft. long. Find the catapulting force P and the
reactions R1 and R2 from the catapult car. The engine thrust is 78th + Patz -0

P*¥← ⁿoin↑
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AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I
?⃝
 10000 lbs
When landing on a carrier, a 10,000 lb airplane is given a

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AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I
 LANDING MN
Assume that the airplane shown weighs 20,000 lb. and that the

Vf2_V2⑤
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a. Find the wheel reactions RI and R2. ""
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AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I
no
A 20,000-lb airplane with the dimensions shown is being catapulted from a """"

_¥I¥④
→
carrier with a forward acceleration of 3g.

R2
0
a. Find the tension in the launching cable T and the wheel reactions R1 and .

b. Find the horizontal tension and vertical shear in the fuselage at cross

÷€_i¥ii¥→↑
sections 0 AA and 0
BB if the portion of the airplane forward of section AA
↓
.

weighs 3,500 lb and the portion aft of section BB weighs 2,000 lb. Check
the results by considering the part of the airplane between the two cross
sections.
0
c. If the flying speed is 80 mph, what distance is required for the airplane to
gain this speed? How much time is required?
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AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I
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AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I
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AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I
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AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I
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AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I
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AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I
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AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I
The 8,000-lb airplane shown is landing on soft ground with an upward
acceleration, uy, of 3.5g and an aft acceleration, a,, of 1.5g. Find the
-

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AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I
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AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I
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AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I
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AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I
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AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I
A 30,000-lb airplane is shown figure1, at the time of landing impact, when
the ground reaction on each main wheel is 45,000 lb. BBB
a. If one wheel and tire weighs 500 lb, find the compression C and
bending moment m in the oleo strut, if the strut is vertical and is 6 in. from
the center line of the wheel, as shown in Fig. 1.b
b. Find the shear and bending moment at section AA of the wing, if the
wing outboard of this section weighs 1,500 lb and has its center of gravity
120 in. outboltrd of section AA.
c. Find the required shock strut deflection if the airplane strikes the ground ☆•
with a vertical velocity of 12 ft/sec and has a constant vertical deceleration
until the vertical velocity is zero. This neglects the energy absorbed by the
tire deflection, which may be large in some cases. ABBIE
d. Find the time required for the vertical velocity to become zero.

AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I