TheCompleteMechanicsLectures 5 PDF

Engineering Systems Design 2
Lecture M01
Forces & Springs
Andrew Ooi (a.ooi@unimelb.edu.au)
Subject Structure
ENGR10003 : Engineering Systems Design 2 11 Introduction

Name: Andrew Ooi
email: a.ooi@unimelb.edu.au
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Block E (Building 170)
Level 4, Room E410
Engineering Systems Design 18 Melbourne School of Engineering

Assessment Breakdown
Workshop - 10%
Module Assignments In-class In-class Total

assessment quiz
Digital Systems 3 x 2% (6%) WS03 (2%) WS03 (2%) 10%
Programming 2 x 3% (6%) WS06 (2%) WS06 (2%) 10%
Mechanics 3 x 2% (6%) WS08 (1%) WS08 (1%) 10%

WS10 (1%) WS10 (1%)
Online Practice Exam - 5%
Online Pre-workshop Quizzes- 5%

Final Exam (hurdle) - 60%
Engineering Systems Design Melbourne School of Engineering

!27
Textbook
ENGR10003 - Engineering Systems Design 2
Introduction to Digital Systems, Programming and Mechanics
Compiled by Gavin Buskes

Lecture material….
• Self-explanatory lecture slides
• Matlab files

Some real truss examples…
Railroad bridge along

Highway 90 near
D'Hanis, Texas.
A crane boom truss

The Eiffel Tower is made up of many trusses and sub trusses…

The roof of the recently re-constructed Southern Cross station also
comprises of many trusses…

Something to think about…
Can you tell how much load the tower crane shown below is designed to carry? If
yes, how would you conduct the analysis in order to work out the strength of this
structure?

Scalars and Vectors
(section 2.1, Page 361 of Buskes)
• Scalars – can be described with just one number or more
generally, a single physical quantity e.g.
– colour
– money
– temperature
– speed
• Vectors – where a single number of a single physical quantity

does not give the complete picture e.g.
– Force (magnitude and direction)
– Velocity (magnitude and direction)
– Car (make, colour, size)

Vector
!
• In this lecture series, I will denote a vector with an overhead
arrow.
F
• Force has magnitude and direction. For example, the 100 kg weight acting on
the weightlifter is given by
Magnitude = 100 x 9.8 = 980 N
Exercise M01.1
€ What is the force that Andrew Ooi is exerting on the floor while he is standing
still?

Exercise M01.1
What is the force that Andrew Ooi is exerting on the floor while he is standing
still?
F=mg

F= m g
m=200 kg
g=9.81m/s2

F= 200 x 9.81 = 1962 N

Springs
• Springs are used everywhere e.g.machines. Springs can be

used as a model for, extension of beams

Dynamics
•Springs can also be used to model functions of ligaments, tendons and other
muscles in our body
Biomechanics
Skeleton Muscle Geometry

•
Human Body
Joint Mechanics Muscle Physiology
Dynamics

Dynamics

Dynamics

Springs
• Springs are used everywhere e.g.machines. Springs can be

used as a model for, extension of beams, functions of
ligaments and tendons.
• The main characteristic of a spring is that the force required
to compress or stretch it is a function of extension/
compression of the spring, x. i.e.
• Most springs are linear so
• The equation above is called the Hooke’s law. k is called

the spring constant.
When you apply force on a spring, it will extend by an amount x. The total length of
the spring is now l+x.
F
In order for the system to be in equilibrium, the spring must
apply the same force in the opposite direction to F
Fspring = F

Linear springs
F
For a linear spring, the force-displacement (extension) curve is a straight line

The gradient of this line is the spring constant, k. The spring constant measures
the stiffness of the spring.

Linear springs
F
x1
F1
F1 x1 x

Linear springs
F
F2
x2 F1
x1 x2 x
F2

Linear springs
F
1
F2
F1
x1 x2 x
For a linear spring, the force-displacement (extension) curve is a straight line

The gradient of this line is the spring constant, k. The spring constant measures
the stiffness of the spring.

Exercise M01.2
What is the spring constant, k, for the spring shown in the following video?
Write a MATLAB program to plot the relationship between the applied force, F,
and extension of the spring, x.
Movie taken from

http://www.ap.stmarys.ca/demos/content/mechanics/spring_constant/spring_constant.html
F
1.47
0.03 x
F
2.45
1.47
0.03 x
0.05
F
4.41
2.45
1.47
0.03 0.09 x
0.05
F
4.41
2.45
1.47
0.03 0.09 x
0.05
F
DF
4.41 Dx
2.45
1.47
0.03 0.09 x
0.05
F
DF
4.41 Dx
2.45
1.47
0.03 0.09 x
0.05
k= DF
Dx
⇡ 4.41/0.09 = 49 N/m
Matlab code
x= [0.0 0.03 0.05 0.09];
F=[0.0 1.47 2.45 4.41];
plot(x,F,'ko-');
4.5 D
4
Dx
3.5
black 3
circle 2.5
F(N)
solid line 2
1.5
0.5
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
x(m)
Matlab code
x= [0.0 0.03 0.05 0.09];
F=[0.0 1.47 2.45 4.41];
plot(x,F,'bs-.');
4.5 D
4
Dx
3.5
blue 3
square 2.5
F(N)
dashed dot line 2
1.5
0.5
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
x(m)
Matlab code
x= [0.0 0.03 0.05 0.09];
F=[0.0 1.47 2.45 4.41];
plot(x,F,'ko-');
xlabel('x(m)'); 4.5 D
ylabel('F(N)');
4
Dx
3.5
2.5
F(N)
1.5
0.5
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
x(m)
Lecture M02
Nonlinear Springs and Spring Systems
Nonlinear springs
(used to model muscles and tendons in your body)
• For certain (nonlinear) spring-mass systems, the spring force

is not given by Hooke’s Law but instead satisfies a nonlinear
relationship e.g
For the example above, k > 0 is the spring constant and ! is

small but may be positive or negative and represents the
“strength” of the spring (ϵ = 0 gives Hooke’s Law). The
spring is called a hardening spring if ! > 0 and a softening
spring if ! < 0.
Differences of linear and nonlinear springs
F Hardening spring
(nonlinear) Linear Spring
Softening spring
(nonlinear)
x
“Soft” and “Hard” Spring
Soft spring
For such a spring the incremental force F required to

produce additional incremental deformation x decreases
as spring extension/deformation increases.
Hard spring
For such a spring the incremental force F required to

produce additional incremental deformation x increases
as spring extension/deformation increases.

Free body diagrams
• Free-body diagrams are diagrams used to show the relative
magnitude and direction of all forces acting upon an object in
a given situation.
Physical Free body

situation diagram
(FBD)

Free body diagrams
F wall holding spring
Analyse
the spring
in isolation
m
F = mg

Free body diagrams
F = kx Spring force acting

on mass
Analyse
m the mass
in isolation
F = mg
m

Springs in parallel
In this subject, we will always assume that the springs are placed symmetrically
about the mass/force. We will also assume that both spring has the same stiffness,
k
k1 What happens if k1 < k 2?
k2
! ! !
F
We are NOT going to consider this case
Springs in parallel
k k
d d
2 2

1 1
F F
2 2
The force will be equally distributed between the two springs

Springs in parallel
(equivalent spring constant)
bar
bar
• In many instances, it is useful to simplify a complex spring system.

