Structures 59 (2024) 105715

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Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/structures

A nonlinear modelling framework for unbonded post-tensioned timber

members
C. Melchor-Placencia, C. Málaga-Chuquitaype ∗
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London SW7 2AZ, UK

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Post-tensioned timber elements have become a competitive alternative for long-span structures such as bridges
Post-tensioned timber or open-plan buildings. Post-tensioning can add an improved load-bearing capacity and enhanced deflection
Nonlinear analysis control to the well established structural efficiency and sustainability advantages of wood as a construction
Unbonded tendons
material. Despite of these improvements, the use of unbonded post-tensioning tendons introduces several
Finite element
complexities to the already intricate response of timber structures such as strain incompatibility and second-
order effects that require careful consideration. In this study, a fibre-based finite element (FE) analysis
framework for the simulation of the full nonlinear response of post-tensioned timber members up to their
ultimate failure state is presented. In this framework, the exerted post-tensioning force is assessed using a
constantly updated equivalent load which is dependent on member deformations. A description of the FE
formulation, modelling assumptions and robust solution algorithms of the fibre-based framework within a
corotational formulation is discussed first. Also, a robust numerical procedure is described to evaluate the
initial state immediately after the post-tensioning operation. Then it is shown, with reference to available
experimental and numerical results, that the approach adopted can simulate effectively the behaviour of
post-tensioned timber elements with different post-tensioning layouts while complementary simulations on
post-tensioned reinforced concrete (RC) beams demonstrate its versatility. Finally, a study on the influence
of deviator spacing on the ultimate response of post-tensioned timber beams, that is known to be largely
dependent on second order effects, is conducted. Besides the good agreement with experimental and numerical
results, the proposal features promising adaptability, numerical robustness and computational efficiency.
This study constitutes a first step towards the realistic simulation of the full global nonlinear response of
post-tensioned timber members using an efficient non-linear FE model.

1. Introduction capability of these technologies is limited when long-span structures

Over the last decades, the structural engineering community has
embraced engineered timber as an attractive construction material for
large-scale structures. Among the main reasons for this resurgence
in interest are the availability of engineered timber elements with
versatile cross sections and long spans, wood’s outstanding structural
properties such as its high strength-to-weight ratio, and the market
penetration of prefabrication technologies [1]. Furthermore, timber is a
sustainable construction material that allows the reduction of fossil fuel
consumption, embodied energy, and greenhouse gas emissions [2,3].
All these features have enabled engineered timber to rival conventional
construction materials such as steel or RC in medium-size and large-size
structures [4–6].
Although traditional technologies in timber have been used to cover
spans of comparable length to its traditional material counterparts, the
are considered. One of the main restrictions is the deflection limit that
controls the design of most timber members [7,8]. As a result, wood’s
strength is only partially used and new structural solutions are needed
to enhance the performance of these long-span components.
In this context, post-tensioning has been widely adopted to en-
hance the structural response of long-span RC structures. This tech-
nique has also been extended to engineered timber structures to im-
prove their performance at ultimate and serviceability limit states
as well as to cover longer spans. In the case of deflections, post-
tensioning generates uplift forces that can potentially reduce short-term
and long-term deflections. This enhanced structural performance allows
the use of more efficient section depths and/or span lengths in tim-
ber. Furthermore, full-length longitudinal post-tensioning can help to
create improved moment continuity over continuous beams and bal-
ance the negative bending moments around bearing supports [9–11].

∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: c.malaga@imperial.ac.uk (C. Málaga-Chuquitaype).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.istruc.2023.105715
Received 15 September 2023; Received in revised form 2 December 2023; Accepted 4 December 2023
2352-0124/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of Institution of Structural Engineers. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
C. Melchor-Placencia and C. Málaga-Chuquitaype Structures 59 (2024) 105715

