The School-to-Work

Transition From a Learning

Theory Perspective

John D. Krumboltz
Roger L. Worthington

Learning is essential not only for students to develop the basic employability
skills required for the school-to-work transition, but also for the development of
work habits, beliefs, interests, and values. Career development counselors can
apply a learning perspective to (a) use assessment instruments for stimulating
new learning, not merely for matching existing characteristics to current envi-
ronments, (b) achieve emotional and performance outcomes as well as cognitive
outcomes, and (c) measure success by the extent to which clients continue to be
engaged in learning activities leading to the creation of satisfying lives for them-
selves, not merely by measures of decisiveness and congruence.

The School-to-Work Opportunities Act of 1994 initiated a new chap-

ter in an old book that has tried to help young people to translate
their school experiences into marketable skills. Career education
was, and still is, a powerful idea. The politics of making it work
are complex, and great ideas do not necessarily receive funding.
Since the 1970s, some career education activities have continued
without federal funds to support a concerted effort (Hoyt, 1991).
The current school-to-work movement has taken a different path
on which the schools are no longer the only players. Instead, lo-
cal partnerships have emerged between, for example, the public
schools, businesses, labor unions, parents, proprietary schools,
institutions of higher education, local governments, and private
industry councils. As a result, the need for a theoretically grounded
approach to address the school-to-work transition process has never
been more apparent.
The purpose of this article is threefold. First, we establish the
theory that the school-to-work movement is founded on economic

John D. Krumboltz is a professor of education and psychology in

the School ofEducation at Stanford University, Stanford, Califor-
nia. Roger L. Worthington is an assistant professor in the Depart-
ment of Educational and Counseling Psychology at the University
ofMissouri-Columbia. Correspondence regarding this article should
be sent to John D. Krumboltz, School ofEducation, Stanford Uni-
versity, Stanford, CA 94305-3096 (e-mailcjdkisetanford.edu).

312 THE CAREER DEVELOPMENT QUARTERLY / JUNE 1999/ VOL. 47

principles (i.e., human capital theory; HCT) rather than on psycho-
logical principles (Worthington & Juntunen, 1997). We address the
limitations of the economic approach, as well as the benefits of us-
ing a psychological perspective (e.g., learning theory). Next, we briefly
review the principles of Krumboltz's learning theory of career coun-
seling (Krumboltz, 1996), and evaluate their utility for workforce
readiness efforts. Finally, we recommend specific ways to imple-
ment learning theory driven practices in school-to-work programs.

HUMAN CAPITAL THEORY AND U.S. WORKFORCE

READINESS NEEDS
One of the central forces behind the school-to-work movement is the
nation's need for a technologically sophisticated, highly produc-
tive workforce (Committee on the Changing Nature of Work, 1993;
Lent & Worthington, 1999; STWOA, 1994; Worthington &
Juntunen, 1997). Worthington & Juntunen (1997) have suggested
that the assumptions underlying the implementation of the School-
to-Work Opportunities Act of 1994 (STWOA, 1994) stem in part
from the economic theory of human capital (cf., Becker, 1993).
Human capital theory is based on two central premises: (a) work-
ers with better educational backgrounds and training fare better
in the labor market, and (b) nations with larger pools of human
capital resources (i.e., workers qualified for jobs employers need
to fill) will be more competitive in the global economy (Sweetland,
1996). Therefore, human capital theory predicts that investments
in education to enhance the human capital characteristics of youth
(i.e., educational attainment, competitiveness of credentials) will
increase opportunities for youthful workers and the economic well-
being ofthe nation.
The STWOA was designed with a human capital agenda (Smith
& Scoll, 1995). According to this agenda, high school students
will be taught the connections between school- and work-based
learning activities and objectives, engage in work-related train-
ing activities and set career goals earlier in life, and complete
their education with an industry recognized skill certificate (i.e.,
human capital credentials) as well as a high school diploma. More
broadly speaking, educational reform efforts are being designed
to increase the numeracy and literacy skills, as well as math,
science, and technological achievements of youth preparing to
make the transition into the labor force. Therefore, it is clear
that learning is at the heart of what the school-to-work move-
ment is attempting to achieve.
However, the basis of human capital theory in the school-to-work
movement is not without limitations. Although the emphasis of the
school-to-work movement is on investments in education and learning,
the primary focus is the attainment of educational credentials and
economic outcomes. As a result of this emphasis, there is a general
lack of specificity in describing the processes by which human capital
investments benefit workers. We believe that Krumboltz's learning
theory of career counseling (Krumboltz, 1996) can fill some of the gaps
in the theoretical foundation of the school-to-work movement.