• For further analysis, it is useful to replace the two springs (left figure) with
spring constants, k, with a single “equivalent” spring with spring constant keq
(see right figure)
Original system Equivalent system
k k keq
l+x
l
F F

kx kx keq x
F F

kx kx keq x
F F
F = kx + kx F = keq x (2.2)
= 2kx (2.1)
By comparing Eqs. (2.1) and (2.2), it is clear that the equivalent spring constant
for springs in parallel is just the sum of each individual spring constant.
keq = 2k
Exercise M02.2
For the spring system shown above
(a)What is the equivalent spring constant?
(b)Given that k=100 N/m, and F =2N, what is the extension of the springs?

Linear springs in series
k1
k2
Engineering Systems Design

F
21 Melbourne School of Engineering
Linear springs in series
k1 - spring constant of spring 1

l1 - original length of spring 1
x1 - extension of spring 1
k2 - spring constant of spring 2
l2 - original length of spring 2
x 2 - extension of spring 2

k1
keq
k2

F
24
F
Melbourne School of Engineering
Original system
k1
F
Extension of spring 1, x1, is given by
k2 F
x1 =
k1
(2.3)
F Melbourne School of Engineering
Original system
k1
F
k2 F
x2 =
k2
(2.4)
k1
keq
k2

F
27
F
Equivalent system
Total extension of
spring system
F
x=
keq
keq
(2.5)
F F
Summary of analysis
Extension of spring 1 Total extension of spring
F system
x1 = F
k1 x=
Extension of spring 2 keq
F
x2 =
k2
xx =
= xx11 ++ xx22
FF FF FF
=
= +
+k
kkeq
eq
kk11 k22
11 11 11
=
= +
+
kkeq
eq
kk11 kk22
Springs in series (analysis)
From the equivalent

spring system From the actual physical
system
which simplifies to
• Note that the formula above is only valid if all springs are linear, i.e. if all springs
obeys Hooke’s law

Exercise M02.3
You are given two springs connected in series shown above. The top spring
has spring constant k1 =10 N/m and the bottom spring has spring constant k2 =
40 N/m . The lower string is being pulled by a force F = 2 N
(a)What is the equivalent spring constant?

(b) What is the extension of the spring system?

Lecture M03
Nonlinear spring systems and
resultant forces
Nonlinear springs in series

Nonlinear springs in series
F = 50x1 + 2000x31
1
2
F = k2 x2

Nonlinear system
F = 50x1 + 2000x31
1
F = k2 x2 2

Nonlinear system
F = 50x1 + 2000x31
1
F
Must solve the equation below to get
F = k2 x2 2 extension of spring 1, x1, is given by
F = 50x1 + 2000x31
(3.1)
Nonlinear system
F = 50x1 + 2000x31
1
F
F = k2 x2 2
F
x2 =
k2
(3.2)
Nonlinear analysis
To get extension of spring 1, need to solve
F = 50x1 + 2000x31
Extension of spring 2
F
x2 =
k2
x = x1 + x2 (3.3)
• Note the difference between F Eqs. (2.3)Fand (2.4)Fand the set of Eqs.
(3.1), (3.2). = +
keq k1 k2
• We CANNOT use Eqs. (3.1),1(3.2) to simplify
1 and
1 get an equivalent
spring constant, keq , like we did for =
Eqs. (2.3),
+(2.4) and (2.5).
keq k1 k2
• Need to solve Eqs. (3.1), (3.2) and (3.3) directly.
Exercise M03.1
For the spring configuration shown above, you are given that F=10N and k2=50
N/m. Spring 1 is a nonlinear spring with with the force-extension relationship
given by F=50x +2000 x3
What is the total extension of the spring system?

2d forces
• Thus far, we have only looked at forces acting in one
direction, i.e. the horizontal or the vertical direction.
• For most applications, forces act in a direction that is neither
in the vertical or horizontal directions.
• For these type of situations, it is common and convenient to
describe a force vector by its components in the horizontal
(x) and vertical (y) directions.

Components of vector


Unit Vectors
! Unit vector in the horizontal direction
i !
i =1
! Unit vector in the vertical direction

! !
j j =1
!
!
i
!
j
!
!
! ! ! !
F = Fx i + Fy j Fy j
!
Fx i
!
Exercise M03.2 (from Problem 2/1 of Meriam and Kraige)
!
The force F has magnitude 800N. Identify
! !
the x and y scalar components of F . Express F
! !
as a vector in terms of unit vectors i and j

Resultant vector

Resultant vector
• The resultant vector is the vector that 'results' from adding
two or more vectors together. There are a two different ways
to calculate the resultant vector.

Method 1 (graphical method):
Line
of a
ction
of re
sulta
nt fo
rce
Resultant force

Addition of vectors
(Sections 6.2.1 and 6.2.2 of Brockman)
Method 1 (graphical method):
1. Given two force vectors:
2. Join the head of the first

vector to the tail of the
second vector:
3. Draw a force vector from the

tail of the first vector to the
head of the second:
NB: this method
can be
Resultant force vector expanded for
after addition of the two more than 2
given vectors force vectors.
Parallelogram Law
Resultant force vector

after addition of the two
given vectors

Adding components of vectors (method 2)
!
2i
! !
4j "5 j
!
=
! ! ! !
3i 5i
! ! ! ! ! !
!
"1 j
V1 = 3i + 4 j R = 5i " j
! ! ! !
V2 = 2 i " 5 j
! ! ! !! ! !
R = (3 + 2) i + (4 " 5) j != 5 i " j
Method 2 (used in the analysis of trusses (see later)):
Example: Find the resultant of the two force vectors, acting at the
same point, given below:
4N
45o
30o
7N

Solution:
STEP 1: Place a set of x-y axes on the diagram.
F1 = 4N
45o
x
30o
F2 = 7N
STEP 2: Resolve the vectors into component vectors.
y
Where:
F1
F1y
45o x
F1x
F2x
x Where:
30o
F2y
F2
STEP 3: Add the components along the respective axes

y
y
F1y y
x
= x = Rx x
F1x
!
+ Ry R
F2x
x
Resultant force
F2y obtained from the
addition of the two
force vectors.
y
The calculated result is:
X-component of resultant:
Y-component of resultant:
Resultant force vector magnitude (found by using Pythagoras):

2 2
R= (Rx ) + (Ry ) = (8.890604951) 2 + ("0.671572875) 2 = 79.4939 = 8.9157N
Angle of resultant to the horizontal axis:

Verification of answer using Method 1:
F1
F1 F2
=
+ R
F2

Reminder: Law of cosines

Reminder: Law of sines

Exercise M03.3 (from Problem 2/1 of Meriam and Kraige)
!
Determine the resultant R of the two forces shown below by
(a) applying the parallelogram rule for vector addition and
(b) summing scalar components.

