Chapter 9 THE MAGNETIC FIELD

• Introduction

• Magnetic field due to a moving point charge

• Units

• Biot-Savart Law

• Gauss’s Law for magnetism

Figure 1 The magnetic field due to a point charge q
• Ampère’s Law moving with velocity v.
• Maxwell’s equations for statics

• Summary charges and currents. The discussion of the electro-

static force started with the experimental facts, con-
densed into Coulomb’s Law plus superposition, and
from these derived Maxwell’s Equations for electrosta-
INTRODUCTION tics. The concepts of flux and circulation are required
to express fully the laws of electromagnetism. For elec-
Last lecture introduced the concept of a magnetic field trostatics the concept of flux led to Gauss’s law while
and the magnetic dipole. It was seen that the magnetic the concept of circulation led to the proof that the elec-
dipole has a north-seeking and a south-seeking pole. tric field is conservative allowing use of the concept of
Opposite poles attract and like poles repel. Magnetic electric potential. For magnetism it is logical also to
poles cannot be isolated in contrast to the charges of start with the experimental facts for the magnetic force
an electric dipole. and from these derive the flux and circulation of the
Oersted’s discovery that an electric current pro- →
−
vector B field. Then it is possible to make a compari-
duces a magnetic field circling clockwise around the son of the difference between the laws for electrostatics
electric current is especially important in that it shows and magnetism.
that electricity and magnetism are directly related. There are two approaches to introducing the ba-
The Lorentz force describes the force acting on a sic experimental facts of the magnetic force. One ap-
charge in both electric and magnetic fields. proach is to use Coulomb’s Law plus Einstein’s Theory
−
→ → → −
− → of Relativity to derive directly the magnetic field pro-
F = ( E + −
v × B) duced by a moving point charge. A second approach
The Lorentz force was used to derive the force acting is to start with the Biot Savart Law to define the mag-
on an electric current in a magnetic field. The unusual netic field due to an infinitessimal element of current.
feature of the magnetic force acting on moving charges These will be introduced and then will be used to de-
→
−
is that the force is perpendicular to both B and − →v rive Gauss’s law describing the flux of the magnetic
Summing the magnetic forces for the  moving field, while the concept of circulation will lead to Am-
charges in an infinitessimal volume  and using the père’s Law.
→
−
fact that j =  − →
v leads to the magnetic force is
−
→ → −
− →
F = j × B
MAGNETIC FIELD OF A MOVING
For a conductor of cross sectional area  and length
→
− →
− POINT CHARGE
 the volume  = . Then since I =  j , then
the magnetic force on a circuit carrying a current  in
Coulomb’s Law provides the basis for calculating the
a magnetic field  is
electric field. An equivalent law is needed for calcu-
I I lation of magnetic fields. The most fundamental rela-
→
− → −
− → → −
− →
F = I × B =  dl × B tion is the magnetic field produced by a moving point
charge. For a point charge moving with a velocity − →
 
v
→
−
The general features of the magnetic field produced the induced magnetic field B is:
by electric currents has been discussed qualitatively.
The next stage is to derive the magnitude as well as −
→  −
→
v ×br
the direction of the magnetic field produced by moving B= 0 2
4 
67
Figure 2 Magnetic field due to an electric current in a Figure 3 Geometry for the magnetic field due to an
circuit. infinitely long straight current.

→
−
Note that B is proportional to  and − →
v as well as charges in a wire assuming that the Principle of Super-
varying inversely with the square of the distance . position applies. For  charges per unit volume, the
→
− →
−
The direction of B is perpendicular to both −
→v and −
→r net magnetic field ∆ B due to an element of volume
→
− →
−
and is a maximum when r is perpendicular to v  The  is  times the field due to each charge. That is:
magnetic field circles clockwise around the vector −
→
v →
−
This formula can be derived from experimental data. −−→ 0  − →
v ×b r 0 j × br
∆B = 2
 = 2

However, also it can be derived from Coulomb’s law 4  4 
→
−
using Einstein’s Theory of Relativity. since j =  −→
v . The magnetic field at a distance r
from an element of a conductor of cross sectional area
 and length  carrying current , can be calculated
UNITS since the volume element is  = , and knowing
→
− →
−
that I =  j  Thus:
The constant  has been chosen such that →
−
→  I ×b
− r
∆B = 0 2