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LEARNING THEORY OF CAREER COUNSELING
Concern over the career preparation of young people is at the basis
ofthe STWOA, and the provision oflearning experiences is seen as
the route toward solving problems related to the school-to-work tran-
sition. According to the learning theory of career counseling (LTCC),
the task of the career counselor is to promote new learning. As ex-
plained elsewhere (i.e., Krumboltz, 1996; Mitchell & Krumboltz,
1996), LTCC is derived from contemporary general social learning
theory of behavior (Bandura, 1971, 1977, 1986) to promote the idea
that individuals are active, intelligent, problem solving agents who
interact with their surroundings to pursue their own purposes and
needs. A host of different factors, including genetic endowments,
environmental conditions, planned and unplanned events, and learning
experiences and their consequences interact to produce a particular
career path for each individual. Skills, interests, beliefs, values,
work habits, and personal qualities are all subject to change as the
result oflearning experiences. The current status of these personal
qualities as revealed by various assessment instruments is seen as
the beginning point for new learning; personal qualities are not static
traits that must be matched with rigid working environments. Thus,
career counselors can be seen as coaches, educators, and mentors.
The reason for this learning activity is to promote participants'
abilities to create satisfying lives for themselves. The components of
a satisfying life will vary widely among individuals. These compo-
nents may include successful accomplishment in some endeavor,
such as harmonious family relationships, intriguing hobbies, reli-
gious activities, or environmental protection. An important part of
the counseling process is helping each participant identify the ele-
ments he or she considers to constitute a satisfying life and to plant
the idea that this definition is subject to continual change. No coun-
selor can guarantee a client's "success" in achieving a satisfying
life, although the counselor can help the client learn qualities that
can increase the probability of success.
The school-to-work movement has arisen out of the recognition that
the career paths of youth who do not attempt college or who fail to
succeed in college lead to an average of 6 to 8 years of "floundering" in
the workforce. From an LTCC perspective, this "floundering" is not
necessarily bad. Much valuable learning occurs in the trial-and-error
work experiences that occur during this interval. However, the learn-
ing is haphazard and may sometimes result in the learning of self-
defeating attitudes and habits. Societal values that overemphasize the
achievement of a college education have created environmental condi-
tions and events that reduce the opportunities for work-bound youth to
obtain learning experiences that result in satisfying lives. Successful
school-to-work programs will intervene in those environmental condi-
tions to provide the opportunities for youth to produce the task-
approach skills, self-observation, world-view generalizations, and
actions that will lead to satisfying and productive career paths.
Krumboltz (1996) identified four important needs related to voca-
tional development in the newly evolving world of work that have
important implications for the school-to-work transition process in

314 THE CAREER DEVELOPMENT QUARTERLY / JUNE 1999/ VOL. 47

the twenty-first century. In the following sections, we provide an
overview of the variety of ways in which LTCC can inform school-to-
work objectives.