600#N
400#N
60o 
R
400#N
600#N
€

300 3 i

−300 j
€

R 
€ −400 j
€ 33
€
Wednesday, 28 September 2011
! ! Both methods give
R R EXACTLY the same
resultant vector
! !
'!
Lecture M04
Resultant force
Exercise M04.1
Two tow trucks attempt to pull a wrecked truck out of a ditch. The drivers need
the damaged truck to move along the path OP, but because of the trees and other
features of the terrain, they must position their trucks at the angles illustrated. The
drivers know from experience that it will take 20 kN of force to move the truck out of the
ditch. Calculate the force each tow truck must apply so that the wrecked truck moves
along OP
(a) if !=5o
(b) for 0<!<50o

!
! TA
R 10 o
✓ = 5o
!
! ! TB
!
!
!
! TA
R 10 o
5o
!
TB! !
! !
!
Rigid bodies
Thus far, we have analysed systems where the forces all act at
a point. This means that we are treating the body as a
“particle” i.e. the forces acting on the body are concurrent.
The study of bodies modeled as “particles” provides an
understanding of the effects of the magnitude and direction
of forces that form the concurrent force system, but not the
effects of spatial location.
In the “real world”, all bodies have finite shape and size.
Modelling bodies as single particles must therefore be
viewed as special cases. In general, objects cannot be
simply modelled as particles, and the shape and size of the
object cannot be ignored. The point of application of the
forces must be specified and is very important.

Rigid bodies
Steering wheel Steering wheel Steering wheel
Car will turn left
Car will turn right
Car will not turn

Principle of Transmissibility
• When dealing with rigid bodies (i.e. where deformation can be
neglected), and when only the net effects of external forces are to be
important, only the line of action (not the point of action) of the force is
important. This is called the principle of transmissibility.
line of
action
A B
• For example, the above figure shows that the net effect on body is the same
whether we apply for force at point A or point B.
Concurrent forces
Two or more forces are said to be concurrent at a point if their lines of action
intersect at that point
The two forces,

! !
F1 F2
are applied at point A. We can say
that the forces are concurrent at point
A.They
! can! be added by just using
! ! the parallelogram law to get the
R
F2 resultant force, R!
A
! !
! F1 !
!
!
Concurrent forces
Suppose the two forces,

! !
F1 F2
are applied at different points. Applying
! the principle of transmissibility, we are
F2 allowed to move them along the line
! !
of actions and compute the resultant
vector !
R
!
!
It is important to note that we can
R replace
! F! !
F2
1
with !
A ! R
! F1
without altering the external effects on
body.! !
!
!
!

Concurrent forces
Another way of calculating the resulting
force on a body would be to move
!
F2
so that we can join its tail of to

!
F1
!
and calculate the !resultant force

R
! ! !
R F2
!
A Note that the resultant force passes
! !!
F1 through point A.
!
!
Concurrent forces
An incorrect way of calculating the
resulting force on a body would be to move
!
F2
(as shown on the left diagram)
and add its head to the tail of
! !
F1
and calculate the resultant force
! !
A F1 ! R
Note that this method is NOT correct
! because the resultant force does not
! F2 ! ! pass through ! point A, which is the
R
the concurrent point of the
lines of action of
! ! !
! F1 and F2
Exercise M04.2
A piece of rope holding a structure at point B has a tension of 600N. The
force P pushing at point B has magnitude 800 N. Draw the line of
action of the resultant force.
p e
ro
41o

B
!
T
!
Line of action of
resultant force
B
!
T
!
Line of action
of
!"
B
!
T
!
Line of action
of B
!
R T
!#
!
B
!
T
!
Line of action
of
B
41o
✓
!
T
41o 41o
!
Use the law of sines and
cosines & show that Line of action of
resultant force
|R| = 524.86
= 48.6955o
Lecture M05
Moments and couples
Moments
• Force can move and object and also rotate an object.
• The tendency for a force to rotate an object about a specified axis is called the moment.
Moment is also sometimes called the torque.
• Moment is a vector and has a magnitude and direction.
• The magnitude of a moment about a point O, Mo, is given by Fd, i.e. Mo=Fd
• The moment arm, d, is the length of the line that is drawn from O and is
perpendicular to the line of action of the force, F.
• The direction of the vector is perpendicular to the page.
• Positive anticlockwise and negative clockwise

Cross Product
• Sometimes it is convenient to think of the moment of a force
as
• r is the distance between the reference point to any point on

the line of action of F and the
angle ! is shown in the picture on
right
Picture taken from

Engineering Mechanics: Statics
Meriam and Kraige

(5.1)
(5.2)
•Eq. (5.1) states that the moment about O is the magnitude of the force, F, multiply by the moment arm,
d (length of the line that is drawn from O and perpendicular to the line of action of the force, F. )
•Eq. (5.2) states that the moment about O is the magnitude of the distance between force F and O (OA
in the figure above) multiply by FP, the component of the force perpendicular to direction of r.
•Note that both interpretations give the same answer.

METHOD 1
F
O r
↵ Fp
A
You are asked to find moment of a force acting on point A

about point O
1.Draw a vector r from point O to A
2.Extend the vector r along OA
3.Draw a line perpendicular from OA to the tip of vector F
4.The moment is r ⇥ Fp = rF 5
sin
r ⇥ Fp = rF sin
METHOD 2
From method 1
F
O r
d ↵ ↵
A
You are asked to find moment of a force acting on point A

about point O
1.Draw a vector r from point O to A
2.Extend the vector F along its line of action
3.Draw a line perpendicular from the line of action of F to O
4.The moment is F ⇥ d = F 6r sin
Exercise M05.1
Determine the moment of the 800 N force about point A and about point O
using two different methods.

0.875 m
METHOD 1
About point A !
A r B
60 o
30 o
0.625 m
! !
!
O
30 o
!
0.875 m
METHOD 2
About point A !
A r B
60 o
d 30 o
0.625 m
! !
! !
O
30 o
!
0.875 m
METHOD 2
About point O
A B
60 o
!
0.625 m
r 30 o
!
!
O
D
!
h
! 30 o
!
Varignon’s theorem
• The moment of a force about any point is equal to the sum of
the moment of the components of the force about the same
point.
(5.2)
Please note that Varignon’s theorem stipulates that MO calculated using Eq. (5.1)
should be the same as MO calculated using Eq. (5.2)

Exercise M05.1
Determine the moment of the 800 N force about point A and about point O
using two different methods.

0.875 m
A B
60 o
ry 30 o
0.625 m
! !
r
!
O
! rx
!h
!
0.875 m
A B
60 o
30 o
0.625 m
!
!
O
h
0.875 m
A B
0.625 m
!
r
h
60 o
!
30 o
!
Couples
The moment generated by two equal, opposite and noncollinear forces is called
a couple
! ! !
Consider the action of F and - F . They cause counter clockwise rotation. i.e. a couple M .
!
The magnitude of M ,
M = F(a + d) " Fa = Fd
Note that M is independent of a, and therefore independent of the point you calculate the moment, O.
Exercise M05.2 (Question 2/64 of Meriam & Kraige)
Each propeller of the twin-screw ship develops a full-speed thrust of 300 kN. In
maneuvering the ship one propeller is turning full speed ahead and the other
full speed in reverse. What thrust P must each of the tug exert on the ship to
counteract the effect of the ship’s propellers

Force-couple system
The effect of a force is to push or pull a body and to rotate the body about any
fixed axis which does not intersect the line of action of the force.
These effects can be more easily represented after replacing the force by an equal
parallel force and a couple, which compensates for the change in moment.

Exercise M05.3 (Sample problem 2/8 of Meriam & Kraige)
Replace the horizontal 400 N force acting on the lever by an equivalent
systems consisting of a force at O and a couple.

