Directive Principles of State Policy-2

LEC-11
• DPSPs under the liberal-intellectual principles
• new DPSPs that were added to the Indian Constitution
• Criticisms of DPSP
• Difference between Fundamental Rights and DPSP
What are the different classification of DPSP?
Liberal–Intellectual Principles
The principles included in this category represent the ideology of
liberalism.
They direct the state:
To secure for all citizens a uniform civil code throughout the
country (Article 44)
To provide early childhood care and education for all children until
they complete the age of six years (Article 45)
To organise agriculture and animal husbandry on modern and
scientific lines (Article 48)
NEW DPSP ADDED
The 42nd Amendment Act of 1976 added four new
Directive Principles to the original list
• To secure opportunities for healthy development of
children (Article 39).
• To promote equal justice and to provide free legal aid to
the poor (Article39 A).
• To take steps to secure the participation of workers in
the management of industries (Article 43 A).
• To protect and improve the environment and to
safeguard forests and wildlife (Article 48 A).
• The 44th Amendment Act of 1978 added one more
Directive Principle, which requires the State to minimise
inequalities in income, status, facilities and
opportunities (Article 38)
• The 86th Amendment Act of 2002 changed the subject-
matter of Article 45 and made elementary education a
fundamental right under Article 21 A
• The 97th Amendment Act of 2011 added a new
Directive Principle relating to co-operative societies
• CRITICISM OF THE DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES
• No Legal Force
• Illogically Arranged
• Conservative
• Constitutional Conflict
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS
AND DIRECTIVE
PRINCIPLES
• These are negative as they prohibit the State from
doing certain things. These are positive as they require
the State to do certain things
• These are justiciable, that is, they are legally
enforceable by the courts in case of their violation. these
are non-justiciable, that is, they are not legally enforceable by
the courts for their violation
• They aim at establishing political democracy in the
country. They aim at establishing social and economic
democracy in the country
• These have legal sanctions. These have moral and
political sanctions
• They promote the welfare of the individual. They
promote the welfare of the community
• They do not require any legislation for their
implementation. They are not automatically enforced
• The courts are bound to declare a law violative of any of
the Fundamental Rights as unconstitutional and invalid.
The courts cannot declare a law violative of any of the
Directive Principles as unconstitutional and invalid
• References:
• B. Chakraborty (2017) Indian Constitution: Text, Context and
Interpretation
• M. Laxmikanth (2016). INDIAN POLITY.
• S.G. Subramanian (2019). Indian Constitution and Indian Polity
• M.R. Ram, Indian Constitution, New Delhi: New Age
International Limited Publishers, 2009
• https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/directive-principles-of-st
ate-policy-conscience-of-the-constitution/story-lB67mrmVaSSJh
V5NSC1WbO.html
• Why do you think DPSP were made non enforceable and non
justiciable?
Directive Principles of State Policy
LEC-12
• Case study on conflict over primacy between DPSP and
Fundamental Rights
• Constitutional Amendments and DPSP
• CONFLICT BETWEEN FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS AND
DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES
• Champakam Dorairajan case (1951)
• the Supreme Court ruled that in case of any conflict
between the Fundamental Rights and the Directive
Principles, the former would prevail
• Golaknath case (1967)
• the Court held that the Fundamental Rights cannot be
amended for the implementation of the Directive
Principles
• The Parliament reacted to the Supreme Court’s
judgement in the Golaknath Case (1967) by enacting
the 24th Amendment Act (1971) and the 25th
Amendment Act (1971).
• The 25th Amendment Act inserted a new Article 31C
which contained the following two provisions:
o No law which seeks to implement the socialistic
Directive Principles specified in Article 39 (b) and (c)
shall be void on the ground of contravention of the
Fundamental Rights conferred by Article 14 (equality
before law and equal protection of laws), Article 19
(protection of six rights in respect of speech, assembly,
movement, etc) or Article 31 (right to property).
• No law containing a declaration for giving effect to such
policy shall be questioned in any court on the ground
that it does not give effect to such a policy
• the Kesavananda Bharati case (1973)
• the Supreme Court declared the above second provision
of Article 31C as unconstitutional and invalid on the
ground that judicial review is a basic feature of the
Constitution and hence, cannot be taken away

• Later, the 42nd Amendment Act (1976) extended the

scope of the above first provision of Article 31C by
including within its protection any law to implement any
of the Directive Principles and not merely those
specified in Article 39 (b) and (c)
• Minerva Mills case (1980)
• the Directive Principles were once again made
subordinate to the Fundamental Rights.