0 ≡ 4 × 10−7  = 4 × 10−7 2 4 
Integrating over a closed circuit gives
exactly and is called the permeability of free space.
0 I −
→
That is, 4 is chosen to be exactly 10−7 in the SI −
→  I ×b r
system of units as will be discussed later. The fac- B= 0 
4  2
tor 4 was inserted to simplify Ampère’s law as will 

be discussed later. Since, in the MKS system, the →

− →
− →
−
Another convention writes I  =  l where l car-
Lorentz force is defined in Newtons and velocity in
ries the information as to the direction of the current
meters/second, defining the constant 0 fixes the unit
flow. Integrating over a complete closed circuit, using
of charge , the coulomb. However, in Coulomb’s Law
this notation, gives that the total magnetic field at the
the Coulomb unit of charge was defined in terms of
1 point r from a circuit carrying current , is:
the constant 4 
 Clearly, the constants  and  are
related . I →
−
−
→   dl × b
r
The magnetic field due to a moving charge is the B= 0
−
→ 4   2
simplest system for definition of the B field, but in 
practice it is more useful to use the expression for the This is called the Biot Savart Law. It is equivalent
→
−
B field due to an element of a circuit carrying an elec- to Coulomb’s Law in that one can compute, by inte-
tric current , which is called the Biot Savart law. gration, the magnetic field due to any shape current-
carrying circuit. Let us consider an application of the
Biot Savart law. Note that the Biot Savart Law has
been written assuming a right-handed coordinate sys-
BIOT SAVART LAW tem.

One month after Oersted’s discovery of the magnetic

field produced by an electric current, Biot and Savart
determined experimentally the magnetic field due to
a long straight wire. This result also can be derived
by summing over the magnetic field due to the moving
68
Field due to an infinitely long straight current
Orient the wire along the  axis as shown in figure 3.
From symmetry, the magnetic field at a given distance
 from the wire must look the same anywhere in the
Figure 4 The magnetic field produced by a long straight
electric current.

 −  plane. Thus the magnetic field will be computed Figure 5 Magnetic field on the axis of a circular current
at the point  =  and  = 0. The contribution to the loop.
→
−
 field from the element l is given by:

→ 
− sin φ b 0 cos θ b due to the element  or the current loop
∆ B = 0  2 k =  2 k
4  4  →
−
→
− 0  dl × b
r
Since dB =
4 2
 →
−
 = 0  dl × br
 =
4 (2 + 2 )
then →
−
 Then the components of d B along the  and  axes
 = 
cos2  are
and →
−
0   
 =  cos  =
 4 (2 + 2 ) (2 + 2 )12
=
cos 
and
Integrating over the complete wire gives:
→
−
0   
 =  sin  =
Z  2 2
4 ( +  ) ( + 2 )12
2
−
→ 0 2  cos2  b
B =  cos k
4 −
2
cos2  2 By symmetry for the whole loop only the  com-
Z  ponent is non-zero, thus
0 b cos  2
= k  Z
4 −  0  
→ b
−
2
 = 3
−
→ 0 I × R 4 ( + 2 ) 2
2
B = Z
2  0  
= 
4 (2 + 2 ) 32
where the cross product is included to carry the in-
formation of the direction of the magnetic field. That But the circumference of a circle equals 2, thus
is, the magnetic field circulates clockwise around the
current as shown. Note that for a 25 current, the  −
→   2
B= 0 bi
field at  = 5 is 10−4  ≈ 1 2 (2 + 2 ) 32

Field on the axis of a circular current loop This gives the  field on the axis of the magnetic dipole
by the brute force approach. Superposition of the 
A current loop is called a magnetic dipole. It is of field can be used to obtain the  field for a magnetic
interest to calculate the magnetic field on the axis of dipole having  turns to be
the magentic dipole. Calculation of the cross product
→ −
−
l×→ r can be written in terms of cartesian coordinates. −
→   2 bi
B= 0
As shown in figure 5, assume that the circle is in the 2 (2 + 2 ) 32
 −  plane.
Since  and  are perpendicular, then the Biot Figure 6 illustrates the magnetic field along the axis
Savart law can be used to evaluate the magnetic field of a circular loop of  turns current .
69
 Figure 8 Gaussian surface for a long straight current I.