These improvements in structural response have received experimental A set of non-linear FE expressions are derived following the princi-
confirmation [12–16]. ple of virtual work within a corotational framework and the aforemen-
However, modelling complexities arise when unbonded post- tioned assumptions. Prior to applying the virtual work principle, the
tensioning tendons are adopted. For example, strain incompatibility relation between the virtual displacements in the basic reference system
due to the unbonded condition implies that the strain in the tendons 𝛿 𝒖̄ 𝑒 and global reference system 𝛿𝒖𝑒 have to be set. This relationship can
is no longer section dependent and thus to simulate this the analysis be defined as [27]:
should take into account the whole-member deformation [17,18].
𝛿 𝒖̄ 𝑒 = 𝑻 𝛿𝒖𝑒 (1)
Numerical simulation is even more challenging in the case of external
post-tensioned tendons where the shape of the tendon should remain where 𝑻 is the global to basic transformation matrix, which can be
straight between adjacent anchorages and/or deviators. This leads to assessed with the following expression [27]:
second order effects as the eccentricity changes during the loading his-
⎡− cos (𝛼) − sin (𝛼) 0 cos (𝛼) sin (𝛼) 0⎤
tory [19,20]. Moreover, an accurate determination of the equilibrium ⎢ ⎥
state at the end of the post-tensioning operation (after the force transfer ⎢ sin (𝛼) cos (𝛼) sin (𝛼) cos (𝛼)
0⎥
𝑻 = ⎢− 𝑙 𝑙
1
𝑙
−
𝑙 ⎥ (2)
or anchoring) is indispensable to properly assess the initial condition ⎢ sin (𝛼) ⎥
cos (𝛼) sin (𝛼) cos (𝛼)
of the post-tensioned structure [21]. ⎢− 0 − 1⎥
⎣ 𝑙 𝑙 𝑙 𝑙 ⎦
In contrast to post-tensioned concrete elements, post-tensioned tim-
ber members can experience higher levels of post-tensioning force and where 𝛼 and 𝑙 are the rigid rotation and length of the element, respec-
tendon eccentricity variations as timber possess higher tensile strength tively. Similarly, the relation between the generalized strain vector, 𝜺̂ ,
and flexibility resulting in increased deflections [13,14]. Therefore, and the basic nodal displacement vector, 𝒖̄ 𝑒 , has to be defined before
as material and geometrical nonlinearities can potentially govern the deriving the virtual work equations. The generalized strain vector con-
structural behaviour of post-pensioned timber elements at ultimate tains the sectional axial strain, 𝜀0 , and curvature of the centroidal axis,
states, an adequate modelling of these is required to enable an ac- 𝜅; whereas the basic nodal displacement vector contains the axial elon-
curate assessment of their ultimate capacity. One currently-available gation of the element, 𝑢̄ 𝑥 , and the rotations at the two element ends, 𝜃̄𝑖
option is to use high-fidelity FE models in which solid brick elements and 𝜃̄𝑗 . The relation between these two vectors is given by [27]:
combined with multi-freedom constraints such as Lagrange multiplier
𝜺̂ = 𝑩̄ 𝒖̄ 𝑒 (3)
and penalty-based methods can be used to simulate the interaction
between tendons and deviators or ducts along the normal and tangen- where 𝑩̄ is the generalized strain–displacement matrix in the basic
tial directions of their contact surfaces [14,22,23]. Despite the high reference system.
accuracy of this approach, the high computational cost and potential After defining Eqs. (1) and (3), a linearization of the virtual work
convergence issues render these models unsuitable for practical or equations is performed to obtain the final internal virtual work expres-
extensive numerical simulations. On the other hand, fibre-based beam sion for the element. Based on De Borst et al. [27], this expression can
elements with equivalent tendon loads [24] can be also used to study be stated as:
the long-term response of post-pensioned timber elements with differ- 𝑇 𝜕𝑻 𝑇 ̄ 𝑇
ent tendon profiles [25]. However, to date, only service conditions have 𝛿𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝛿𝒖𝑇𝑒 𝑻 𝑇 𝑩̄ 𝑫 𝑇 𝑩̄ 𝑻 𝑑𝑥 𝒖𝑒 + 𝛿𝒖𝑇𝑒 𝑩 𝝈̂ 𝑑𝑥 𝒖𝑒
∫𝑙 ∫𝑙 𝜕𝒖𝑒
been considered with this method and second order effects have been 𝑇
overwhelmly disregarded. +𝛿𝒖𝑇𝑒 𝑻 𝑇 𝑩̄ 𝝈̂ 𝑑𝑥 (4)
∫𝑙
In this paper, a fibre-based FE analysis framework to assess the full
where 𝒖𝑒 is the incremental nodal displacement vector, 𝝈̂ is the gen-
global behaviour of post-tensioned timber beams up to failure is pro-
eralized stress vector, containing the sectional axial force and bending
posed and implemented. The numerical procedure proposed accounts
moment, and 𝑫 𝑇 is the sectional tangent stiffness matrix. All integrals
for large displacements, material nonlinearity, global deformation com-
are evaluated along the longitudinal axis of the element.
patibility, and variation of tendon eccentricity over the whole loading
Defining 𝑖 and 𝑗 as the end nodes of the beam–column element, the
process from the post-tensioning operation up to the failure of the mem-
incremental nodal displacement vector in the global coordinate system
ber. A corotational formulation using an Euler–Bernoulli beam theory
can be written as:
is considered to describe the large displacements of the beam–column
[ ]𝑇
elements under examination. To simulate the unbonded tendons, an 𝒖𝑒 = 𝑢𝑖 𝑣𝑖 𝜃𝑖 𝑢𝑗 𝑣𝑗 𝜃𝑗 (5)
equivalent load method that is member-dependent and considers the
main kinematic conditions of sliding tendon elements is used. To assess Considering linear and Hermitian cubic interpolation functions for
the initial state after the post-tensioning operation, a robust numerical the longitudinal and transverse displacements, respectively; the com-
procedure based on Quasi-Newton methods is presented. Finally, a patibility matrix 𝑩̄ can be written as [27]:
series of experimental and numerical test results of post-tensioned ⎡1 0 0⎤
concrete and timber beams are reproduced to validate the approach ⎢ ⎥
𝑩̄ = ⎢ 𝑙 (6)
proposed. 4 6𝑥 2 6𝑥 ⎥
⎢0 − + − + ⎥
⎣ 𝑙 𝑙2 𝑙 𝑙2 ⎦
2. Beam-column FE formulation According to the principle of virtual displacements, the internal
virtual work on the element must equal the external virtual work done
A displacement-based FE formulation is adopted for modelling a by the external loads acting in the unknown configuration. In this study,
beam–column element (the hosting member) in light of the mesh these loads are assumed to be configuration-independent.
discretization required to represent the different tendon profiles as The integrals in Eq. (4) represent the incremental material stiffness
explained in the next section. The formulation of the beam–column el- matrix, 𝑲 𝑒𝑚 , the incremental geometric stiffness matrix, 𝑲 𝑒𝑔 , and the
ement assumes that the sections remain plane and perpendicular to the 𝑒
internal force vector 𝑭 𝑖𝑛𝑡 of the beam–column element. Since a fibre-
centroidal axis during the whole deformation process, and only small based approach is adopted, the numerical integration is performed
strains are developed after the element undergoes large displacements. along the element sections by means of the midpoint method, whereas
The former assumption implies that shear deformations are considered a Gauss–Legendre integration scheme is carried out along the element
negligible and slender elements are suitable for being analysed within length to consider distributed inelasticity and internal stress variations.
this framework. This assumption has been previously found applicable However, in order to verify the previous numerical integrations, a set of
to the typology of timber elements under consideration [26]. closed-form expressions of these matrices in a local coordinate system