• the Fundamental Rights conferred by Article 14 and
Article 19 were accepted as subordinate to the Directive
Principles specified in Article 39 (b) and (c)
• Further, Article 31 (right to property) was abolished by
the 44th Amendment Act (1978).
• Constitutional Amendments and DPSP
• the 1976 Forty-Second Amendment Act and Forty-Fourth
Amendment Act of 1978 seem to have radically altered India’s
constitutional texture by privileging DPSPs in decision making
• Two Articles were inserted: Article 39A insists that the State is
under obligation ‘to ensure that opportunities for justice are
not denied to any citizen by reason of economic or other
disabilities’
• Seeking to translate the ideological goal of making the
workers integral to the management of industries and other
undertakings, Article 43A creates a legitimate space for them
• The outcome of the Forty-Fourth Amendment Act was
the insertion of Clause 2 which became a part of Article
38 which underlines:
“The State shall . . . strive to minimize the inequalities in
income, and endeavour to eliminate inequalities in
status, facilities, opportunities, not only amongst
individuals but also amongst groups of people residing in
different areas or engaged in different profession”
• References:
• B. Chakraborty (2017) Indian Constitution: Text, Context
and Interpretation
• M. Laxmikanth (2016). INDIAN POLITY
• Tutorial:
• http://www.lawjournals.org/download/259/4-1-38-426.pd
f-
Role of directive principles towards welfare of the state
and social development in India
• Which DPSPs do you think have been implemented in
India?
Amendments to the constitution
• Article 368 in Part XX of the Constitution deals with the
powers of Parliament to amend the Constitution and its
procedure.
• the Parliament cannot amend those provisions which
form the ‘basic structure’ of the Constitution.
• this was ruled by the Supreme Court in the
Kesavananda Bharati case (1973).
TYPES OF AMENDMENTS
• Amendment by simple majority of the Parliament,
• Amendment by special majority of the Parliament, and
• Amendment by special majority of the Parliament and
the ratification of half of the state legislatures
• By Simple Majority of Parliament
• 1. Admission or establishment of new states.
• 2. Formation of new states and alteration of areas, boundaries or names of
existing states.
• 3. Abolition or creation of legislative councils in states.
• 4. Second Schedule—emoluments, allowances, privileges and so on of the
president, the governors, the Speakers, judges, etc.
• 5. Quorum in Parliament.
• 6. Salaries and allowances of the members of Parliament.
• 7. Rules of procedure in Parliament.
• 8. Privileges of the Parliament, its members and its committees.
• 9. Use of English language in Parliament.
• 10. Number of puisne judges in the Supreme Court.
• 11. Conferment of more jurisdiction on the Supreme Court.
• 12. Use of official language.
• 13. Citizenship—acquisition and termination.
• 14. Elections to Parliament and state legislatures.
• 15. Delimitation of constituencies.
• 16. Union territories.
• 17. Fifth Schedule—administration of scheduled areas and
scheduled tribes.
• 18. Sixth Schedule—administration of tribal areas.
• By Special Majority of Parliament
• The majority of the provisions in the Constitution need to
be amended by a special majority of the Parliament, that
is, a majority (that is, more than 50 per cent) of the total
membership of each House and a majority of two-thirds of
the members of each House present and voting.
• The provisions which can be amended by this way
includes: (i) Fundamental Rights;(ii) Directive Principles of
State Policy; and (iii) All other provisions which are not
covered by the first and third categories
• By Special Majority of Parliament and Consent of States
• a special majority of the Parliament and also with the consent of half of
the state legislatures by a simple majority.
• The following provisions can be amended in this way:
• 1. Election of the President and its manner.
• 2. Extent of the executive power of the Union and the states.
• 3. Supreme Court and high courts.
• 4. Distribution of legislative powers between the Union and the states.
• 5. Any of the lists in the Seventh Schedule.
• 6. Representation of states in Parliament.
• 7. Power of Parliament to amend the Constitution and its procedure
• CRITICISM OF THE AMENDMENT PROCEDURE
• There is no provision for a special body like
Constitutional Convention (as in USA) or Constitutional
Assembly for amending the Constitution
• The power to initiate an amendment to the Constitution
lies with the Parliament.