400 N
2 m
0 .
60 o
!"
400 N
2 m
0 .
400 N 60 o 400 N
!"
2 m
0 .
Mo
400 N 60 o
!"
Lecture M06
Resultant of Forces and Equilibrium
Resultant
• The resultant of a system of forces is the simplest force
combination which can replace the original forces without
altering the external effects on the original rigid body to
which the forces are applied.
• The magnitude and direction of the resultant force can be
obtained by just the vector addition of the individual forces.
• To obtain the location of the line of action of the resultant
force, you will need to use the principle of moments.

Principle of moments
    
R = F1 + F2 + F3 + .... = ∑ Fi (6.1)
MO = F1d1 + F2 d2 + ....+ C1 + C2 + ... = ∑ Fi di + ∑ Ci (6.2)
Rd = MO (6.3)

Fi are the external forces acting on the body, di are the moment arm and Ci are the
external couple applied to the body.
• Eqs. (6.1) and (6.2) reduce the given system of forces to a force couple
system at arbitrary but convenient point O.
• Eq. (6.3) states that the moment of the resultant force about O equal the
sum of the moments of the original force systems. Equation (6.3) defines
d.

300 N
600 mm
A
650 N
600 mm
250 N
600 mm
B
Exercise M06.1(Problem 2/80 of Meriam & Kraige)

Determine the height h above the base B at which the resultant of the three
forces act.

300 N
600 mm
A
650 N
600 mm
250 N
600 mm
B

R
€
Exercise M06.2 (Problem 2/76 of Meriam & Kraige)
The device shown above is a part of an automobile seat-back-release
mechanism. The part is subjected to the 4 N force exerted at A and a 300
N.mm restoring moment exerted by a hidden torsional spring. Determine the y-
intercept of the line of action of the single equivalent force.

y
10 mm
Fy 
15 o
F
A Fx
40 mm € €
MO€= 300 Nmm
€ x
€
y
d
Ry 
15 o R
Rx
€ €
Equilibrium Conditions
• Sum of all components of forces in the x direction must be
zero
• Sum of all components of forces in the y direction must be

zero
• Moments of all forces about any point 0, on or off the body,

must be zero.

Action of reaction forces
Figure taken from

Meriam & Kraige

Action of reaction forces
Figure taken from

Meriam & Kraige

Figure above taken from Brockman

4000 N
A B
3m
E D C
4m 4m
Exercise M06.3 (Problem 3/20 of Meriam & Kraige)

Determine the reactions at A and E if P=500
8
N
RAy 4000 N
30 o
RAx B
€ €
3m
REx D C
4m 4m
9
Lecture M07
Analysis of truss structures
Pupul Bhaumik
Some examples of truss structures
Roof of re-constructed
Southern Cross station

Some examples of truss structures
Railroad bridge along

Highway 90 near
D'Hanis, Texas.
Eiffel tower

What engineers need to know in order to
build useful truss structures
• Dimension (length, cross-sectional area etc)
• Material of the truss
• Load on the truss
How do we know what material to use? How do we know what

dimension to use? How long, how thick must we make the
members of the truss?
 Lecture M07 – Find forces on the members of the truss.

 Lecture M08 – What are the material properties and dimension of the members
that can withstand the forces (calculated from Lecture M07).

Assumptions
• Will only analyse lightweight structures in 2-d
• External loads will only be applied at joints.
• Weight of the members of the truss (bar) are negligible.
• All members are joined at pin joints and do not support
moments (i.e. they are free to rotate).
The loads are external forces. For

simplicity the point of application of all the
loads are at the joints.

The supports prevent the truss from moving
by providing forces (reaction forces) which
oppose the forces in the truss that cause
motion. Hence, they play an important role
in maintaining static equilibrium.
No horizontal
reaction force
since rollers are
frictionless
Fixed support
Roller support

Types of axial forces in the bars of trusses which are in
static equilibrium (section 6.2.4 of Brockman)
Axial tension
These forces are exerted

on the bars by the pin
joints
Axial compression

Similarly the internal forces in bars exert an equal and opposite
force on the pin joints (Newton’s 3rd Law)…
Note that force vectors point TOWARD

the joint if bar is in compression
Bar in compression:
The forces exerted on pin joints by

the bars connected to it must sum to
zero in order to maintain static
Bar in tension:
equilibrium.
Note that force vectors point AWAY

from joint if bar is in tension
Loads, Supports and Reaction Forces on a Truss
(section 6.2.5 of Brockman)
Brief explanation of the loads and supports in a truss:
The loads are external forces. For

simplicity the point of application of all the
loads are at the joints.

Method of Joints
(Section 6.2.6 of Brockman)
This method for finding forces in the truss members uses the
equilibrium of forces acting on the connecting pin of each
joint. Only two equilibrium equations are used
1. Sum of all components of forces in the x direction must be

zero
2. Sum of all components of forces in the y-direction must be
zero
Note that we cannot use the moment equation because the

forces are always concurrent.

Method of Joints
Thus, to find the forces in each member of the truss and also
the reaction forces, what we need to do is to go to every
single joint and compute
It is usually easier to start with a joint where at least one known

load and not more than two unknown forces are present.

The Method of Joints is used for the static analysis of a truss.
This is illustrated by the following example:
Exercise M07.1
Use method of joints to analyse the truss below and determine the forces in its
bars and the reaction forces applied due to the fixed and roller supports.
A 10N
7m 24m
B C
25m

Solution: A force diagram of this structure is shown below:
cosθ = 7/25=sin(90-θ)
A 10N
sinθ = 24/25=cos(90-θ)
NAB NAC
RBx B θ 90-θ C
RBy NBC RCy
NB: We have adopted the convention of assuming that the

bars are in tension:

In a step by step approach we will find equilibrium equations at each joint in the
structure.
Joint A
Sum of forces in x-direction is zero:
y
x
A 10N
NAC Sum of forces in y-direction is zero:

NAB
Solving (1) and (2) simultaneously yields:
(bar in compression)

Joint C
The roller support provides a vertical reaction force(RCy):
y
Sum of forces in x-direction is zero:
x
NAC
C Sum of forces in y-direction is zero:

NBC RCy

Joint B
The fixed support provides a vertical (RBy) and a horizontal reaction force (RBx)
NAB Sum of forces in x-direction is zero:
RBx B θ
RBy NBC
∴ The horizontal reaction force is in the
direction opposite to that shown on the
diagram.
Sum of forces in y-direction is zero:

The final result of the analysis is:
A 10N
2.8N 9.6N
tension compression
10N B θ 90-θ C
9.216N
2.688N 2.688N
tension

Lecture M08
Stress and Strain
Pupul Bhaumik
Statistically determinate and indeterminate trusses
(section 6.4.3 of Brockman)
If a truss has the minimum number of external supports and beams to maintain static
equilibrium, it is said to be statically determinate.
If a truss has redundant beams or more external supports than is required to maintain
static equilibrium, it is called statically indeterminate.
Let us look at some examples…
Example 1: Is the following truss statically determinate or indeterminate?
B C

Force diagram of the truss:
Number of unknown internal
A forces?
3
NAB NAC Number of unknown reaction forces

at the supports?
2 (fixed support) + 1(roller support)
=3
RBx B C
Number of equilibrium equations?
RBy NBC RCy {2 equations per joint (one in x and
one in y direction)} * 3 joints
= 6 equations
Therefore,
total number of unknowns = total number of equilibrium equations
Truss is statically determinate