YOUNG WORKERS NEED TO EXPAND THEIR

CAPABILITIES AND INTERESTS, RATHER THAN
BASE DECISIONS ONLY ON EXISTING
CHARACTERISTICS
One of the major objectives of the STWOA is to stimulate "Career
exploration and counseling in order to help students identify career
interests and goals" (U.S. Congress, 1994). Note that the key verb
here is "identify" rather than "expand"; this idea of career explora-
tion and counseling reflects an outdated set of expectations that can
be traced back to Parsons' (1909) original work in vocational psy-
chology completed 90 years ago. Counselors can make a major con-
tribution to the school-to-work effort by showing participants how
they can expand their interests and capacities, and not merely match-
ing people to a particular career on the basis of their existing char-
acteristics. Unfortunately, little effort in vocational psychology has
been devoted to helping youth define targets for new learning. In-
stead, most of the literature has addressed the extent to which the
current (and presumably static) characteristics of individuals can
be matched to the existing (and presumably static) work environ-
ments in a narrowly defined field.
Personality tests have been used to identify existing personality
types and preferences, but little effort has been devoted to helping
people change their personality styles. Counselors might say "I see
you prefer working alone in many situations. Are there times when
you like working with other people? Would you like to develop the
extroverted side of your personality?" Skill assessments are often
interpreted as aptitudes, which are virtually unchangeable pre-
dispositions to perform a certain task at a defined level of profi-
ciency. Counselors who are making skills assessment could ask
their clients "Are there some skills listed here that you would
like to improve? How could you develop some new skills?" Simi-
larly, people taking interest inventories are asked about the extent
to which they like a variety of tasks, occupational titles, and hob-
bies. Most people have had no direct experience in most of the activi-
ties represented on the inventory. Yet they must answer all, or
virtually all, of the items or risk having their results declared
invalid. Although the intent of interest inventories should be to
open up new possibilities, the very structure of such inventories
discourages the development of new interests. In discussing inter-
est inventory results, counselors could make statements such as
"People usually like activities they've tried. It's hard to know if you
would like something until you've tried it. What activities on this
list would you like to try during the coming year?"
Beliefs and values change, too. Some people hold beliefs that block
them from taking constructive action (Krumboltz, 1991). For ex-
ample, some believe that they dare not take a risk for fear they

THE CAREER DEVELOPMENT QUARTERLY / JUNE 1999/ VOL. 47 315

might fail. We, as counselors, should not hesitate to ask clients
to reexamine self-defeating beliefs and values. Counselors can use
assessment instruments to help clients identify beliefs that need
changing as well as to confirm facilitative beliefs (Krumboltz,
1991). Similarly, despite the general assumption that values are
stable and unassailable, they can change as a result of new expe-
riences; to presume their intractability could be to the detriment
of many youth. Thus, tests that presume that measured charac-
teristics are static rather than changeable tend to channel people
toward a particular career based on limited past experience, not
on what they might learn in the future.
Elsewhere, Krumboltz (1996) has suggested that test results
can be used in two ways: (a) to make inferences about how clients
might fit into certain educational or occupational environments,
and (b) to suggest promising new learning experiences. Tests
should no longer be used to restrict people from aspiring to cer-
tain occupations. Rather, counselors should use tests to pinpoint
specific new learning goals. However, before counselors can imple-
ment this recommendation efforts must be made to facilitate the
expansion of students' interests and capabilities early in life.
Therefore, career awareness activities under the STWOA may
need to target students at an earlier age.
The current requirement that career awareness activities begin
"no later than the seventh grade" (D. S. Congress, 1994) may be
compatible with the notion of expanding students' interests and
aptitudes. However, there is a danger that career assessments,
even at this early age, will be used to limit students' educational
courses in increasingly narrow areas, rather than to help stu-
dents to search for new areas of expansion. Students, because
they are supposed to identify a career major by the 11th grade,
are under pressure to define themselves in an occupational cat-
egory earlier than ever before. However, thinking of this initial
career choice as an experiment and not a lifetime commitment
will facilitate the learning process and liberate students to con-
sider other options as they mature. Beginning the exploration
process in the primary grades may be another intervention op-
tion that would advance the goals of expanding students' capaci-
ties and interests.