• the state legislatures cannot initiate any bill or proposal
for amending the Constitution except in one case, that
is, passing a resolution requesting the Parliament for the
creation or abolition of legislative councils in the states
• in few cases, the consent of the state legislatures is required and
that too, only half of them
• The Constitution does not prescribe the time frame within which
the state legislatures should ratify or reject an amendment
submitted to them.
• There is no provision for holding a joint sitting of both the Houses
of Parliament if there is a deadlock over the passage of a
constitutional amendment bill
• The process of amendment is similar to that of a legislative process
• The provisions relating to the amendment procedure are too
sketchy.
Lec-14: President
• ELECTION OF THE PRESIDENT
• Qualifications and Terms
• Term of President’s Office
• Impeachment of President
• Executive Powers
• Legislative Powers
• The Union executive consists of the President, the Vice-
President, the Prime Minister, the council of ministers
and the attorney general of India
• ELECTION OF THE PRESIDENT
• The President is elected not directly by the people but
by members of electoral college consisting of:
• 1. the elected members of both the Houses of
Parliament;
• 2. the elected members of the legislative assemblies of
the states;
• 3. the elected members of the legislative assemblies of
the Union Territories of Delhi and Puducherry
• Qualifications and Terms
• He / she must be a citizen of India;
• must have completed the age of 35 years;
• must be qualified for election as a Member of the Lok
Sabha;
• He should not hold any office of profit under the Union
government or any state government or any local
authority or any other public authority
• Term of President’s Office
• The President holds office for a term of five years from the date
on which he enters upon his office.
• However, he can resign from his office at any time by addressing
the resignation letter to the Vice-President.
• Further, he can also be removed from the office before
completion of his term by the process of impeachment.
• The President can hold office beyond his term of five years until
his successor assumes charge.
• He is also eligible for re-election to that office. He may be elected
for any number of terms
• Impeachment of President
• The President can be removed from office by a process
of impeachment for ‘violation of the Constitution’.
• The impeachment charges can be initiated by either
House of Parliament
• These charges should be signed by one-fourth members
of the House (that framed the charges), and a 14 days’
notice should be given to the President
• After the impeachment resolution is passed by a
majority of two-thirds of the total membership of that
House, it is sent to the other House, which should
investigate the charges.
• The President has the right to appear and to be
represented at such investigation.
• If the other House also sustains the charges and passes
the impeachment resolution by a majority of two-thirds
of the total membership, then the President stands
removed from his office from the date on which the
resolution is so passed
• POWERS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE PRESIDENT
• the powers enjoyed and the functions performed by the
President can be studied under the following heads.
• 1. Executive powers
• 2. Legislative powers
• 3. Financial powers
• 4. Judicial powers
• 5. Diplomatic powers
• 6. Military powers
• 7. Emergency powers
• Executive Powers
• He / she appoints the leader of the majority party or group in the Lok
Sabha as the Prime Minister.
• He / she also appoints the Ministers recommended by the Prime Minister.
• The Governors / Lieutenant Governors of the States / Territories;
Ambassadors; High Commissioners; Consuls; Attorney-General;
Comptroller & Auditor General; Finance Commission; The Chief Election
Commissioner; Chairman & Members of Union Public Service Commission;
and Special Officers for Scheduled Castes & Tribes and Linguistic
Minorities are appointed by the President.
• He / she is the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces (Army, Navy and
Air force). Wars, if any, are declared in the name of the President
• Legislative Powers
• He can summon or prorogue the Parliament and dissolve the Lok
Sabha. He can also summon a joint sitting of both the Houses of
Parliament, which is presided over by the Speaker of the Lok Sabha.
• He can address the Parliament at the commencement of the first
session after each general election and the first session of each year.
• He can send messages to the Houses of Parliament, whether with
respect to a bill pending in the Parliament or otherwise.
• He can appoint any member of the Lok Sabha to preside over its
proceedings when the offices of both the Speaker and the Deputy
Speaker fall vacant
• A Bill passed by both the Houses of Parliament becomes
an Act only after it receives the assent of the President.
• He / she has a right to send back the Bills for
reconsideration.
• When the Parliament is not in session, he / she has the
power to legislate on the recommendation of the Union
Cabinet. Such legislation is known as an Ordinance.
However, for an early dissolution, the advice of the
Prime Minister is needed.
• He nominates 12 members of the Rajya Sabha from
amongst persons having special knowledge or practical
experience in literature, science, art and social service.