B C
Force diagram of the truss: This example is basically the same as the
A one before with one important difference
– there is one extra unknown reaction
force at joint C.
NAB NAC
Number of unknowns = 7
RBx B C RCx Number of equilibrium equations = 6
RBy NBC RCy Number of unknowns ≠ number of eqns
Engineering Systems Design Truss is statically indeterminate

B C
Force diagram of the truss: This example is basically the same as the
A one before with one important difference
– there is one extra unknown reaction
force at joint C.
NAB NAC
Number of unknowns = 6
RBx B C RCx Number of equilibrium equations = 6
RBy RCy Number of unknowns = number of eqns
Engineering Systems Design Truss is statically determinate

A
B C
D
Number of unknown internal

Force diagram of the truss: forces?
A 5
Number of unknown reaction forces

NAC at the supports?
NAB =3
NAD
Number of equilibrium equations?
B = 8 equations (4 joints)
RBx NDC C
NBD D
RBy RCy No. of unknowns = no. of equations
Truss is statically determinate

Condition for a truss to be determinate
2j=m+r
• j=number of joints
• m=number of members of the truss structure
• r=number of reaction forces
If m+r > 2j, then the structure is indeterminate and you have
redudant members in the structure. Redundant members are
beams of a truss structure that you can take out without
affecting the stability of a structure.
If m+r < 2j, the structure is also indeterminate. But for this
case, there is a deficiency of internal members, and the truss
is unstable and will collapse under load.
A
B C
j=3
m=3
r=4
2j=6
m+r=7
2j<m+r, hence you have redundant member(s). BC is
a redundant member.

A
B C
j=3
m=3
r=4
2j=6
m+r=7
2j<m+r, hence you have redundant member(s). BC is
a redundant member.

j=3
m=3
r=3
2j=6
m+r=6
2j=m+r, you can solve this system
B C

j=3
m=2
r=3
2j=6
m+r=5
2j>m+r, structure is unstable
B C

j=3
m=2
r=3
2j=6
m+r=5
2j>m+r, structure is unstable
C
B

Materials Perspective
(Section 6.3 of Brockman)
The bars of a truss obey the Hooke’s Law:
F=k.ΔL
Where
F = force applied to the bar,
ΔL = Elongation,
k = constant of proportionality called the spring constant of the bar
Case 1: Tension (positive Case 2: Compression (negative

elongation) elongation)
F
initial F
initial ΔL
ΔL
L
L

Graphical illustration of the Hooke’s Law:
F
Failure
k
tension
compression ΔL
Failure

from http:www.youtube.com
The dependence of the spring constant on the dimensions of
the bar
First, consider a unit cube (length = 1, C.S. area = 1)
ΔL
Let the spring constant be a value called kcube

∴ F = kcube. ΔL

CASE 1: Changing the C.S. area to a value, A:
This is the same as joining A number of bars in parallel…
… + + + … +
=
A
A
Therefore,
F F1=kcube. ΔL F2=kcube. ΔL F3=kcube. ΔL FA=kcube. ΔL
ΔL ΔL
… = + + + … +
F1 F2 F3 FA
F
i.e. F = F1 + F2 + F3 + … + FA = Akcube. ΔL

CASE 2: Changing the length to a value, L: F1=kcube. (ΔL/L)
This is the same as joining L number of bars in series… ΔL/L
Therefore,
1 F
F1
= + ΔL
L 2 F2=kcube. (ΔL/L)
+ L =
…
+ F2
L F
…
…
FL=kcube. (ΔL/L)
i.e. F = F1 = F2 = F3 = … = FA = kcube. (ΔL/L)

FL

From the above two cases we can make the following deduction about bars
with length L and C.S. area A:
F=(Akcube. ΔL)/L
Therefore, the spring constant of the bar is:

kAxL = (Akcube)/L
L
Kcube is better known as the Young’s Modulus

or Modulus of elasticity, E.
A
F=(Akcube. ΔL)/L

Is known as stress which is a measure of the force relative to the
cross sectional area.
Units: N/m2 = Pa
Is known as the strain which is a measure of the relative elongation of a

material.
Units: dimensionless
Therefore, the Hooke’s Law can be expressed as:
OR

m=500kg
Exercise M08.1
You are given that a mass m= 500 kg is attached to a rod/rope of length 1m

and a radius of 0.5cm. Calculate the extension if the rod/rope is made of Steel
(E=200x109 N/m2) and if it is made of Nylon (E=3.6x109 N/m2)

A graphical representation of this equation:
Material breaks
Stress, σ here
Yield stress
Ultimate stress
1 Plastic region
tension
Strain, ε
The stress at which a material fails is

called the Ultimate stress

A graphical representation of this equation:
Material breaks
Stress, σ here
Yield stress
Ultimate stress
1 Plastic region
tension
Strain, ε
The stress at which a material fails is

called the Ultimate stress

from http:www.youtube.com
from http://courses2.cit.cornell.edu/
physicsdemos/secondary.php?pfID=69

The strength of a material on a microscopic level…
Metals: Atoms pack in a crystalline structure with interatomic bonds holding

them together
Slip begins at
a defect such
as a missing
atom Large
stress
Interatomic bonds
being stretched
plastic behaviour
Stress, σ
(permanent strain)
elastic
behaviour
(Hooke’s Ultimate strength
Law applies)
Yield stress
(onset of slip)
E
Strain, ε
Wood:
- Is a composite material consisting of long fibers of cellulose, bonded together with
lignin forming the so called ‘grain’ of wood.
- Wood is strongest in compression with stresses parallel to its grain and weakest
with stresses perpendicular to its grain
This is illustrated below: 770 PSI 400-650 PSI
cellulose
600-1500 PSI
lignin 7000 PSI

(strong in
compression)
400-650 PSI 500 PSI
(weak when stresses are

perpendicular to the grain)
The above figure shows the ultimate strength of wood when stresses are applied
in different directions. Figure taken from Introduction to Engineering by Brockman, Fuja and Batill
Another cause of failure: Buckling (Section 6.3.3 of Brockman)
Euler’s critical buckling load: the load at which long and slender beams in compression
become unstable and buckle (or bend as shown above)
Critical buckling load depends on the following characteristics of the beam:

1. Length
2. Cross-sectional area
3. Stiffness (Young’s Modulus)
4. Moment of inertia:
• A single quantity which defines the important cross-sectional properties of
the beam
• No physical significance
• Calculated with respect to an axis on the cross section

Moments of inertia calculated about the central axis for some shapes are listed below:
r Circle of radius r:
Square of side d:
d
Formula for Euler’s critical buckling load:
Where,
E = Young’s Modulus
I = Moment of inertia
L = Length of beam
Exercise M08.2
What is the maximum tension force a beam of square cross section d=2 cm
can take? The beam is made of Aluminium which has Youngs Modulus
E=70x109 N/m^2 and ultimate stress=110x106.
For the same beam, what is the maximum compressive force before the beam
fails by buckling? Assume that the beam is 24 m long.

Exercise M08.3
If the truss structure shown in Exercise M07.1 is made of Aluminium, will the
structure fails if F=10N? Does is fail by buckling or by exceeding the ultimate
stress? The beam has square cross section d=2. The beam is made of
Aluminium which has Youngs Modulus E=70x109 N/m2 and ultimate
stress=110x106 N/m2.
What if F is increased to 20N? Will the structure fail then?