STUDENTS SHOULD PREPARE FOR

CHANGING WORK TASKS, NOT ASSUME THAT
OCCUPATIONS WILL REMAIN STABLE
The nature of work, the relationship between the employer and the
employee and between workers, and ofjob tenure across the life span
have changed during the past 20 years and are likely to continue to
do so well into the 21st century (Savickas, 1996; Watts, 1996). Work
tasks are simultaneously becoming more service oriented (low wage,
low qualifications), and more technologically oriented (high wage, high
qualifications; Isaacson & Brown, 1997). Employers are decreasing
their level oflong-term commitment to the worker and increasingly

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using temporary employees to fill short-lived functions associated
with project oriented objectives. This practice of "outsourcing" brings
in temporary contract workers who can contribute their particular
expertise to a project for a certain amount of time before moving on
to other projects. Workers are members of teams that are expected
to cooperate in producing a product or providing a needed service
(Peters, 1992). The skills required by the team can vary over time
as the project progresses.
The concept of a "job" may soon become obsolete (Bridges, 1994).
There will never be any shortage of work that needs to be accom-
plished, but there will be more of a need for worker flexibility as
work requirements change more frequently and new teams are
formed to work on specific projects. Workers will increasingly be
expected to move from project to project doing whatever work
needs to be accomplished, and not merely to fulfill a written job
description.
Although it might be desirable for students to try an occupation at
an early age, expecting them to commit to one occupation for a life-
time is unrealistic and self-defeating from both the individual and
societal viewpoint. Rather than preparing for a narrowly defined
career field, students need to prepare for the likelihood that they
will occupy several different types of jobs. Workers will be expected
to update their skills and qualifications as rapid advances in tech-
nology make particular skills and qualifications obsolete. There-
fore, learning how to adapt to changing conditions in the workplace
will be one of the essential skills for success. Self-development will
be the new work ethic for the 21st century (Maccoby, 1981).
Under the STWOA, youth in school-to-work programs will be re-
quired to select a career major before entering the 11th grade-a
procedure that results in the matching of industry specific training
with employment opportunities after formal schooling has been com-
pleted. Although this type of matching has been associated with job
tenure and wages (Stem, Finkelstein, Stone, Latting, & Dornsife,
1994), less concern seems to have been given to the degree to which
youth will be satisfied with their field of employment, specific em-
ployer, or work tasks, and ultimately how participating in the world
of work will lead to satisfying and enriching lives. From an LTCC
perspective, this approach overemphasizes the short-term gains that
result from industry specific training (e.g., less floundering upon
entry into the workforce) and neglects the long-term gains that would
result from helping youth to recognize the necessity of adaptation
and change. In addition, as Charner (1988) has suggested, studies
have found that employers are less concerned with locating youth
who have been trained for a specific job than with finding youth who
can read and write, have a good attitude, are motivated, are depend-
able, follow directions, and can be good team members. As a result,
it seems less worthwhile to provide industry specific training than
it does to teach youth to develop a fundamental orientation toward
work and lifelong learning. To address this concern, Krumboltz (1996)
has suggested interventions to challenge outmoded concepts and to
help clients adapt to changing conditions in the workplace. We sum-
marize some of these interventions in the following section.

