Professional Documents
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Activities/Assignments
Independent and Dependent Variables. This handout (see Independent and Dependent Variables
handout) is designed to give students practice with independent and dependent variables.
The Psychological Experiment. Polyson and Blick (1985) present an interesting analogy of a
basketball game as a psychology experiment. For example, there is a hypothesis regarding which
team will win, there is an independent variable (the two teams), a dependent variable (number of
points scored), and control of extraneous variables (e.g., same number of players on each team).
The authors report that the analogy provokes a good class discussion and might trigger student
interest in the topic.
General Implication Form. Most abstracts of articles do not state hypotheses in general
implication form, which gives students an opportunity to practice this conversion (see General
Implication Form handout). This activity requires students to have access to PsycINFO and be
able to find references in it.
Article Review. The Article Review for Chapter 5 comes from Clark and Hatfield (1989). In
these experiments, either a male or female confederate approached college students of the
opposite sex and made one of three requests: (1) “Would you go out with me tonight,” (2)
“Would you come over to my apartment tonight,” or (3) “Would you go to bed with me tonight.”
The results showed that both men and women were receptive to dates, but men were much more
receptive than women to an invitation to go to an apartment or to have sex that night.
In addition to the questions suggested on the handout, you may wish to examine the ethics of this
study (e.g., regarding informed consent, deception, debriefing).
Clark, R. D., & Hatfield, E. (1989). Gender differences in receptivity to sexual offers.
Journal of Psychology and Human Sexuality, 2, 39-55.
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Independent and Dependent Variables
Each question below contains a brief description of an actual undergraduate research study from
Psi Chi: Journal of Undergraduate Research. For each description, (a) identify the independent
variable, (b) identify the number of levels for each independent variable and describe each level,
(c) identify the dependent variable, and (d) identify one potentially extraneous variable that
should be controlled.
2. Patients at a health clinic received either their usual care or health care targeting the
patients’ particular stages of change. Researchers measured the extent of positive change
for various health behaviors (fat intake, exercise, smoking; Ellington & Martz, 2002).
(a) Independent Variable (IV):
(b) Levels of the IV:
(c) Dependent Variable (DV):
(d) Extraneous Variable:
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(c) Dependent Variable (DV):
(d) Extraneous Variable:
References
Ellington, J. K., & Martz, D. M. (2002). The transtheoretical model targeting dietary fat,
exercise, and smoking in a university health clinic. Psi Chi Journal of Undergraduate
Research, 7, 129-136.
writing and drawing for stress reduction. Psi Chi Journal of Undergraduate Research, 9,
126-133.
McClellan, K. S., & Woods, E. B. (2001). Disability and society: Appearance stigma results in
discrimination toward deaf persons. Psi Chi Journal of Undergraduate Research, 6, 57-
62.
Nierman, A. J. (2005). The influence of empathy on implicit and explicit measures of anti-gay
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Independent and Dependent Variables – Answer Key
2. Patients at a health clinic received either their usual care or health care targeting the
patients’ particular stages of change. Researchers measured the extent of positive change
for various health behaviors (fat intake, exercise, smoking; Ellington & Martz, 2002).
(a) Independent Variable (IV): type of health care
(b) Levels of the IV: 2 (usual, targeted to stage of change)
(c) Dependent Variable (DV): extent of positive change in health behaviors
(d) Extraneous Variable: the amount of time spent with doctors
should be the same for each group (other
answers possible)
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General Implication Form
Read the abstract for the following reference:
Barnes, G. E., Malamuth, N. M., & Check, J. V. (1984). Psychoticism and sexual arousal to rape
depictions. Personality and Individual Differences, 5, 273-279.
4. Why do you think the researchers chose to use two dependent variables instead of one?
Frank, M. G., & Gilovich, T. (1988). The dark side of self- and social perception: Black
uniforms and aggression in professional sports. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 54, 74-85.
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Read the abstract for the following reference:
Latane, B., & Darley, J. M. (1968). Group inhibition of bystander intervention in emergencies.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 10, 215-221.
Cline, V. B., Croft, R. G., & Courrier, S. (1973). Desensitization of children to television
violence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 27, 360-365.
13. Restate the hypothesis in general implication form (Note: The hypothesis is not explicitly
stated; what do you think the hypothesis was?).
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General Implication Form – Answer Key
Read the abstract for the following reference:
Barnes, G. E., Malamuth, N. M., & Check, J. V. (1984). Psychoticism and sexual arousal to rape
depictions. Personality and Individual Differences, 5, 273-279.
ANSWER: If men score high in psychoticism, then they will be more sexually
aroused by violent sexual material than men who score low in psychoticism.
ANSWER: If men score high in psychoticism, then they will differ in sexual
arousal from men who score low in psychoticism.