2
C. Melchor-Placencia and C. Málaga-Chuquitaype Structures 59 (2024) 105715

can be obtained if the variation of the stress and tangent modulus in with several tendon profiles by modelling their profiles as piecewise
each fibre is considered to be constant along the element: configurations. In this context, unbonded external tendons are referred
to tendons that rely on anchorages and deviators to transfer the post-
⎡𝑲 ′ 𝑲𝑚 ⎤
′
𝑚1
′
𝑲𝑚 = ⎢ 2⎥
(7) tensioning force to the hosting member whereas unbonded internal
⎢𝑲 ′ 𝑇 𝑲 ′ ⎥ tendons have permanent contact along the whole member through an
⎣ 𝑚2 𝑚3 ⎦
∑ ∑ internal duct. In the description that follows, only the case of unbonded
⎡ 𝐸𝑘 𝐴𝑘 𝐸𝑘 𝐴𝑘 𝑦𝑘 ⎤
⎢ 0 − ⎥ external tendons is outlined as the unbonded internal case can be
⎢ 𝑙 𝑙 ⎥
∑ ∑ regarded as a particular instantiation of the unbonded external case.
′ ⎢ 12 𝐸𝑘 𝐴𝑘 𝑦2𝑘 6 𝐸𝑘 𝐴𝑘 𝑦𝑘 ⎥ 2
𝑲𝑚 = ⎢ 0 ⎥ (8) Fig. 1 depicts a portion of the post-tensioned member between two
1
⎢ ∑ 𝑙3 𝑙2 ⎥ contiguous deviators and/or anchorages. In this figure, the subscript 0
∑ ∑
⎢ 𝐸𝑘 𝐴𝑘 𝑦𝑘 6 𝐸𝑘 𝐴𝑘 𝑦2𝑘 4 𝐸𝑘 𝐴𝑘 𝑦2𝑘 ⎥ is associated with the initial configuration before any post-tensioning
⎢− ⎥
⎣ 𝑙 𝑙2 𝑙 ⎦ and external force is applied. As it has been previously mentioned,
∑ ∑
⎡ 𝐸𝑘 𝐴𝑘 𝐸𝑘 𝐴𝑘 𝑦𝑘 ⎤ deformation compatibility of the tendon and hosting member occurs
⎢− 𝑙
0
𝑙 ⎥ only at the anchorages and deviators. Designating the left-end and
⎢ ∑ ∑ ⎥
′ ⎢ 12 𝐸𝑘 𝐴𝑘 𝑦2𝑘 6 𝐸𝑘 𝐴𝑘 𝑦𝑘 ⎥ 2 right-end nodes as 𝑚 and 𝑛, respectively, the following transformation
𝑲𝑚 = ⎢ 0 − ⎥ (9) equations linking the total displacements of the hosting member ends
2
⎢∑ 𝑙3 𝑙2 ⎥
∑ ∑ and tendon coordinates can be established by slightly modifying the
⎢ 𝐸𝑘 𝐴𝑘 𝑦𝑘 6 𝐸𝑘 𝐴𝑘 𝑦2𝑘 2 𝐸𝑘 𝐴𝑘 𝑦𝑘 ⎥ 2
⎢ − ⎥ equations presented by Lou et al. [29]:
⎣ 𝑙 𝑙2 𝑙 ⎦
∑ ∑ ( ) ( )
⎡ 𝐸𝑘 𝐴𝑘 𝐸𝑘 𝐴𝑘 𝑦𝑘 ⎤ 𝑋𝑝𝑚 = 𝑋𝑚0 + 𝑢𝑚 − 𝑒𝑚 𝜃̄𝑚 cos 𝛼𝑙 − 𝑒𝑚 sin 𝛼𝑙 (13)
⎢ 0 − ⎥
⎢ 𝑙 𝑙 ⎥
∑ ∑ ( ) ( )
′ ⎢ 12 𝐸𝑘 𝐴𝑘 𝑦2𝑘 6 𝐸𝑘 𝐴𝑘 𝑦2𝑘 ⎥ 𝑌𝑝𝑚 = 𝑌𝑚0 + 𝑣𝑚 − 𝑒𝑚 𝜃̄𝑚 sin 𝛼𝑙 + 𝑒𝑚 cos 𝛼𝑙 (14)
𝑲𝑚 = ⎢ 0 − ⎥ (10)
3
⎢ ∑ 𝑙3 𝑙2 ⎥
∑ ∑ ( ) ( )
⎢ 𝐸𝑘 𝐴𝑘 𝑦𝑘 6 𝐸𝑘 𝐴𝑘 𝑦2𝑘 4 𝐸𝑘 𝐴𝑘 𝑦𝑘 ⎥ 2
𝑋𝑝𝑛 = 𝑋𝑛0 + 𝑢𝑛 − 𝑒𝑛 𝜃̄𝑛 cos 𝛼𝑟 − 𝑒𝑛 sin 𝛼𝑟 (15)
⎢− − ⎥
⎣ 𝑙 𝑙2 𝑙 ⎦
⎡ 𝑄 𝑄 ⎤ ( ) ( )
𝑌𝑝𝑛 = 𝑌𝑛0 + 𝑣𝑛 − 𝑒𝑛 𝜃̄𝑛 sin 𝛼𝑟 + 𝑒𝑛 cos 𝛼𝑟 (16)
⎢ 0 𝑙
0 0 −
𝑙
0⎥
⎢ 𝑄 ⎥ ( ) ( ) ( )
⎢ 𝑁 𝑄 𝑁
0 − − 0⎥ where 𝑋𝑝𝑚 , 𝑌𝑝𝑚 and 𝑋𝑝𝑛 , 𝑌𝑝𝑛 are the tendon coordinates, 𝑋𝑚0 , 𝑌𝑚0
⎢ 𝑙 𝑙 𝑙 𝑙 ⎥ ( )
⎢ 0 0 0 0 0 0⎥ and 𝑋𝑛0 , 𝑌𝑛0 are the member coordinates in the initial configuration,
𝑲𝑔 = ⎢ ⎥
′
(11) 𝜃̄𝑚 and 𝜃̄𝑛 are the basic rotations, 𝑒𝑚 and 𝑒𝑛 are the tendon eccentricity;
⎢ 𝑄 𝑄 ⎥ ( ) ( )
⎢ 0 −
𝑙
0 0
𝑙
0⎥ and 𝑢𝑚 , 𝑣𝑚 and 𝑢𝑛 , 𝑣𝑛 are the displacements at nodes 𝑚 and 𝑛,
⎢ ⎥
⎢− 𝑄 − 𝑁 𝑄 𝑁 respectively. Besides, the angles 𝛼𝑙 and 𝛼𝑟 are the rigid rotations with
0 0⎥
⎢ 𝑙 𝑙 𝑙 𝑙 ⎥ respect to the global horizontal axis at the left-end and right-end
⎢ 0 0 0 0 0 0⎥⎦ elements.
⎣
∑ It is worth noting that the transformation Eqs. (13) to (16) re-
⎡ − 𝜎𝑘 𝐴 𝑘 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ lies on the fact that tendon eccentricities behave as links connecting
⎢ 0 ⎥ rigidly with the hosting member and allowing frictionless slippage of
⎢ ∑
𝜎𝑘 𝐴𝑘 𝑦𝑘 ⎥ the tendon. However, non multi-freedom constraints are required to
𝑭 𝑖𝑛𝑡 = ⎢ ∑ ⎥
′
(12)
⎢ 𝜎𝑘 𝐴 𝑘 ⎥ simulate the unbonded behaviour of the tendon which may result in
⎢ ⎥ less computational effort.
⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ ∑ ⎥ In the case of external unbonded tendons, the tendon eccentricity is
⎣− 𝜎𝑘 𝐴𝑘 𝑦𝑘 ⎦ subjected to variation as the hosting member undergoes deformation.
where 𝐴𝑘 , 𝑦𝑘 , 𝜎𝑘 , 𝐸𝑘 are the area, position respect to the centroidal axis, This phenomenon is also known as second-order effects. The present
stress and tangent modulus of the 𝑘th fibre; 𝑄 and 𝑁 are the internal methodology addresses the eccentricity variations in an explicit way
shear and axial force, respectively; and 𝑙 is the length of the beam– and the corresponding numerical procedure is summarized in Fig. 2.
column element. In Eqs. (8) to (12), the summation is performed over To explain this procedure, the beam–column element of the hosting
the subdivided cross-section and the superscript 𝑒 is removed. member with nodes 𝑖 and 𝑗 is selected as the instance case. The
initial tendon eccentricity of the element is determined by the initial
3. Numerical modelling of unbonded tendons coordinates of the anchorages and/or deviators, and the discretization
of the tendon and hosting member in between these compatibility
In this analysis framework, we adopt a numerical procedure for nodes. It must be highlighted that the discretization of the tendon must
the numerical treatment of unbonded tendons based on previous work span each discretization of the hosting member as shown in Fig. 2.
developed for post-tensioned concrete and composite beams [18,28, After a displacement is imposed in the hosting member, the tendon
29]. However, in our approach a corotational formulation is adopted coordinates are updated by means of Eqs. (13) to (16). Then, to
to describe the large displacements of the hosting member and in the calculate the updated values of the tendon eccentricity at nodes 𝑖 and 𝑗,
assessment of the tendon coordinates the basic rotations at element perpendiculars to the deformed configuration at these nodes are traced.
ends and the rigid rotation of the element are used instead. By means This allows the determination of the intersections (points 𝑝𝑖 and 𝑝𝑗)
of this procedure, the tendons are addressed as equivalent loads that of these perpendiculars with the straight line that defines the position
are constantly updated during the whole incremental-iterative process. of the tendon. Finally, the tendon eccentricity is the distance between
Furthermore, an implicit frictionless slipping behaviour is considered these intersections points and the nodes of the beam–column element.
in the assessment of the deformations and deformed configuration To consider internal unbonded tendons within this framework we
shape along the tendon during the entire loading process. Eccentricity can assume that the deviators are located at every node of the hosting
variations due to the deformation of the hosting member can also be member. Therefore, the tendon eccentricity remains constant along the
taken into account explicitly by updating the tendon geometry. This entire numerical procedure which reflects the main difference between
framework allows analysing internal and external unbonded tendons external unbonded and internal tendons.