THE CAREER DEVELOPMENT QUARTERLY / JUNE 1999/ VOL. 47 317

STUDENTS SHOULD BE EMPOWERED TO TAKE
ACTION, NOT MERELY TO DECIDE ON A FUTURE
OCCUPATION
Because work plays a large role in the lives of almost everyone,
preparation for it pervades every activity. Learning math skills,
reading, drawing pictures, dancing, playing games, and conversing
with friends can all be seen as part of the process of acquiring the
skills and personal qualities that will shape a career path. Finding
a suitable niche in the world of work is a long process of trial and
error. In the ever changing realm of possibilities for work, exposure
to a wide variety of occupational categories, information, and oppor-
tunities for forming accurate self-observation and world-view obser-
vation generalizations will be essential. It is understandable that
clients procrastinate and develop zeteophobia (i.e., the fear of engag-
ing in the career search process) when facing the overwhelming
prospects ahead (Krumboltz, 1993).
Youth need help in taking effective action if they are to learn how to
create satisfying lives for themselves. They need to be asked "What are
you curious about?" They need practice in exploring their own curios-
ity. They need to learn how to take advantage of unplanned events and
even to create some unplanned events oftheir own (Mitchell, Levin, &
Krumboltz, 1999).
According to LTCC, individuals engage in various behaviors that lead
to entry into a career as a result of generalizations and skills formed
from learning experiences (Mitchell & Krumboltz, 1996). Work bound
youth have faired poorly in the labor force because they have had inad-
equate learning opportunities. For work bound youth to succeed in
the labor force, specific attention will need to be given to their self-
observation generalizations (i.e., seeing themselves as capable of en-
gaging in work related behaviors), world-view generalizations (i.e., rec-
ognizing the relationships between education-based workforce training
and success in the work world), and task approach skills (i.e., work
habits, mental sets, perceptual and thought processes, and problem
orientation). Ultimately, by facilitating the learning opportunities youth
receive in relation to the world of work, youth will be empowered to
take action in a rapidly changing and often uncertain world.
Specialized workforce readiness programs, although helpful with
that segment of youth actively engaged in the transition, should not
be construed as the sum total of efforts necessary to help youth take
effective action. If counselors keep in mind that the goal is to facili-
tate useful client learning, then any ethical intervention that pro-
motes such learning can be part of counselors' repertoires. At the
same time, more specific activities can be included to educate people
about career possibilities. The following section, adapted from
Krumboltz (1996), provides information on some options that are
compatible with the LTCC approach.
Job Club Programs

The power of the group to support proactive job search behavior was
capitalized on brilliantly by Azrin and Besalel (1980). They devel-

318 THE CAREER DEVELOPMENT QUARTERLY I JUNE 1999 I VOL. 47

oped, implemented, and conducted research on the "job club," a rig-
orous set of job seeking procedures that counselors can use to help
groups of students find jobs. They reported a 90% success rate com-
pared to a 28% to 60% success rate for control groups. More recent
work continues to support the efficacy of this approach (Elksnin &
Elksnin, 1991; Stidham & Remley, 1992).
Study Materials

Many learning resources are available. A magnificent array of books,

magazine articles, films, videotapes ,and audiotapes provide ample op-
portunities for people of all ages to educate themselves. The National
Geographic Society has produced a series often videotapes for early
elementary school students titled Your Town to acquaint children with
occupations in institutions such as hospitals, libraries, police stations,
and post offices. For adolescents, Danish et al. (1992) have created a
training program to help young people develop healthy life skills and to
learn how to accomplish their goals. Every year, new and revised ma-
terials are produced to satisfy career learning needs.
Simulations

Simulated environments have been used extensively to teach impor-

tant skills under relatively low stress conditions. For example, flight
simulators are used to train both military and civilian pilots. In-
structors can deliberately program "emergency situations" ofvari-
ous types to see whether their trainees can handle such situations
adequately.
If the trainee makes a mistake and "crashes," no harm is done. The
mistake can be identified and remedial instruction provided. In ca-
reer counseling, simulations have been tried to teach students about
the consequences of making decisions in life (Varenhorst, 1968, 1973),
to test the adequacy of various decision making models (Krumboltz,
Scherba, Hamel, & Mitchell, 1982), and to allow students to sample
various occupations (Krumboltz, 1970). More recently, a series of
CD-ROMs titledSetQuest (1996) has been produced to introduce middle
school children to careers in science, engineering, and technology.
Brief simulation tasks are included.
Students often find planning the future onerous, overwhelming, and
fear-provoking (zeteophobia). They are expected to identify an occupa-
tional goal when they have no experience in any occupations. A chance
to solve problems in a variety of occupations would give students par-
tially realistic experience in each. Ifthe simulated occupational experi-
ences were sufficiently well designed, students would be excited by
some ofthe opportunities presented and might be motivated to explore
their occupational possibilities with more enthusiasm. Career counse-
lors would need to have some structured learning materials available
to provide these simulated occupational experiences.
Cognitive Interventions

Cognitive interventions rely on verbal understanding and insight.