10N
24m
7m
C
B
25m

10N
24m
7m
9.6N
2.8N Compression
Tension
9.216N C
B
Tension
25m

Less than
44 kN. All
10N
OK
A
7m
24m Less than
15.9 N. All
9.6N
2.8N Compression OK
Tension
9.216N C
B
Tension
25m

20N
A
24m
7m
C
B
25m

20N
A
24m
7m
19.2N
5.6N Compression
Tension
18.4N C
B
Tension
25m

Less than
44 kN. All
OK 20N
A
7m
24m Greater
than 15.9 N.
19.2N
5.6N Compression NOT OK
Tension
18.4N C
B
Tension
25m

20N
A
24m
7m
C
B
25m

20N
A
24m
7m
C
B
25m

Lecture M09
Initial Value Problem
Fluid Mechanics

Fluid Mechanics

Initial Value Problem
In many engineering problems, you will need to solve differential
equations that look something like
(9.1)
in the domain
with the initial condition

Eulers method
To solve problems that look like this, consider Taylor’s theorem
(9.2)
Where ξn is somewhere in between tn and tn+1. If we let tn+1 –tn=h and substitute
Eq. (9.1) into Eq. (9.2), we get
(9.3)
A
If we assume that h is small, then we can neglect the term labeled A
in Eq. (9.3) and we get the following approximation
(9.4)
Taylor series example
x(t)
x(t) = sin(t)
x(t) = t
Taylor series
x(t) = sin(t)
x(t)
Taylor series
x(t) = t (1/6)t3
x(t) = sin(t) x(t)
Taylor series
x(t) = t (1/6)t + (1/120)t5
3

x(t) = sin(t)
x(t)
Taylor series
x(t) = t (1/6)t3 + (1/120)t5 (1/5040)t7
Hence, we can use the following formula to approximate the function, x(t)
(9.5)
(new value)=(current value)+gradient * h
Equation (9.5) is called the Eulers formula. It can be used to find the approximate
solution to Eq. (9.1)

Recipe
So to use Euler’s formula to find the approximate solution to
you will need to take the following steps
1. Divide the domain into intervals of size h. Say you have N intervals
2. Set t1=a, x1=α
3. Calculate
x2=x1+f(t1,x1)h
x3=x2+f(t2,x2)h
x4=x3+f(t3,x3)h
x5=x4+f(t4,x4)h
.
.
xn+1=xn+hf(tn,xn)h
.
.
xN+1=xN+f(tN,xN)h
(t3,x3)
(t2,x2)
(t4,x4)
(t1,x1)
(t5,x5)
t(1)=a t(2) t(3) t(4) t(5)=b

Exercise M09.1
Using Euler’s method, solve
For 0 < t < 8 with x(t=0)=1 and

a) h=2
b) h=1
c) h=0.5
d) h=0.1

(t3,x3)
(t2,x2)
(t4,x4)
(t1,x1)
(t5,x5)
t(1)=a t(2) t(3) t(4) t(5)=b

Solution Exact solution x(t)=e-t
Approximate solution using Euler’s method
h=1
h=2
x(t)
h=0.5 h=0.1

Notes
From the solution above, the following observations can be made
•As expected, computations with smaller values of h provides a better

estimation of the true exact solution.
•The downside is that computations with smaller h values are more

expensive (i.e. you will need to do more calculations to calculate
the approximate x(t) in the domain a<t<b.
•When the approximated solution is close to the true exact solution,

decreasing h does not improve the computed (approximate) solution.

Exercise M09.2
Make a small modification to your Matlab program from Exercise M09.1 to

solve
in the domain 0<t<1. You are given that x(t=0)=0

Lecture M10
Dynamics of a sphere in free flight (1d)
Kinetics of Particles
• In this subject, we will only be concerned with motion of a
particle.
• Kinetics (dynamics) is the study of the relationship between

unbalanced forces acting on a particle and its resulting
change in motion. This change in motion is governed by the
following relationship (Newton’s 2nd Law)
(10.1)
• is the resultant force, m is the mass and
is the acceleration

• For motion in 1 dimension (horizontal), Eq. (10.1) can be
written as
where
If the motion is in the vertical direction, then

Forces on a ball in free flight
• If we neglect drag due to the air, the only force acting on a
ball (of mass m) is gravity

• Using Newton’s 2nd law,
(10.2)
We also know that
(10.3)
Eqs. (10.2) and (10.3) defines the motion of a ball under the action of
gravity (ignoring aerodynamic drag).

Exercise M10.1
If a ball mass m is thrown vertically upwards, show that the time it takes for the
ball to arrive back at its point of origin is given by
Vo is the initial velocity of the ball. g is the acceleration due to gravity. Ignore
any drag force due to the viscous air flow.
(Note that detailed discussion of this solution can be found in 8.3.2 of

Brockman)

How can we approximate the solution to a
set of 2 equations?
The right hand side of the above two equations are relatively simple. So we
solve using techniques taught in high school. However, in general, the right hand
side (RHS) of the two equations above can get quite complicated. Thus we need to
be able to compute the solution if the RHS is complex (see later).

Just use Euler’s approximation in 2d

Exercise M10.2
Use Eulers method and write a MATLAB program to
approximate the solution defined by the Eqs. (10.2) and
(10.3). Compute the solution for 0<t<4.1 if
y(t=0)=0
and
v(t=0)=20 m/s. It is probably easier if you start with the

MATLAB program from M09.1.
Details of the solution can be found in section 8.3.2 of

Brockman

What is wrong with the previous model?
• The solution does not depend on mass of the ball. This is
unrealistic!
• If v(t=0)=20, the previous model predicts that the ball stays

in the air for 4.2s. Yet, measurements show that a ball of
mass 0.185 kg, radius of 4.85 will stay in the air for about
3.66s.
• To get a better math model, we need to consider

aerodynamic drag on the ball.

Aerodynamic forces on an object
• The aerodynamic forces on an object depends on Reynolds
number
where ρ is the density, µ is the viscosity, V is the magnitude

of the velocity and D is the diameter of the cylinder/sphere.
• This is because the flow pattern changes for different Re

Re=1
Re=50
Re=10,000

How the drag (CD) changes with Re
Note that for high Re, CD=constant=0.5

(including aerodynamic drag)
• Aerodynamic drag always act in the opposite direction to the
motion of the ball. Thus, if the ball is moving upwards

V

• If the ball is moving downwards

V

(10.4)
Where sign(v)=-1 if v<0 and sign(v)=1 if v>0. We also know that
(10.5)
Eqs. (10.4) and (10.5) defines the motion of a ball under the action of
gravity (with aerodynamic drag). Note that the RHS of Eqs. (10.4) and (10.5)
are quite complicated. It is not easy to solve Eqs. (10.4) and (10.5) using analytical
methods. But we can easily approximate the solution using Euler’s formula……

(10.6)
(10.7)

Exercise M10.3
Calculate the motion of a ball that is thrown vertically up into the air. The initial
velocity is 20 m/s, radius is 4.85 cm, mass is 0.185 kg. Recall that the density
of air is 1.29 kg/m3. Take into account air resistance (drag) and assume that
CD=constant=0.5. Start with your MATLAB program from Exercise M10.2
Details of the solution can be found in section 8.3.3 of Brockman

Lecture M10: Epilogue
In general, a set of two ordinary differential equations can be written as