3
C. Melchor-Placencia and C. Málaga-Chuquitaype Structures 59 (2024) 105715

Fig. 1. Tendon and hosting member in the undeformed and deformed configuration.

Fig. 2. Procedure to update the tendon eccentricity.

Assuming that the tendon profile has a piecewise linear shape to the deformation of the hosting member can be obtained as [28]:
during the loading process, the length of the tendon between two ∑
𝐿𝑝𝑚𝑛 − 𝐿𝑝0
contiguous deviators and/or anchorages, 𝑚 and 𝑛, can be assessed as: 𝛥𝜀𝑝 = (18)
√ 𝐿𝑝0
( )2 ( )2 ∑
𝐿𝑝𝑚𝑛 = 𝑋𝑝𝑚 − 𝑋𝑝𝑛 + 𝑌𝑝𝑚 − 𝑌𝑝𝑛 (17) where 𝐿𝑝𝑚𝑛 represents the sum of each tendon segment length in the
deformed state and 𝐿𝑝0 is the total length in the initial configuration.
This length is constantly updated during the incremental iterative The constant strain along the tendon for a specific state of deforma-
process. As the tendon can slip freely without friction between itself tion is calculated as [28]:
and the duct/deviator, the strain in the tendon is regarded as constant
along its full length. As a result, the strain increment in the tendon due 𝜀𝑝 = 𝛥𝜀𝑝 + 𝜀𝑝0 (19)

4
C. Melchor-Placencia and C. Málaga-Chuquitaype Structures 59 (2024) 105715

Fig. 3. Post-tensioning load in a tendon segment.

where 𝜀𝑝0 is the initial tendon strain after the post-tensioning operation. 4.1. Timber
The force in the tendon can be straightforwardly assessed by multi-
plying the tendon stress by its area. To evaluate the stress in the tendon, The stress–strain relationship proposed by Glos [33] for the shot-
the tendon strain [Eq. (19)] (should
) be substituted in the constitutive term uniaxial compression of timber is adopted in this numerical
stress–strain relationship, 𝑓𝑝 𝜀𝑝 , that governs the behaviour of the procedure (Fig. 4(a)). This relationship is described as [33]:
steel strands of the post-tensioning tendons. Then, the tendon force is
( ) 𝜀𝑐 + 𝛼1 𝜀𝑛𝑐
obtained from: 𝜎 𝜀𝑐 = 𝑓 𝑜𝑟 − 𝜀𝑐𝑢 ≤ 𝜀𝑐 ≤ 0 (23)
( ) 𝛼2 + 𝛼3 𝜀𝑐 + 𝛼4 𝜀𝑛𝑐
𝐹𝑝 = 𝑓 𝑝 𝜀𝑝 𝐴𝑝 (20)
Once the tendon force and eccentricity are known, the post- 𝑓𝑐𝑦 𝛼0
𝛼1 = ( 𝑓𝑐𝑦
) 𝑓 𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑐𝑦 ≤ 𝑓𝑐𝑢 − 1 (MPa) (24a)
tensioning equivalent load exerted by the tendon segment comprised (𝑛−1)
(𝑛 − 1) 𝐸𝑡 𝜀𝑐0 1− 𝑓𝑐𝑢
between the beam–column element with nodes 𝑖 and 𝑗 can be deter-
mined as [28]: 1
𝛼2 = (24b)
′ [ ]𝑇 𝐸𝑡
𝑭𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 𝐹𝑝 − cos 𝛽 sin 𝛽 𝑒𝑖 cos 𝛽 cos 𝛽 − sin 𝛽 −𝑒𝑗 cos 𝛽 (21) 1 𝑛
𝛼3 = − (24c)
where 𝛽 is the angle between the longitudinal axis of the beam–column 𝑓𝑐𝑢 (𝑛 − 1) 𝐸𝑡 𝜀𝑐0
element and the corresponding tendon segment as depicted in Fig. 3. 𝛼
𝛼4 = 1 (24d)
This angle can be calculated as [28]: 𝑓𝑐𝑦
𝑒𝑖 − 𝑒𝑗 where 𝑓𝑐𝑢 is the ultimate compressive strength, 𝜀𝑐0 is the strain at
tan 𝛽 = (22)
𝑙𝑝 ultimate strength, 𝑓𝑐𝑦 is the residual strength, 𝐸𝑡 is the initial elastic
where 𝑙𝑝 is the length of the tendon segment. modulus of the timber material, 𝛼0 is a parameter used to set up the
It should be pointed out that the equivalent loads in Eq. (21) are maximum at 𝜀𝑐0 , and 𝑛 is a shape parameter.
defined within a local coordinate system. After the determination of In the case of shot-term uniaxial tension, the behaviour is consid-
the local equivalent loads, the total equivalent nodal load resisted ered as quasi-brittle with an initial linear elastic response up to the
by the tendon is computed by assembling all the local contributions. attainment of the ultimate tensile strength, 𝑓𝑡𝑢 . A linear softening is
During this assembling process, the contributions of all the tendon assumed for strains past the ultimate strength.
segments are transformed from the local coordinate system to the After reaching its peak strength, softening behaviour is assumed in
global coordinate system. It is worth noting that the local equivalent both the tension and compression regimes. The ultimate compressive
loads are constantly changing in magnitude and direction throughout and tensile strains at the end of the softening branches should be
the incremental-iterative numerical procedure. adjusted to maintain a constant tensile and compressive fracture energy
to ensure that the dissipated energy involved in the failure process is
4. Constitutive laws for materials represented coherently [34,35].
A damage model with no plastic strains for unloading and reloading
This section defines the constitutive laws used to represent timber
conditions of the timber material is considered in this study as also
and steel materials. If there are no excessive geometrical irregularities
adopted by other researchers, i.e., [36].
or local defects in the timber elements, the orthotropic behaviour
of timber can be neglected for the assessment of the load–deflection
response and failure load of timber beams [30]. As a result, there 4.2. Steel strands
is no need to consider multi-axial stress states and instead uniaxial
stress–strain laws can be adopted to describe the nonlinear behaviour The stress–strain relationship for steel strands under shot-term uni-
of timber parallel to the grain. Similarly, uniaxial stress–strain laws are axial tension devised by Menegotto and Pinto [37] is employed in this
used to accurately model the non-linear material behaviour of the steel framework. The corresponding curve is depicted in Fig. 4(b) and is
strands comprising the unbonded tendons. calculated from [37]:
In addition, concrete strain-stress relationships have been imple- ⎛ ⎞
mented herein. To this end, the well-known constitutive laws for com- ⎜ ⎟
pression such as the modified Kent and Park [31] and Hognestad [32] ( ) ⎜ ⎟
1−𝑄
𝜎𝑝 𝜀𝑝 = 𝐸𝑝 𝜀𝑝 ⎜𝑄 + ⎟ ≤ 𝑓𝑝𝑢 (25)
backbone envelope curves were used and are not presented herein since ⎜ ( ( )𝑅 ) 𝑅1 ⎟
they are well-known constitutive las and the reader is referred to the ⎜ 𝐸𝑝 𝜀𝑝 ⎟
cited sources for further details. ⎜ 1 + 𝐾𝑓𝑝𝑦 ⎟
⎝ ⎠