4. Why do you think the researchers chose to use two dependent variables instead of one?
Frank, M. G., & Gilovich, T. (1988). The dark side of self- and social perception: Black
uniforms and aggression in professional sports. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 54, 74-85.
ANSWER: If sports teams have black uniforms, they will be more aggressive
than teams with nonblack uniforms.
ANSWER: If sports teams have black uniforms, then they will differ in
aggression from teams with nonblack uniforms.
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ANSWER: the color of the uniforms (black, nonblack)
ANSWER: aggression
Latane, B., & Darley, J. M. (1968). Group inhibition of bystander intervention in emergencies.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 10, 215-221.
ANSWER: If men are by themselves, then they will be more likely to report
smoke than men in the presence of passive others or in groups of three.
ANSWER: If men are by themselves, then they will differ from men in the
presence of others and men in groups of three in their likelihood of reporting the
smoke.
Cline, V. B., Croft, R. G., & Courrier, S. (1973). Desensitization of children to television
violence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 27, 360-365.
13. Restate the hypothesis in general implication form (Note: The hypothesis is not explicitly
stated; what do you think the hypothesis was?).
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14. Restate the hypothesis as a nondirectional research hypothesis.
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Chapter 5: Using the Scientific Method in Psychology
Article Review
Read the following article and answer the questions that follow:
Clark, R. D., & Hatfield, E. (1989). Gender differences in receptivity to sexual offers. Journal of
Psychology and Human Sexuality, 2, 39-55.
1. According to your text, “You find a research idea when you identify a gap in the current
knowledge base…” (p. 14). What was the gap in the knowledge base, according to the
authors?
ANSWER: There are few experimental studies of sexual initiation and rejection.
Furthermore, there is little research on how overt men and women have to be in
order to be effective in requesting sex.
2. The authors list two competing hypotheses on p. 48. What is the first hypothesis?
ANSWER: Men will be more likely than women to agree to a sexual encounter
with a stranger.
ANSWER: directional; a specific outcome (that men will be more receptive than
women) is predicted.
ANSWER: If men are approached by a woman offering sex, then they will be
more receptive to the offer than women approached by a man offering sex.
6. There are two independent variables in this study. What is one of the independent
variables?
ANSWER: sex of requestor (male, female) or type of request (“Would you go out
with me tonight,” “Would you come over to my apartment tonight,” “Would you
go to bed with me tonight”)
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ANSWER: The same female and male experimenter was used. Both
experimenters were rated as moderately attractive. Requests were made on
weekdays and not between class periods or during rainy weather.
ANSWER: 0%
10. In Table 1, what percentage of men approached by a female requestor agreed to go to bed
with her that night?
ANSWER: 75%
ANSWER: These results support hypothesis #1: Men were more receptive to
sexual requests than females.
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Test Bank
Multiple Choice
3. Janet conducts a study and finds that, similar to previous research, students by themselves
worked harder than students in groups (a phenomenon known as social loafing). In
addition, she found that social loafing could be lessened if the students in the group knew
each other well. Janet’s study represents
a. replication.
b. replication with extension.
c. lack of control.
d. a synthetic study.
4. Which of the following scenarios correctly depicts the self-correcting nature of science?
a. Jane controls various extraneous variables in her study on self-esteem.
b. Mark conducts a replication with extension study on deindividuation and finds
that the previous research reached a faulty conclusion.
c. Kelly conducts a study illustrating a cause-and-effect relationship between
distraction and reading comprehension.
d. Ray conducts an empirical research study on racial discrimination.
5. Which of the following components in the scientific method best characterizes science,
according to the text?
a. Confirmation of findings
b. Objectivity
c. Control
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d. Self-correction
6. Control refers to
a. directly manipulating an independent variable in a research study.
b. managing unwanted variables that could influence the results of a research
project.
c. Both (a) and (b).
d. None of the above.
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11. The ____________ variable is the effect part of a cause-and-effect relation.
a. extraneous
b. independent
c. dependent
d. confounding
12. Changes in the __________ variable should be caused by the _________ variable.
a. first independent; second independent
b. first dependent; second dependent
c. dependent; independent
d. independent; dependent
13. A researcher manipulates the __________ variable and measures the effect on the
_________ variable.
a. extraneous; independent
b. independent; extraneous
c. dependent; independent
d. independent; dependent
15. Undesired variables that could invalidate an experiment are referred to as ________
variables.
a. independent
b. dependent
c. extraneous
d. intrinsic
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d. None of the above.