• He can nominate two members to the Lok Sabha from
the Anglo-Indian Community.
• He decides on questions as to disqualifications of
members of the Parliament, in consultation with the
Election Commission.
• References
• M. Laxmikanth (2016). INDIAN POLITY.
• S.G. Subramanian (2019). Indian Constitution and Indian
Polity
• M.R. Ram, Indian Constitution, New Delhi: New Age
International Limited Publishers, 2009
Lec-15: President
• Judicial Powers
• Diplomatic Powers
• Military Powers
• Emergency Powers
• veto power of the president
• Judicial Powers
• He appoints the Chief Justice and the judges of Supreme Court and high
courts.
• He can seek advice from the Supreme Court on any question of law or
fact.
• He can grant pardon, reprieve, respite and remission of punishment, or
suspend, remit or commute the sentence of any person convicted of any
offence:
• (i) In all cases where the punishment or sentence is by a court martial;
• (ii) In all cases where the punishment or sentence is for an offence
against a Union law;
• (iii) In all cases where the sentence is a sentence of death
• Diplomatic Powers
• The international treaties and agreements are
negotiated and concluded on behalf of the President.
• However, they are subject to the approval of the
Parliament.
• He represents India in international forums and affairs
and sends and receives diplomats like ambassadors,
high commissioners
• Military Powers
• He is the supreme commander of the defence forces of
India. In that capacity, he appoints the chiefs of the
Army, the Navy and the Air Force.
• He can declare war or conclude peace, subject to the
approval of the Parliament.
• Emergency Powers
• In addition to the normal powers mentioned above, the
Constitution confers extraordinary powers on the
President to deal with the following three types of
emergencies:
• (a) National Emergency (Article 352);
• (b) President’s Rule (Article 356 & 365);
• (c) Financial Emergency (Article 360)
• VETO POWER OF THE PRESIDENT
• A bill passed by the Parliament can become an act only if it receives
the assent of the President.
• When such a bill is presented to the President for his assent, he has
three alternatives (under Article 111 of the Constitution):
• 1. He may give his assent to the bill,
• 2. He may withhold his assent to the bill,
• 3. He may return the bill (if it is not a Money bill) for reconsideration
of the Parliament. However, if the bill is passed again by the
Parliament with or without amendments and again presented to the
President, the President must give his assent to the bill
• The President of India enjoys a combination of veto
powers.
• He possesses a combination of absolute, suspensive
and pocket veto.
• 1. Absolute veto, that is, withholding of assent to the
bill passed by the legislature.
• 2. Qualified veto, which can be overridden by the
legislature with a higher majority.
• 3. Suspensive veto, which can be over ridden by the
legislature with an ordinary majority.
• Absolute Veto
• The President enjoys absolute veto with respect to
• With respect to private members’ bills (ie, bills
introduced by any member of Parliament who is not a
minister);
• With respect to the government bills when the cabinet
resigns (after the passage of the bills but before the
assent by the President) and the new cabinet advises
the President not to give his assent to such bills
• Suspensive Veto
• The President exercises this veto when he returns a bill
for reconsideration of the Parliament
• However, if the bill is passed again by the Parliament
with or without amendments and again presented to the
President, it is obligatory for the President to give his
assent to the bill. This means that the presidential veto
is overridden by a re-passage of the bill by the same
ordinary majority
• the President does not possess this veto in the case of
money bills
• Pocket Veto
• In this case, the President neither ratifies nor rejects nor
returns the bill, but simply keeps the bill pending for an
indefinite period
• The President can exercise this veto power as the
Constitution does not prescribe any time-limit within
which he has to take the decision with respect to a bill
presented to him for his assent.
• Presidential Veto over State Legislation
• A bill passed by a state legislature can become an act
only if it receives the assent of the governor or the
President (in case the bill is reserved for the
consideration of the President)
• When a bill is reserved by the governor for the
consideration of the President, the President has three
alternatives (Under Article 201 of the Constitution):
• 1. He may give his assent to the bill, or
• 2. He may withhold his assent to the bill
• 3. He may direct the governor to return the bill (if it is
not a money bill) for the reconsideration of the state
legislature. If the bill is passed again by the state
legislature with or without amendments and presented
again to the President for his assent, the President is not
bound to give his assent to the bill
• References:
• M. Laxmikanth (2016). INDIAN POLITY.