5
C. Melchor-Placencia and C. Málaga-Chuquitaype Structures 59 (2024) 105715

Fig. 4. Stress–strain curves for the materials: (a) Timber; (b) Steel strand.

where 𝑓𝑝𝑢 , 𝑓𝑝𝑦 and 𝐸𝑝 are the ultimate tensile strength, yield stress, and imposing external loads on the structure. During this second stage, a
modulus of elasticity of the steel strand; and 𝑅, 𝐾 and 𝑄 are empirical displacement control and cylindrical arc-length method are adopted to
coefficients defined according to the type of steel strand employed. pass limit points and follow the post-peak load–displacement response.
A numerical procedure based on solving a set of nonlinear equations
5. Incremental FE equations and solution procedure to determine the equilibrium state after the post-tensioning operation
is followed in this work [38,39]. In this procedure, the nonlinear
The element tangent stiffness matrices (Eqs. (7) and (11)), the inter- equations are derived from the equilibrium between the post-tensioning
nal force vector (Eq. (12)), and the post-tensioning force vector due to and self-weight loads as [38]:
the equivalent loads of the tendons (Eq. (21)) are assessed in the local ( ) [ ]
coordinate system attached to the beam–column element. Therefore, ⎡ 𝒓 𝒖, 𝜀𝑝0 ⎤ 𝟎
to set up the incremental equilibrium equations of the structure, the ⎢ ( ) ⎥= (27)
⎢𝐹 𝒖, 𝜀 ⎥ 0
stiffness matrices and force vectors from all the elements comprising the ⎣ 𝑝 𝑝0 − 𝐹𝑝𝑒 ⎦
structure are assembled in the global coordinate system. The resulting ( )
incremental equations are nonlinear, therefore an incremental-iterative where 𝒓 𝒖, 𝜀𝑝0 is the residual force of the structure, which is function
procedure is needed to solve them. For a specific step of the short-term of the global displacements, 𝒖, and the initial tendon strain, 𝜀𝑝0 ; and
analysis, based on equation proposed by Lou et al. [28], the linearized 𝐹𝑝𝑒 is the corresponding tendon force due to the effective prestress.
system of equations can be written as
The nonlinear equations in Eq. (27) are linearized resulting in the
( 𝑖 )
𝑲 𝑀 + 𝑲 𝑖𝐺 𝛥𝒖𝑖+1 = 𝛥𝜆 𝑖+1 𝑭 𝑟𝑒𝑓 + 𝑭 𝑒𝑥𝑡
𝑖 𝑖
− 𝑭 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑖
− 𝑭 𝑖𝑛𝑡 (26) following nonlinear system of coupled equations [38]:

where the superscript 𝑖 indicates the 𝑖𝑡ℎ iteration, 𝛥𝜆 is the iterative ⎡ 𝑲𝑇 𝐴𝑝 𝐸𝑝𝑡 𝑾 𝑝 ⎤ [ ] [ ]
⎢ ⎥ 𝛥𝒖 𝒓
load factor, 𝑲𝑀 and 𝑲𝐺 are the material and geometric stiffness matri- ⎢ 𝐴𝑝 𝐸𝑝𝑡 ⎥ =− (28)
𝑖 , 𝑭 𝑖 and 𝑭 𝑖 are the force vectors ⎢ 𝐿 𝑾 𝑇𝑝 𝐴𝑝 𝐸𝑝𝑡 ⎥ 𝛥𝜀𝑝0 𝐹𝑝 − 𝐹𝑝𝑒
ces of the structure, respectively, 𝑭𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑡 ⎣ 𝑝0 ⎦
acting on the structure due to external loads, post-tensioning effects
and internal stresses, respectively, 𝑭𝑟𝑒𝑓 is the reference vector of the where 𝑲 𝑇 , 𝑾 𝑝 , and 𝐸𝑝𝑡 are the tangent stiffness of the whole structure,
external loads, and 𝛥𝒖 is the iterative displacement vector. In this study, the orientation vector of the post-tensioning force and the tangent
the load and displacement control strategy as well the cylindrical arc- modulus of the steel strand.
length method [27] are adopted as the imposed constraint conditions In the procedure described by Moreira et al. [38] and Sousa et al.
to evaluate the iterative load ratio 𝛥𝜆 of Eq. (26). [39], the tangent stiffness of the structure also includes the tangent
In order to track the global behaviour of unbonded post-tensioned stiffness of the tendon element. Therefore, the traditional Newton–
members over the whole loading range, the nonlinear analysis is per- Raphson methods can be applied to solve Eq. (28). However, the
formed in two stages. The first stage refers to the equilibrium state due methodology presented in this work only includes the assessment of the
to post-tensioning tendon forces and the self-weight of the structure. forces generated by the tendon segments so the evaluation of the true
More specifically, this stage represents the state just after anchoring total tangent stiffness matrix of the system is not possible. In order to
in the post-tensioning operation. To predict this state of equilibrium solve the nonlinear system of equations two well-known Quasi-Newton
accurately, the initial tendon strain should be known. If this strain methods, the Broyden and Broyden–Fletcher–Goldfarb–Shanno (BFGS)
value is available, Eq. (26) can be solved using a load control method.
methods [40], are adopted in this work. The Broyden method performs
However, in the majority of cases, only the tendon stress at the end of
a first-order update of the stiffness matrix whereas the BFGS method
the post-tensioning operation is known. This final value of tendon stress
conducts a rank-two update. To start these numerical algorithms, an
is usually called effective prestress, 𝜎𝑝𝑒 . Generally, the applied initial
initial guess of the tangent stiffness matrix 𝑲 𝑇0 𝑆 has to be made. In this
strain is greater than the corresponding strain after anchoring due to
case, the following was adopted:
the elastic compressive deformation of the post-tensioned member. In
[ ]
order to assess the initial strain in the tendon, an iterative trial-and- 𝑲𝑇 𝟎
error method could be employed [28]. However, in this study a robust 𝑲 𝑇0 𝑆 = (29)
𝟎 𝐴𝑝 𝐸𝑝𝑡
numerical procedure is used as described bellow. Once the equilibrium
state after the release of the tendon and transfer of the post-tensioned where 𝑲 𝑇 only contains the stiffness matrix of the beam–column
force is evaluated, a second stage considers the additional effects of elements.