Lecture M11
Dynamics of a sphere in free flight (2d)
• In this subject, we will only be concerned with motion of a
particle.
• Kinetics (dynamics) is the study of the relationship between

unbalanced forces acting on a particle and its resulting
change in motion. This change in motion is governed by the
following relationship (Newton’s 2nd Law)
    
R = F1 + F2 + F3 + .... = ma (11.1)

• R is the resultant force, m is the mass and

 dV
a=
dt
is the acceleration
€ Engineering Systems Design 2 Melbourne School of Engineering
€ €
• For 2-dimensional motion, Eq. (11.1) can be explicitly written
as
  du  dv 
Rx i + Ry j = m i + m j
dt dt
• Equating both sides of the above equation gives

V

v
€
where €
€

   u
V = u i + vj
€
 Vertical component 
V of the velocity vector V

v
€
€
€

u Horizontal component
of the velocity vector V
€ €
• If we neglect drag due to the air, the only force acting on a
ball (of mass m) is gravity

V

   v
R = Rx i + Ry j
  €
= 0 i − mgj €
du  dv  
u
=m i +m j
dt dt

(11.2)
(11.3)
We also know that

(11.4)
(11.5)
Eqs. (11.2) - (11.5) defines the two-dimensional motion of a ball under

the action of gravity (ignoring aerodynamic drag).

Exercise M11.1
If a ball mass m is thrown at an angle of θ=45o, to the horizontal, with initial

velocity V0=20 m/s, show that the time it takes for the ball to come back to y=0
is given by
Vo is the initial velocity of the ball. g is the acceleration due to gravity. Ignore
any drag force due to the viscous air flow.
How far does the ball travel? i.e. what is the corresponding value of x?

How can we approximate the solution to a
set of 4 equations?
The right hand side of the above four equations are relatively simple. So we
solve using techniques taught in high school (i.e. see Exercise M11.1).
However, in general, the right hand side (RHS) of the two equations above
can get quite complicated. Thus we need to be able to compute the solution
if the RHS is complex (see later).
Just use Euler’s approximation to each
equations
(new value)=(current value)+gradient * h x n +1 = x n + un h
(new value)=(current value)+gradient * h un +1 = un + (0)h

€
(new value)=(current value)+gradient * h y n +1 = y n + hv n

€
v n +1 = v n + (−g)h
€
where
x n - is the approximate value of x(t = t n )
un - is the approximate value of u(t = t n ) €
y n - is the approximate value of y(t = t n )
v n - is the approximate value of v(t = t n )
t n = (n −1)h
n = 1,2,3,....
h - time step size (the smaller, the more accurate the solution)
€
A numerical example: Trajectory of a tennis ball
Objective: To find the time and the horizontal distance, x at which the
tennis ball hits the ground after being launched.
2m

Assumptions made for the model:
1. The trajectory of the tennis ball can be horizontal
modeled two-dimensionally - in the

horizontal and the vertical directions.
vertical
2. The vertical acceleration due to gravity is
-9.81m/s2
Note: The negative sign tells us that we have
assumed the upward direction to be positive.
9.81m/s2
3. The ball is launched with a constant
horizontal velocity of 20m/s from a height 20m/s
of 2m above the ground.
4. The ball experiences no drag or resistance

of any kind. This means that there is no
additional horizontal or vertical acceleration.
Using Newton’s second law, the governing equations for the 2-d motion is

Using Euler’s Method, solution to the above set of equations can be written
as
where,
xn = approximate value of horizontal displacement of the ball at time t=tn
un = approximate value of horizontal velocity of the ball at time t=tn
yn = approximate value of vertical displacement of the ball from the ground at time
t=tn
vn = approximate value of vertical velocity of the ball (downward -ve convention
adopted) at time t=tn
tn=(n-1)h where n=1,2,3,……
g = vertical acceleration of the ball = 9.81m/s2
h = fixed time step

For this example, let h= 0.1sec (you can do the calculations with smaller
values of h. You will get a more accurate answer).
STEP1- INITIAL (ball is launched)
Time, t Displacement, x Velocity, u Acceleration
t1 = 0sec x1 = 0m u1 = 20m/s 0m/s2
Time, t Displacement, y Velocity, v Acceleration, a
t1 = 0sec y1 = 2m v1 = 0m/s -9.81m/s2

STEP 2
Time, t Displacement, x Velocity, u Acceleration
t2 = t1 +h x2 = x1+ u1h u2 = u1 +(0)h 0m/s2

= 0 + 0.1 = 0 + 20x0.1 = 20 + 0x0.1
= 0.1sec = 2m = 20m/s
t2 = t1 +h y2 = y1 + v1h v2 = v1 -gh -9.81m/s2

= 0 + 0.1 = 2 + 0x0.1 = 0 + (-9.81x0.1)
= 0.1sec = 2m = -0.981m/s

STEP 3
Time, t Displacement, x Velocity, u Acceleration, a
t3 = t2 +h x3 = x2 + u2h u3 = u2 + (0)h 0m/s2

= 0.1+0.1 = 2 + 20x0.1 = 20 + 0x0.1
= 0.2sec = 4m = 20m/s
t3 = t2 +h y3 = y2 + v2h v3 = v2 -9.81 h -9.81m/s2

= 0.1+0.1 =2+ = -0.981 +
= 0.2sec (-0.981x0.1) (-9.81x0.1)
= 1.9019m = -1.962m/s

After carrying out the calculations for more steps, we finally reach the value
of the ‘final state’ when the ball hits the ground.
…
STEP8 - FINAL
Time, t Displacement, x Velocity, v Acceleration, a
t8 = t7+h x8 = x7 + u7h u8= u7 + (0)h 0m/s2

= 0.6+0.1 = 12+ 20x0.1 = 20 + 0x0.1
= 0.7sec = 14m =20m/s
t8 = t7 +h y8 = y7 + v7h v8 = v7 -9.81h -9.81m/s2

= 0.6+0.1 = 0.5285 + = -5.886 +
= 0.7sec (-5.886x0.1) (-9.81x0.1)
= -0.0601m =-6.867m/s
Comments
•The ball reaches the ground at some time between steps 7 and 8 (the value
for the vertical displacement is negative in step 8 which means the ball reached
a displacement of 0 between the two steps).
•The time taken till step 8 will be used to approximate the time corresponding to
the final state (i.e. when the ball touches the ground).
•Therefore, the ball hits the ground after 0.7sec at a horizontal distance of
approximately14m from the point where it was launched.

The results obtained from the calculations can be plotted as shown below:
The red dot on

the displacement
vs. time plot
shows the actual
time when the ball
hits the ground,
which is clearly
between t=0.6s
and t=0.7s

The results for the horizontal direction are graphically represented below:
As shown by
the green dot,
the ball hits the
ground at a
horizontal
displacement of
about 14m.
u

Exercise M11.2
Write a MATLAB program using Eulers method to
approximate the solution defined by the Eqs. (11.2) - (11.5).
Compute the solution for 0<t<3 if
x(t=0)=0
y(t=0)=0
and
u(t=0)=20cos(45) m/s.
v(t=0)=20sin(45) m/s.
Start with the MATLAB program from Exercise M10.2.

What is wrong with the previous model?
• The solution does not depend on mass of the ball. This is
unrealistic!
• To get a better math model, we need to consider

aerodynamic drag on the ball.