Much of our understanding of these interventions is due to the pio-

THE CAREER DEVELOPMENT QUARTERLY / JUNE 1999/ VOL. 47 319

neering work of Bandura (1971), Beck (1976), Ellis (1962), and
Meichenbaum (1977). Noer (1993) has identified the severe emo-
tional consequences oflayoffs and corporate downsizing on employ-
ees and their families and has suggested some helpful cognitive ap-
proaches. Learning to listen to "self-talk" and make appropriate changes
in that self-talk when it becomes maladaptive can be as equally impor-
tant to career interventions as it is to mental health counseling. Self-
defeating self-talk may consist of inaccurate self-observation, world-
view, or task efficacy generalizations or self-instructions resulting from
unintended learning experiences. Cognitive restructuring techniques,
countering troublesome beliefs, investigating assumptions to discover
disconfirming evidence, and cognitive rehearsal have applications in
school-to-work programs. For example, if youth are expected to make
career decisions as early as the 10th grade, then teachers, counse-
lors, mentors, and parents should attend to the assumptions and
beliefs their students have with respect to the world of work and
help them achieve an appropriate level of realism before they make
important decisions (Krumboltz, 1991). Furthermore, career devel-
opment counselors should use cognitive techniques with these same
students because such techniques may be especially suited to ad-
dress problems associated with motivation, attitude, skill develop-
ment, and work habits, all of which have been identified as impor-
tant targets of school-to-work programs.
Behavioral Interventions
Although they use words and verbal understandings, behavorial
interventions rely on practice and experiential exercises. Recog-
nition of the importance of instrumental behavior and its conse-
quences is due in large part to the theoretical and experimental
work ofB. F. Skinner (1953) although many others have added
substantial applications subsequently. Role-playing, behavioral
rehearsal, relaxation techniques, desensitization, assertion train-
ing, modeling, and stimulus control techniques are all suitable
for career applications in school-to-work programs. These tech-
niques can be used to help prepare students for the rigors of the
workforce, as well as to help them cope with the demands they
face once they get there.

CAREER COUNSELORS SHOULD PLAY A

MAJOR ROLE IN DEALING WITH ALL CAREER
PROBLEMS, NOT JUST OCCUPATIONAL
SELECTION
In addition to vocational development, the school-to-work transition
movement seeks to address indirectly a wide variety of other social
problems through workforce preparation efforts. High drop-out rates,
juvenile delinquency, teenage parenthood, substance abuse, racial
and gender inequities in the workforce, welfare over-reliance, and
psychological well-being have all been identified as targets for inter-
vention through or in workforce preparation programs (Worthington
& Juntunen, 1997). Despite the questionable wisdom of such an

320 THE CAREER DEVELOPMENT QUARTERLY / JUNE 1999/ VOL. 47

approach to these macrosystemic social ills, there is little doubt
that expanding efforts of career specialists into the school-to-work
transition process will necessitate some level of competence in ad-
dressing these problems. Furthermore, the ongoing radical restruc-
turing of the workplace has already created, and will increasingly
create, disruptions of expectations and severe stress (Land & Jarman,
1992; Ray & Rinzler, 1993; Barker, 1992; Beckhard & Pritchard,
1992; Handy, 1989). To adapt constructively to these changes, workers
will have to learn new skills and attitudes and to cope with a new
set of insecurities (Senge, 1990).
Career counseling needs to expand the scope of its objectives be-
yond the choice of a future occupation. Krumboltz (1993) has identi-
fied a number of other concerns to be addressed by career counselors
that may have some import to the school-to-work transition pro-
cess. They are as follows:

1. Locus of Control: Who is in charge of my career?

2. Career Obstacles: How can I hope to achieve my career goals
when I face so many obstacles?
3. Job Search Knowledge: How do I go about finding the kind of
job I think I would like?
4. Job Search Motivation: How can I keep looking for a job in
the face of real and potential rejection?
5. Job Relationships: How can I learn to get along with my boss
and co-workers? (Krumboltz, 1993, p.144).