6
C. Melchor-Placencia and C. Málaga-Chuquitaype
Fig. 5. Two degree of freedom spring system.
6. Nonlinear solution algorithms
Traditionally, algorithms such as full and modified Newton–Raphson
methods are employed to solve incremental nonlinear equations like
Eq. (26) in combination with the constraint conditions. However, in
nonlinear problems involving large displacements and material inelas-
ticity the tangent stiffness matrix can vary abruptly during specific
steps of the analysis. As a result, convergence issues arise and the
nonlinear analysis is aborted preventing a detailed tracking of the entire
load–displacement response.
Since one of our main objectives is to analyse post-tensioned mem-
bers employing an efficient FE model capable of simulating the ultimate
limit states and post-failure behaviour, we have adopted and compared
traditional Newton–Raphson algorithms as well as a Krylov subspace
acceleration Newton algorithm [41], together with two-level consistent
quasi Newton–Raphson algorithms [42] designed to overcome conver-
gence difficulties during the whole numerical solution process. The
results of these comparisons are presented below with reference to the
two degree of freedom (dof) spring system with an inconsistent tangent
stiffness matrix used by Scott and Fenves [41] and shown in Fig. 5.
In this structural system, the springs present a linear hardening and
perfectly plastic behaviour after yielding, as also shown in Fig. 5. The
system is subjected to a external load vector of 𝑷𝑒𝑥𝑡 = [6 12]𝑇 which
leads to a nodal displacement vector of 𝑼 = [2 5]𝑇 .
Figs. 6 and 7 present the traces of equilibrium searches associated
with the different algorithms implemented in this study. It can be
noted from Fig. 6 that whereas the full Newton–Raphson algorithm
fails to converge – instead it oscillates indefinitely around the solution
– its modified version reaches convergence after 143 iterations. In
contrast, the Krylov and two-level algorithms achieve convergence after
just a few iterations (Fig. 7). More specifically, the Krylov algorithm
converges after 14 iterations while the two-level algorithm converges
after 16 iterations, if an origin secant operator is used for material in-
elasticity, and after 8 iterations, when employing a incremental secant
operator.
It is clear from Fig. 7 that the Krylov subspace acceleration Newton
algorithm and the two-level consistent quasi Newton–Raphson algo-
rithm are capable of finding a solution even when inconsistencies and
approximation errors are present in the formulation of the tangent
stiffness matrix.
7
Structures 59 (2024) 105715
7. Validation of the numerical approach
The analysis framework detailed above was implemented and used
to study the global behaviour of post-tensioned timber elements under
large displacements and material nonlinearity. Three benchmark tests
were replicated for validation purposes. First, and given the dearth
of experimental data on post-tensioned timber elements tested up to
failure, we decided to also include two numerical and experimental test
sets on unbonded post-tensioned concrete beams. This will also serve
to illustrate the capabilities of the framework and the versatility of our
implementation. In addition, the data available from an experimental
campaign on unbonded post-tensioned timber beams was also used for
final validation. As it has been mentioned before, unbonded tendons
that depend on anchorages and deviators to be in contact with the host-
ing member are denominated external tendons, whereas the unbonded
tendons that are in permanent contact with the member are referred to
as internal tendons.
7.1. Simply-supported post-tensioned RC beams
A numerical test was performed by Lou and Xiang [21] to evaluate
the second-order effects of different deviator arrangements on the ul-
timate load capacity of externally post-tensioned simply-supported RC
beams. This numerical model has been extensively validated [18,28,29]
and is selected due to its challenging modelling features which include
a varying eccentricity that changes in value and direction as well as
large displacements and material nonlinearity. For the validation of
our framework, the beam with a span of 16 000 mm is selected as the
specific test case. This beam has a rectangular cross section of 300 mm
width and 600 mm height with a constant reinforcement layout top
and bottom along its full length. The external post-tensioning applied
on the beam consists of straight horizontal tendons with an initial
eccentricity of 200 mm and three different deviator configurations.
These configurations include middle and one-third span locations as
well as no deviators in between the anchorages as shown in Fig. 8.
The loading scenarios for the externally post-tensioned beams comprise
uniform and midpoint loads, considered separately. In order to assess
the accurate reference state just after anchoring, a specific weight of
25 kN per cubic meter is used. More details on the distribution and
geometrical properties of the reinforcing bars and tendon as well as
the material properties employed can be found in [21].
C. Melchor-Placencia and C. Málaga-Chuquitaype
Fig. 6. Trace of equilibrium search: (a) Full Newton–Raphson; (b) Modified Newton–Raphson.
In our FE model, the hosting member was discretized into 18
elements along the span and its section subdivided into 10 layers.
Similarly, the tendon was discretized into 18 segments spanning each
beam–column element of the hosting member as depicted in Fig. 9.
To consider the inelasticity of the materials, the Hognestad [32] and
perfectly-plastic backbone envelopes were adopted for the unconfined
concrete and reinforcing steel bars, respectively. The same discretiza-
tion and material properties used in [21] were employed. The results
from our simulation are presented in Fig. 10, together with those
of Lou and Xiang [21]. It can be observed from Fig. 10 that the
numerical framework used in this study is capable of accurately mod-
elling the full load–deflection response of these test cases and that key
response features like stiffness degradation and inflection points are
well captured.
7.2. Continuous post-tensioned RC beams
An experimental campaign carried out by Chen [43] that tested sev-
eral internally post-tensioned two-span continuous RC beams subjected
to third-point loadings is selected as a second case study. The purpose
of replicating this test is to attest the capability of the implemented
framework to address piecewise parabolic profiles in internally post-
tensioned beams as shown in Fig. 11. The set of beams analysed have
rectangular sections of 150 mm width and 300 mm depth, and total
8
Structures 59 (2024) 105715
lengths of 10 000 mm with each span covering 4800 mm. In this test,
the specimens had the same layout for all the continuous unbonded
tendons that use 15 mm seven-wire strands, and different arrangements
when reinforcing steel bars of 12, 16 and 18 mm are used with a range
of yielding strengths. Furthermore, the shear reinforcement comprised
10 mm stirrups with a spacing of 150 mm in the outer shear spans and
of 200 mm in the flexural spans. In the case of the inner shear spans,
the stirrup spacing varies between 80 mm and 150 mm depending of
the tested specimen. In this numerical analysis, only two specimens
of the experimental campaign, namely YLA2 and YLB2, are studied.
More specific details of the geometry of the beams, their reinforcement
layouts, and material properties can be found in [28]. A reinforced
concrete specific weight of 25 kN per cubic meter was assumed in our
analyses.
The parabolic profile of the tendon was approximated by a set
of linear segments as shown in Fig. 12. The hosting member, in this
case the RC beam, and the unbonded tendon was subdivided into 38
elements and segments, respectively. The cross section of the beam was
discretized in 10 concrete layers and different levels of confinement
are considered along the beam to reflect the tested specimen. The top
and bottom reinforcement bars were represented by layers and their
changing layout over the length of the beam was taken into consider-
ation. Concerning the material nonlinear behaviour, perfectly-plastic,
and modified Kent and Park [31] backbone envelopes were adopted
C. Melchor-Placencia and C. Málaga-Chuquitaype Structures 59 (2024) 105715