18. In one study, half of the rats are given one food pellet each time they correctly run a
maze, and the other half of the rats are given two food pellets each time they correctly run
a maze. The researchers record the average amount of time it takes the rats to run the
maze. In this study, the number of food pellets represents the __________ variable.
a. independent
b. dependent
c. extraneous
d. intrinsic
19. In one study, students read a fictitious job application. The applications are identical
except that half have a female name (“Joan”) and half have a male name (“John”). The
students rate the likelihood of the applicant succeeding at the job. What is the dependent
variable?
a. The name on the job application
b. The students
c. The students’ ratings of the applicants’ success
d. The gender of the students
20. Mary is interested in determining if active learning strategies promote better student
learning than passive learning strategies. She teaches groups of volunteer students for one
hour, using active learning strategies with half of the students and passive learning
strategies with the other half of the students. The students are then given a test over the
material and Mary records the number of items each student answers correctly. In this
study, the independent variable is __________ and the dependent variable is
__________.
a. type of learning strategy; number of correct answers
b. number of correct answers; type of learning strategy
c. number of correct answers; the test
d. type of learning strategy; the test
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ANSWER: a (pp. 92-93)
21. Shayla conducts a study in which a confederate dresses up either in nice clothes or
shabby clothes. The confederate goes to the mall and asks people for directions. Shayla
hypothesizes that more people will help the confederate when he is nicely dressed rather
than shabbily dressed. Which of the following represents control of an extraneous
variable?
a. The type of clothing worn by the confederate at the mall
b. The number of people who stop to give directions
c. The same student is used as the confederate (sometimes dressed in nice clothes
and sometimes dressed in shabby clothes)
d. None of the above.
24. The statement “Daisies are flowers” is an example of a(n) ________ statement.
a. analytic
b. synthetic
c. contradictory
d. irrational
25. The statement “Students with good study habits earn good grades” is an example of a(n)
_______ statement.
a. analytic
b. synthetic
c. contradictory
d. irrational
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ANSWER: b (p. 96)
29. The statement “If children watch violent television, then they will be more violent than
children who do not watch violent television“ is written in
a. contradictory form.
b. general implication form.
c. analytic form.
d. iambic pentameter.
30. What is the independent variable in the following statement? “If rats are reinforced with
five food pellets for each correct response, then they will make more correct responses
than rats that are reinforced with zero food pellets.”
a. Number of correct responses
b. Number of food pellets (five or zero)
c. Number of rats
d. The researcher
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31. What is the dependent variable in the following statement? “If people are put in groups,
then they will be less likely to help a stranger than when they are by themselves.”
a. Group size (group or individual)
b. Likelihood to help a stranger
c. The participants
d. The researcher
34. Reasoning that proceeds from specific cases to general theories is referred to as
a. the principle of falsifiability.
b. inductive logic.
c. deductive logic.
d. serendipity.
35. Reasoning that proceeds from general theories to specific cases is referred to as
a. the principle of falsifiability.
b. inductive logic.
c. deductive logic.
d. serendipity.
36. Darley and Latane (1968) conducted a series of experiments after hearing about the
murder of Kitty Genovese. On the basis of results from these experiments, they came up
with a principle known as the bystander effect. This example illustrates
a. inductive logic.
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b. deductive logic.
c. a contradictory statement.
d. an analytic statement.
37. Jasmine uses her knowledge of past research on social facilitation to help formulate a
hypothesis for her experiment. This example illustrates
a. deductive logic.
b. inductive logic.
c. serendipity.
d. a contradictory statement.
38. Proctor and Capaldi (2001), who presented an alternate view of hypothesis testing,
argued that researchers should use more ___________ logic with new research areas.
a. deductive
b. inductive
c. directional
d. independent
40. A ________ research hypothesis does not predict the exact outcome of an experiment.
a. nondirectional
b. directional
c. independent
d. dependent
41. “Depressed individuals who receive therapy will be less depressed than those in the
control group who do not receive therapy.” This hypothesis is an example of a
a. contradictory statement.
b. nondirectional research hypothesis.
c. directional research hypothesis.
d. non-falsifiable hypothesis.
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ANSWER: c (p. 100)
42. “Individuals who undergo therapy will differ in their levels of depression from those who
do not undergo therapy.” This hypothesis is an example of a
a. contradictory statement.
b. nondirectional research hypothesis.
c. directional research hypothesis.
d. non-falsifiable hypothesis.
Short Answer/Essay
6. What are the key characteristics of an experiment? Why do researchers value experiments
so much?
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Test Bank for The Psychologist as Detective: An Introduction to Conducting Research in Psych
8. Define the three types of statements described in the text (synthetic, analytic, and
contradictory) and give an example of each. Which type of statement should you use for
hypotheses and why?
12. Why do Proctor and Capaldi (2001) believe that hypothesis testing can be harmful in the
early stages of theory-building? What do they propose researchers do instead?
13. Explain the difference between a directional and nondirectional hypothesis. Describe the
circumstances under which a researcher would prefer a directional hypothesis over a
nondirectional hypothesis. Describe the circumstances under which a researcher would
prefer a nondirectional hypothesis over a directional hypothesis.
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