• S.G. Subramanian (2019). Indian Constitution and Indian
Polity
Lec-16: President
• ORDINANCE-MAKING POWER OF THE PRESIDENT
• PARDONING POWER OF THE PRESIDENT
• ORDINANCE-MAKING POWER OF THE PRESIDENT
• Article 123 of the Constitution empowers the President
to promulgate ordinances during the recess of
Parliament.
• The ordinance-making power is the most important
legislative power of the President.
• It has been vested in him to deal with unforeseen or
urgent matters. But, the exercises of this power is
subject to the following four limitations:
• 1) He can promulgate an ordinance only when both the
Houses of Parliament are not in session or when either
of the two Houses of Parliament is not in session
• An ordinance can also be issued when only one House is
in session because a law can be passed by both the
Houses and not by one House alone
• 2) He can make an ordinance only when he is satisfied
that the circumstances exist that render it necessary for
him to take immediate action
• 3)His ordinance-making power is coextensive as regards
all matters except duration, with the law-making powers
of the Parliament.
• This has two implications: (a) An ordinance can be
issued only on those subjects on which the Parliament
can make laws. (b) An ordinance is subject to the same
constitutional limitation as an act of Parliament
• 4. Every ordinance issued by the President during the
recess of parliament must be laid before both the
Houses of Parliament when it reassembles.
• If the ordinance is approved by both the Houses, it
becomes an act. If Parliament takes no action at all, the
ordinance ceases to operate on the expiry of six weeks
from the reassembly of Parliament.
• The ordinance may also cease to operate even earlier
than the prescribed six weeks, if both the Houses of
Parliament pass resolutions disapproving it.
• PARDONING POWER OF THE PRESIDENT
• Article 72 of the Constitution empowers the President to
grant pardons to persons who have been tried and
convicted of any offence in all cases where the:
• 1. Punishment or sentence is for an offence against a
Union Law;
• 2. Punishment or sentence is by a court martial
(military court); and
• 3. Sentence is a sentence of death
• The pardoning power of the President includes the
following:
• 1. Pardon It removes both the sentence and the
conviction and completely absolves the convict from all
sentences, punishments and disqualifications.
• 2. Commutation It denotes the substitution of one form
of punishment for a lighter form.
• 3. Remission It implies reducing the period of sentence
without changing its character.
• 4. Respite It denotes awarding a lesser sentence in
place of one originally awarded due to some special
fact, such as the physical disability of a convict or the
pregnancy of a woman offender.
• 5. Reprieve It implies a stay of the execution of a
sentence (especially that of death) for a temporary
period. Its purpose is to enable the convict to have time
to seek pardon or commutation from the President.
• CONSTITUTIONAL POSITION OF THE PRESIDENT
• The Constitution of India has provided for a
parliamentary form of government
• the President has been made only a nominal executive;
the real executive being the council of ministers headed
by the prime minister
• In estimating the constitutional position of the President,
particular reference has to be made to the provisions of
Articles 53, 74 and 75. These are:
• 1. The executive power of the Union shall be vested in
President and shall be exercised by him either directly or
through officers subordinate to him in accordance with this
Constitution (Article 53).
• 2. There shall be a council of ministers with the Prime
Minister at the head to aid and advise the President who
‘shall’, in the exercise of his functions, act in accordance
with such advice (Article 74).
• 3. The council of ministers shall be collectively responsible to the
Lok Sabha (Article 75). This provision is the foundation of the
parliamentary system of government.
• The 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act of 1976 (enacted by the
Indira Gandhi Government) made the President bound by the
advice of the council of ministers headed by the prime minister
• The 44th Constitutional Amendment Act of 1978 (enacted by the
Janata Party Government headed by Morarji Desai) authorised the
President to require the council of ministers to reconsider such
advice either generally or otherwise
• However, he ‘shall’ act in accordance with the advice tendered
after such reconsideration
• the President can act on his discretion (that is, without
the advice of the ministers) under the following
situations (situational discretion):
• (i) Appointment of Prime Minister when no party has a
clear majority in the Lok Sabha or when the Prime
Minister in office dies suddenly and there is no obvious
successor.
• (ii) Dismissal of the council of ministers when it cannot
prove the confidence of the Lok Sabha.
• (iii) Dissolution of the Lok Sabha if the council of
ministers has lost its majority
• References:
• M. Laxmikanth (2016). INDIAN POLITY.
• S.G. Subramanian (2019). Indian Constitution and Indian
Polity