Fig. 7. Trace of equilibrium search: (a) Krylov-Newton; (b) Two-Level Incremental ; (c) Two-Level Origin.

9
C. Melchor-Placencia and C. Málaga-Chuquitaype
Fig. 8. Simply-supported post-tensioned RC beam layouts: (a) No deviators; (b) One deviator; (c) Two deviators.
Fig. 9. FE discretization: (a) No deviators; (b) One deviator; (c) Two deviators.
for the reinforcing steel bars and concrete, respectively. In the case of
the steel strands, the backbone envelope curve described by Eq. (25)
was employed. The experimental force–displacement relationships and
our simulations are presented in Fig. 13.
Despite using the same discretization and material properties by Lou
et al. [28], the curves in Fig. 13 show some discrepancies between
their numerical results and ours. This mismatch could be explained
by unintended differences in material parameters since these were not
specified in [28] and had to be assumed from nominal values in the
literature. Nevertheless, the results show a reasonable agreement with
the experimental results.
7.3. Externally post-tensioned timber beams
The experiments conducted by van Beerschoten et al. [14] on a
series of full-scale simple supported timber beams with box section are
used herein as the third validation set. Furthermore, the high-fidelity
10
Structures 59 (2024) 105715
3D FE models built by the same authors to simulate the response of
these beams are also used in our comparisons. To this end, the post-
tensioned beam specimens labelled as Beam 2, Beam 3 and Beam 4 in
the original paper are analysed up to their failure. The post-tensioning
force in the specimens was applied through external tendons. The three
beam specimens were subjected to four-point bending. In the Beam 2
specimen, the tendons are straight with an initial constant eccentricity
of 161 mm as shown in Fig. 14(a). In the case of Beam 3 and 4,
the tendons have a draped profile enforced through two deviators
located at one-third of the span with zero eccentricity at both ends
and maximum eccentricities of 185 and 215 mm in the flexural spans,
respectively, as depicted in Figs. 14(b) and 14(c). The total span of the
beams is 9150 mm and a box section of 426 mm width and 610 mm
height overall were used in all cases. These sections are comprised of
webs and flanges with 63 and 90 mm of thickness, respectively, for
Beam 2 and 3 as illustrated in Figs. 15(a) and 15(b), whereas the box
C. Melchor-Placencia and C. Málaga-Chuquitaype
Fig. 10. Load–deflection response: (a) Single concentrated load; (b) uniform load.
section of Beam 4 has a top flange thickness of 180 mm as shown in
Fig. 15(c).
To construct our numerical model, a discretization of 18 beam ele-
ments and tendon segments is used for the three post-tensioned beams
as illustrated in Fig. 16. A specific weight of the timber beam of 5.7
kN per cubic meter is assumed. The compression strength of the timber
material that comprises the full-scale beam specimens is adopted di-
rectly from experimental tests performed on scaled specimens analyzed
in parallel to the post-tensioned specimens [44]. These strength values
were employed during the construction of the high-fidelity 3D FE model
developed by van Beerschoten et al. [14], however in their case the
same values for tension strength and compression strength were used.
In our case, two tension strength values are adopted to set an upper and
lower load–deflection response curves and to account for the natural
variability associated with wood. The first set corresponds to tension
values assumed to be the same than the compression values, similar
to [14]. In the second case, the tension strength is obtained from the
bending strength values provided by the manufacturer [45] as no test
was performed to assess this strength during the original experimental
campaign. To this end, a scale factor of 0.733 is used in accordance
with the manufacturer’s recommendation which includes consideration
of potential size effects. The elastic properties of the box-section beams
are obtained from the full-scale test on the beam specimens. For the
externally post-tensioned tendons, seven steel strands of 12.7 mm
diameter are employed. The material properties of the timber and steel
strands are summarized in Tables 1 and 2. Once the strength values are
defined, the uniaxial constitutive model for timber and steel strands
can be assessed using Eqs. (23) and (25), respectively. Finally, the
11
Structures 59 (2024) 105715
Table 1
Material properties for timber beams.
Properties of timber material Value
Ultimate bending strength 48 MPa
Ultimate compressive strength parallel to grain 47 MPa
Modulus of elasticity Beam 2 10.9 GPa
Modulus of elasticity Beam 3 11.2 GPa
Modulus of elasticity Beam 4 11.4 GPa
Table 2
Material properties for steel strands.
Properties of steel strands Value
Ultimate tensile strength 1860 MPa
Yield strength 1520 MPa
Modulus of elasticity 200 GPa
box-sections of Beam 2 and 3, which have the same dimensions, are
discretized in 32 fibres, whereas the section of Beam 4 which possess
a ticker top flange is divided in 34 fibres, as depicted in Fig. 17.
During the mesh sensitivities studies conducted it was observed
that the failure load was marginally affected, whereas the post-peak
response showed some sensitivity to the mesh size. This can be appre-
ciated from Fig. 18 for the case of Beam 3, as an example. A mesh size
of 18 elements was sufficient to evaluate with reasonably accuracy the
ultimate load capacity. If the behaviour in the post-peak regime is of
interest, a localization limiter has to be considered to avoid spurious
mesh sensitivity.
The obtained results can be further validated analysing the sectional
forces in each integration point (IP) of the elements throughout the
analysis. It was noticed that the internal sectional forces were almost
identical up to the peak load and then they started to diverge in the
post-peak range. This is illustrated in Fig. 19 for the most strained
elements located at the middle of the mesh. In this figure, it is observed
that the normal forces presents a higher divergent variation in the post-
failure regime. Therefore, these results could be used in a performance
assessment up to the ultimate limit state.
Fig. 20, presents and compares the numerical and experimental
load–displacement responses of the post-tensioned timber beams under
study. It can be noticed from this figure that the global responses
obtained with the proposed numerical framework are in good agree-
ment with the experimental and numerical results obtained by van
Beerschoten et al. [14]. Importantly, the numerical results in the case
of Beam 2 obtained from the 3D simulation (high-fidelity 3D FE model)
developed in [14] were performed up to the same level of failure load
observed during the experimental test. This is because this specimen
experienced premature failure during physical testing due to initial
damage induced on it during the post-tensioning operations. Therefore,
our simulation was also carried out up to the same premature failure
load. This is not the case of Beam 3 and Beam 4, where the full set of
numerical results are plotted up to the limit point of failure indicating
a very good prediction of ultimate failure capacities. Besides, it can
be noticed that the upper and lower load–deflection response curves
obtained comprise the benchmark experimental and numerical results.
The experimental and obtained results show a stiffer behaviour in com-
parison with the 3D continuum-based FE model of [14]. This confirms
that the tested specimens presented negligible shear deformations due
to the post-tensioning force. On general, the discrepancies observed are
marginal.
8. Influence of deviator spacing on ultimate response
A complementary numerical study was performed to gain insights
into the nonlinear behaviour of post-tensioned timber beams. To this
end, specimen Beam 3 (analysed in the previous section) was consid-
ered as a case study due to the practicality of its deviator layout which
C. Melchor-Placencia and C. Málaga-Chuquitaype Structures 59 (2024) 105715