Aerodynamic forces on an object
• The aerodynamic forces on an object depends on Reynolds
number
where ρ is the density, µ is the viscosity, V is the magnitude

of the velocity and D is the diameter of the cylinder/sphere.
• This is because the flow pattern changes for different Re

Re=1
Re=50
Re=10,000

How the drag (CD) changes with Re
Note that for high Re, CD=consant=0.5

motion of the ball. If the ball is moving upwards

V 
v
β

β u €
€
€
FD − Drag Force
CD − Coefficient of Drag
ρ - Density (of air. Constant of 1.29 kg/m^3)
V - Velocity of ball (m/s)
C
kd − D ρA
2
€
motion of the ball. If the ball is moving downwards

β u
β
€ 
v

FD − Drag Force
V
€
CD − Coefficient of Drag
ρ - Density of air. Constant of 1.29 kg/m^3
V - Velocity of ball (m/s)
C
kd − D ρA
2 €
€
dv
m = −mg − sign(v)FD sin(β )
dt
dv FD
= −g − sign(v) sin(β )
dt m
dv CD 2 |v |
= −g − sign(v) ρAV
dt 2m u2 + v 2
dv CD 2 |v |
= −g − sign(v) ρAV
dt 2m |V |
dv CD Note that
= −g − ρA |V | v sign(v)*|v|=v
dt 2m

€
Exercise M11.4
Using steps similar to the previous slide, show that the governing equations for
a two-dimensional projectile (including aerodynamic drag) is given by
(11.6)
(11.7)
(11.8)
(11.9)

Applying Eulers approximation (new value)=(current value)+gradient * h gives

Exercise M11.5
A ball that is thrown at θ = 45o with the horizontal with initial velocity is 20 m/s.
The radius of the ball is 4.85 cm, its mass is 0.185 kg. Recall that the density
of air is 1.29 kg/m3. Take into account air resistance (drag) and assume that
CD=constant=0.5.
(a) Calculate the resultant force vector acting on this ball at time t=0
(b) Calculate the motion of this ball for 0<t<3.0. Start with your MATLAB
program from Exercise M11.3

Lecture M11: Epilogue (Please compare with the epilogue of Lecture M10)
In general, a set of four ordinary differential equations can be written as

we will get back
dx
=u
dt
du
=0
dt
dy
=v
dt
dv
= −g
dt
which are Eqs. (11.2) - (11.5)

we will get back
dx
=u
dt
du CD
=− ρAu u 2 + v 2
dt 2m
dy
=v
dt
dv CD
= −g − ρAv u 2 + v 2
dt 2m
which are Eqs. (11.6) - (11.9)

Lecture M12
Pendulum motion
Spiderman’s predicament
Lets go
of web here
2
Swinging pendulum
y
T is the tension
x
in the string
L(t) is the instantaneous θ

length of the string
The string is being

€
shortened by V(t) m/s. T
V(t) is given i.e. usually
specified in the question
L(t)
V(t)
mg

Finding governing equations for θ(t).
Using Newton’s 2nd law,
  
R = −T sin θ i + (T cos θ − mg) j
du  dv 
=m i +m j
dt  dt
Equating the coefficients of the i and the j
vectors give
du
m = −T sin θ (12.1)
€ dt
€
dv
m = T cosθ − mg (12.2)
dt
How do we get du/dt and dv/dt?
x = L(t)sin θ (t)
dx dL dθ
u= = sin θ + L cos θ
dt dt dt
du d 2 L dL dθ d 2θ dθ dL dθ dθ
= 2 sin θ + cos θ + 2 L cosθ + cos θ − L sin θ (12.3)
dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt
€ y = −L(t)cosθ (t)
dy dL dθ
v= = − cosθ + L sin θ
dt dt dt
dv d 2L dL dθ d 2θ dθ dL dθ dθ
= − 2 cosθ + sin θ + 2 L sin θ + sin θ + L cos θ (12.4)
dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt

How do we get du/dt and dv/dt (cont)?
Now substitute Eqs. (12.3) and (12.4) back into Eqs. (12.1) and (12.2) gives
du  d 2L dL dθ d 2θ dθ dL dθ dθ 
m = m 2 sin θ + cos θ + 2 L cosθ + cos θ − L sin θ 
dt  dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt 
= −T sin θ (12.5)
dv  d 2L dL dθ d 2θ dθ dL dθ dθ 
€ m = m − 2 cosθ + sin θ + 2 L sin θ + sin θ + L cos θ 
dt  dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt 
= T cosθ − mg (12.6)
€
From Eq. (12.5) we get
m  d 2L dL dθ d 2θ dθ dL dθ dθ 
T =−  2 sin θ + cosθ + 2 L cos θ + cosθ − L sin θ 
sin θ  dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt 
(12.7)
From Eq. (12.6) we get

€ m  d 2L dL dθ d 2θ dθ dL dθ dθ  mg
T=  − 2 cosθ + sin θ + 2 L sin θ + sin θ + L cos θ  +
cosθ  dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt  cos θ
(12.8)
€ Equating (12.7) and (12.8) gives

 dL dθ  cosθ sin θ  d 2θ  cos θ sin θ  dθ dL  cos θ sin θ  g 
−  +  − 2 L + −  + − =0
 dt dt sin θ cos θ
  dt  sin θ cosθ  dt dt sin θ cosθ cosθ 
 

 dL dθ  cosθ sin θ  d 2θ  cos θ sin θ  dθ dL  cos θ sin θ  g 
−  +  − 2 L + −  + − =0
 dt dt  sin θ cos θ  dt  sin θ cosθ  dt dt  sin θ cosθ  cosθ 
(12.9)
But
€ cosθ sin θ cos2 θ + sin 2 θ 1

+ = =
sin θ cos θ cosθ sin θ cosθ sin θ
Substituting into Eq. (12.9) gives

€
d 2θ dL dθ
2
L + 2 + gsin θ = 0 (12.10)
dt dt dt

If we let
dθ (12.11)
ω=
dt
then Eq. (12.10) becomes

€
dω dL
L + 2 ω + gsin θ = 0 (12.12)
dt dt
Eqs. (12.11) and Eq. (12.12) governs the equation of the mass at the end of a
€ a string that is being shortened at a rate of V(t) m/s

y
dθ
ω=
dt
x
dω dL
L + 2 ω + gsin θ = 0
dt dt
θ €
€ €
T
L(t)
V(t)
mg

x
θ
T
L(t)
V(t)
mg
Exercise M12.1
Write a Matlab program to solve the following two equations

dθ
=ω
dt
dω 1  dL 
= −2 ω − gsin θ 
dt L  dt 
€
Assume that θ(t=0)=45o and ω(t=0)=0. You are also given that L(t)=10-3*t. Plot
x vs y for 0<t<2. Recall that x=Lsinθ and y=-Lcosθ.
€
Start with MATLAB program M10p2.m

Solving the Spiderman problem
(Question 2, Assignment 9)

dx
=u
dt
dθ du k
= − d u u2 + v 2
=ω dt m
dt dy
dω 1  dL  =v
= −2 ω − gsin θ  dt
dt L  dt  dv k
= −g − d v u 2 + v 2
dt m
€ Lecture M12 €
Lecture M11
x = f1 (θ )
y = f 2 (θ )
u = f 3 (θ,ω )
v = f 4 (θ,ω )

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