GAUSS’S LAW FOR MAGNETISM

Figure 6 Graph of magnetic field along the axis of a
current loop on  turns. When    then the field
falls off as 13 
It was seen that Gauss’s Law for electrostatics is of
considerable theoretical importance as well as being
powerful for calculating electric fields for symmetric
systems. That is, the net electric flux out of a closed
surface is:

I Z
− −
→ → 1
Φ = E · S = τ
 0 
  

Remember that this is a statement of the fact that

Coulomb’s law states that the electric field has a r2
dependence. It states that the net flux out of a closed
surface equals the enclosed charge times a constant 10 
This is independent of the shape or size of the closed
surface because the the 12 dependence of Coulomb’s
law.
Gauss’s Law for magnetism is given by comput-
ing the net flux of the magnetic field out of a closed
Gaussian surface. Consider the special case of a con-
centric cylinder surrounding a long straight current
shown in figure 8. As calculated with the Biot Savart
Figure 7 Helmholtz coils used to cancel the earth’s Law, the magnetic field is tangential to the surface of
magnetic field at the center of the current loops. the concentric cylinder around the current, and also is
tangential to the ends of the cylinder. Thus there is
Note that at the distance  =  the  field falls no net flux out of the cylinder, that is,
I "Z −−→ Z −−→ #
to one half of the maximum value at  = 0. This is
→ −
− →  I×br I×b r b
exploited by the Helmholtz arrangement of two such B · S = ·b
r + · I
 2  2  
2
magnetic dipoles, shown in figure 7, where two identi-
cal coils separated by one radius produce a very uni- = 0
form magnetic field along the axis near the centre of
since the surface vectors are perpendicular to the cross
the coils.
product over all of the surface of the cylinder. It can be
The off-axis field for the magnetic dipole is more
shown using the Biot Savart law that this is a general
complicated and will be derived later. The Biot Savart
property of magnetostatics. Thus the most general
law can be used to calculate, by brute force, the  field
form of Gauss’s Law for magnetostatics is:
around any current-carrying circuit. Unfotunately, eval-
uating the integrals for most geometries can be chal- I
→ −
− →
lenging. Φ = B · S = 0

 
The net magnetic flux is independent of the size or
shape of the closed surface, as expected since the field
due to a point charge with velocity v has a 12 depen-
→
−
dence. Moreover the net flux is zero because the B
field is tangential to b
r
70
Figure 9 Lines of  intersecting a Gaussian surface.
Any flux tube entering the surface must exit if the lines
of  are continuous. Figure 10 Concentric circular line integral around a
long straight current.
Gauss’s Law for magnetism is a statement that
there are no magnetic monopoles, that is, there are
no sources or sinks of magnetic field and therefore the
→
− →
−
lines of B are continuous. Since the lines of B are
continuous, then the number entering a closed surface
must equal the number leaving the surface as illus-
trated in figure 9.
Gauss’s law for magnetism is useful for limiting the
form of the magnetic field. For example, there cannot
→
−
be a radial component to B around a current element.
However, Gauss’s law for magnetism is not useful for
→
− Figure 11 Arbitrary shaped closed loop enclosing long
calculating the strength of the B field. For that pur-
straight conductor.
pose one has to turn to the relation for the circulation
of the magnetic field.
−
→
B, is
I
− −
→ →  
AMPÈRE’S LAW B · dl =  2 = 0 
 2 
→
− Thus, for this special case, we obtain Ampère’s Law:
In electrostatics it was found that the circulation of E
around a closed loop is zero. That is: I
→ −
− →
I B · dl = 0 (Enclosed current)
→ −
− →
E · l = 0 where the current is assumed to flow in the direction


given by the right-hand rule relative to the direction
The statement that circulation of the electric field is of the closed line integral.
zero reflects the fact that the electric field of a point
charge is radial. It states that the electric field is con- Arbitrary closed loop around long straight con-
servative which allows use of the powerful concept of ductor
electric potential. In magnetism, one can use the Biot
→
− The Biot Savart law can be used to prove that this is
Savart law to relate the circulation of B around a
closed loop to the current flowing through the loop, true for any current distribution through any surface
leading to Ampère’s law as shown below. having the closed loop  as a boundary. Consider an
arbitrary shaped closed loop enclosing a long straight
conductor as shown in figure 11. Note that for an
Concentric circle around long straight conduc-
element of line  at a radius  from the line current:
tor
→ −
− →
B · dl =  cos  = 
For simplicity, consider the special case of a magnetic
field around a long straight current . The Biot Savart →
−
since B is tangential. Therefore for a long straight
law gave that: conductor one obtains:
I I
→
− → −
− →   
−
→  I ×b r B · dl = 
B=   2 
2 
I I
The circulation, given by the line integral for a con- → −
− →  
centric circle  of radius  taken in the direction of B · dl =  
 2
71
 charge inside the volume bounded by 1 + 2 , then
the net current flowing into the volume must equal
R−
→ − →
the net outflow of current. That is, j · S is the
same for both surfaces. Thus the net current flowing
though the closed loop  is independent of the shape
of the surface bounded by the closed loop .
Ampère’s law is of considerable theoretical impor-
tance beyond that of the Biot Savart law from which it
was derived. Also Ampère’s Law provides an easy way
Figure 12 Closed loop 1 enclosing the current carrying
to compute the magnetic field for systems possessing
conductor and the closed loop 2 not enclosing the
symmetry. Unfortunately, there are only a limited set
current carrying conductor.
of cases where is is possible to use symmetry to find a
→ −
− →
curve for which B · l is constant.

MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS FOR

STATICS
It is interesting to compare and contrast the flux and
circulation equations we have derived for static electric
and magnetic fields.
Figure 13 Closed loop and surface bounded by closed
loop as used by Ampère’s Law. Electrostatics Magnetostatics
H→
− −→ R H−→− →
Flux E S = 1  BS Z= 0
H H− →− → H−
→−→ −
→ − →
since the  factor cancels. Note that the integral  = Circ. E  l = 0 B l = 0 j · S
2 if the closed loop encloses the origin, e.g. 1 , that
is These are the Maxwell equations for statics. The
I
→ −
− → flux relations show that the electrostatic field has non-
B · dl = 0  zero flux for a Gaussian surface enclosing charge be-

= 0 (Enclosed current) cause charges are sources and sinks of the electric field,
whereas the magnetic field has zero flux out of a Gaussian
If the conductor is outside the closed loop in figure 12, surface because there are no sources or sinks of mag-
e.g. 2  then the angle integral equals zero.Again it is netic field.
assumed that the current flows in a direction given by The circulation relations show that the static elec-
the right-hand rule for the line integral. tric field has zero circulation, because the electric field
The more general form of Ampère’s Law is written for a point charge is radial, whereas the circulation of
in terms of the current density using the fact that the magnetostatic field has a non-zero circulation if it
Z encloses an electric current. Thus, in contrast to the
→ −
− → static electric field which is circulation free, the mag-
= j · S
  netostatic field is flux free.
For statics the electric field and magnetic field are
leading to the relation: unrelated by the Maxwell equations. It will be shown
I Z later that the circulation equations lead to coupling
→ −
− → → −
− →
 B · dl = 0  j · S of the magnetic and electric fields for time-dependent
  systems.
 
where the surface is bounded by the closed loop C. It is
−
→
important that the direction of the line integral and S
be given by the right-hand rule. Note that this proof SUMMARY
implicitly assumes that the magnetic fields produced
by different currents superpose, that is the Principle The magnetic field due to a moving charge is:
of Superposition has been assumed.
There is an infinite number of surfaces that can −
→  − →
v ×b
r
B= 0
be drawn that are bounded by one closed loop . 4 2
As shown in figure 13, take surfaces 1 and 2 both The Biot Savart Law gives the field at a point r from
bounded by . If there are no sources or sinks of a circuit carrying current I as:
72
 I →
−
−
→   dl × b
r
B= 0 2
4  

In the SI system of units, the distances are in meters,
force in Newtons while the constant has been chosen
0
to be 4 ≡ 10−7 
Gauss’s law for magnetism gives that the total mag-
netic flux out of a closed surface is:
I
→ −
− →
Φ = B · S = 0

 

The circulation of the magnetic field leads to Ampère’s

law.:
I Z
→ −
− → → −
− →
 B · dl = 0  j · S
 
 
This is especially useful for calculating magnetic fields
for systems possessing symmetry.
It is interesting to compare and contrast the flux
and circulation equations we have derived for static
electric and magnetic fields.

Electrostatics Magnetostatics
H→
− −→ R H−
→− →
Flux E S = 1   BS = 0
Z
H →− −→ H →− −
→ − −
→ →
Circ 
E  l = 0 
B l = 0  j · S



These are the Maxwell equations for statics. The

flux relations show that the electrostatic field has non-
zero flux for a Gaussian surface enclosing charge be-
cause charges are sources and sinks of the electric field,
whereas the magnetic field has zero flux out of a Gaussian
surface because there are no sources or sinks of mag-
netic field.
The circulation relations show that the static elec-
tric field has zero circulation, because the electric field
for a point charge is radial, whereas the circulation of
the magnetostatic field has a non-zero circulation if it
encloses an electric current. Thus in contrast to the
static electric field which is circulation free, the mag-
netostatic field is flux free.
For statics the electric field and magnetic field are
unrelated by the Maxwell equations. It will be shown
later that the circulation equations lead to coupling
of the magnetic and electric fields for time-dependent
systems.
The next lecture will discuss further applications of
Ampère’s law, magnetic forces and then review what
we have done so far this term.
Reading assignment: Giancoli, Chapter 28.1—
28.6.

73