Fig. 11. Continuous post-tensioned RC beam layouts.

Fig. 12. FE discretization of the continuous post-tensioned RC beams.

Fig. 13. Load–displacement responses: (a) Specimen YLA2; (b) Specimen YLB2.

12
C. Melchor-Placencia and C. Málaga-Chuquitaype Structures 59 (2024) 105715

Fig. 14. Externally post-tensioned timber beam layouts: (a) Beam 2; (b) Beam 3; (c) Beam 4.

Fig. 15. Box section layouts: (a) Beam 2; (b) Beam 3; (c) Beam 4.

is frequently used in mainstream engineering practice. The FE model
with the highest tensile strength was chosen as the reference beam.
It has been found that second order effects strongly depend on the
deviator spacing in post-tensioned RC beams with two deviators [46].
To examine similar effects in timber, the ratio of the distance between
the two deviators to the span length of Beam 3, 𝑆𝑑𝑒𝑣 ∕𝐿, is considered
as a main variable to carry out a comprehensive study of the global
nonlinear behaviour of post-tensioned timber beams subjected to four-
point bending and uniform loads up to failure. Ten values of the ratio
𝑆𝑑𝑒𝑣 ∕𝐿 ranging from 0 to 1 were considered for each load type. A ratio
of zero represents a post-tensioned beam with no deviators whereas a
value of one depicts a tendon profile with one deviator at mid-span.
The influence of deviator spacing on the ultimate loading capacity,
eccentricity variation and ultimate stress increase in unbonded tendons
are studied.
Fig. 21 shows the results obtained for ultimate load capacity as
a function of deviator spacing ratio. It is observed that a maximum
capacity is achieved for ratios of 2/9 and 1/3 under four-point bending,
whereas in the uniform load case the highest ultimate load is attained
at a deviator to span ratio of 1/9. Also it can be noticed that the beam
under uniform loads can resist higher demands (up to 27% more) than
under point loads over the full set of deviator configurations studied
here. Conversely, the post-tensioned beams with no deviators shows
the lowest failure loads under both load types.
The effects of the deviator spacing on the eccentricity at mid-span
were also studied. These results are illustrated in Fig. 22. It is observed

13
C. Melchor-Placencia and C. Málaga-Chuquitaype Structures 59 (2024) 105715

Fig. 16. FE discretization: (a) Beam 2; (b) Beam 3; (c) Beam 4.

Fig. 17. Fibre discretization: (a) Beam 2; (b) Beam 3; (c) Beam 4.

Fig. 18. Mesh sensitivity analysis of the load–deflection response regarding Beam 3.

14
C. Melchor-Placencia and C. Málaga-Chuquitaype
Fig. 19. Sectional forces in the integration points: (a) Moment; (b) Tension.
that the variations are slightly higher under four-point bending. As
expected, the highest variations are obtained for the case without
deviators, where reductions of more than 70% the initial value were
obtained. It should be pointed out that eccentricity is among the main
parameters that govern the ultimate load capacity of post-tensioned
beams.
The ultimate stress increase in the unbonded tendons is also depen-
dent on the ratio 𝑆𝑑𝑒𝑣 ∕𝐿. Fig. 23 demonstrates that 𝑆𝑑𝑒𝑣 ∕𝐿 ratios of
5/9 and 2/3 lead to the maximum stress increases for the four-point
and distributed loading cases, respectively. However, the differences
between each loading type are not significant.
9. Conclusions
A numerical analysis framework adopting a corotational approach
in conjunction with a constantly updated equivalent load scheme ca-
pable of simulating the full short-term nonlinear response of post-
tensioned timber members has been presented. Important features of
the response of post-tensioned structures such as strain incompatibil-
ity, material inelasticity, large displacements, and second-order effects
are all well incorporated. After performing several simulations, the
following main conclusions can be offered:
• The numerical implementation features numerical robustness and
computational efficiency as it is demonstrated by the accurate
reproduction of experimental data and numerical results obtained
with high-fidelity 3D FE models. Moreover, the versatility of the
analysis framework was attested in the simulation of the global re-
sponse of post-tensioned timber beams (as well as post-tensioned
RC beams) with different tendon profiles.
15
Structures 59 (2024) 105715
• The efficiency of this modelling approach allows carrying out
design-oriented parametric studies of post-tensioned timber mem-
bers where local responses such as strains and internal forces
as well as global responses up to the ultimate limit state are of
interest.
• A robust and efficient numerical procedure to assess the equi-
librium state immediately after the anchoring process has been
presented. In contrast to an iterative trial-and-error scheme, this
numerical procedure increases the computational efficiency of the
numerical framework to a greater extent. Furthermore, it does not
require an explicit derivation of the tangent stiffness of the tendon
element.
Further work is encouraged to increase even more the computational
efficiency of the presented numerical framework by incorporating en-
hanced FE formulations of the beam–column and tendon elements.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support provided
by the Peruvian National Program of Scholarships and Educational
Loan (PRONABEC).
C. Melchor-Placencia and C. Málaga-Chuquitaype Structures 59 (2024) 105715

Fig. 20. Load–midspan displacement response: (a) Beam 2; (b) Beam 3; (c) Beam 4.

16
C. Melchor-Placencia and C. Málaga-Chuquitaype Structures 59 (2024) 105715

Fig. 21. Effects of deviator spacing on ultimate load capacities.

Fig. 22. Effects of deviator spacing on eccentricity variation.

Fig. 23. Effects of deviator spacing on ultimate stress increase.

17
C. Melchor-Placencia and C. Málaga-Chuquitaype
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