A variety of interventions can be used to help clients confront is-

sues, overcome fears, and develop new skills. One of the most useful
of these interventions is role-playing. In the case of a client losing
motivation to continue the job search, for example, a counselor could
use role-playing to diagnose the way in which the client approaches
potential employers, to stimulate discussion of the fears involved,
and to practice new approaches. The counselor could engage the
client in a simulated telephone call, first allowing the client to play
the role of employer, then switching roles so the client could prac-
tice behaviors modeled by the counselor.

EVALUATION OF SELECTED
SCHOOL-TO-WORK PRACTICES FROM THE LTCC
PERSPECTIVE
The school-to-work movement addresses the transitional needs of
work-bound youth through a variety of practices. Smith and Rojewski
(1993) categorize school-to-work practices as "paid," "nonpaid," or
"other" alternatives, including apprenticeships, cooperative educa-
tion, school-based enterprises/entrepreneurships, internships and
practicums, community-based volunteering, technical preparation
(e.g., tech prep or 2 + 2), mentoring, and simulations, shops, and
labs. In this section, we evaluate a few practices from the LTCC
perspective.
Tech-prep programs provide training in advancing technical fields
that will increase the pool of qualified workers with technological

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sophistication, usually through the combination of secondary edu-
cation and 2 years of technical training. Tech-prep programs focus
on blending essential academic competencies with modern techni-
cal skills through a revised curriculum that emphasizes applied
academics (Mid Suffolk Tech Prep Consortium, 1998). The curricu-
lum is based on any number of technical fields such as health, busi-
ness technology, multimedia, electronics, engineering, environmental
science, and merchandising. Industry specific training occurs in
the latter stages of tech-prep programs, and requires the develop-
ment of mainstream academic competencies used in the field (i.e.,
numeracy, literacy, spatial and relational reasoning, organizational
skills, and interpersonal relations and communication). Ai:; a result,
although the greatest benefits of participation in tech-prep programs
may result when participants enter their field of study, they will
have learning experiences well beyond their industry specific train-
ing because of the general academic competencies and employabil-
ity skills they have learned through the program.
Similarly, school-based enterprises have increasingly been incor-
porated into educational reform efforts over the past decade. These
work-school interface programs can begin as early as elementary school
as a means of providing youth with experiences and skills that tie their
school-based curriculum to real world applications. These programs
include school stores, school restaurants, construction projects, print
shops, agricultural projects, multimedia (e.g., television, radio, and
Internet) projects, child care centers, retail and auto repair shops, and
production of school newspapers and yearbooks. They often incorporate
entrepreneurial enterprises into their design (Smith & Rojewski, 1993).
Consistent with the tenets of the LTCC approach, "[entrepreneurial]
education teaches students to assess their own attitudes, aptitudes,
and skills relative to those necessary for developing and running a
business" (Smith & Rojewski, 1993, p. 234). Ai:; a result, students have
the opportunity to engage in meaningful work oriented activities that
provide them with occasions for learning general employability skills
and a work orientation that will support students through the transi-
tion from school to work regardless of the occupational field they even-
tually pursue when they finish school.
Mentoring and apprenticeship programs are also core practices in
the school-to-work paradigm. "Mentoring generally refers to an older
more experienced person helping a younger one in a one-to-one rela-
tionship that goes beyond the formal obligations of a teaching or
supervisory role" (William T Grant Foundation, 1988, p. 169, cited
in Smith & Rojewski, 1993). Without question, the use ofmentoring
to facilitate the school-to-work transition of youth is closely aligned
with the principles of LTCC, which are based in social learning
theory. However, although mentorship has been emphasized over
counseling in the youth apprenticeship movement (Hoyt, 1994;
Worthington & Juntunen, 1997), mentors may not have the skills
necessary to carry out their role effectively without specialized training
in the facilitative conditions required for helping youth make im-
portant career decisions. Appropriate training for mentors in the
use of LTCC methods and attention to the importance of qualified
career guidance counseling may help to alleviate this condition.

322 THE CAREER DEVELOPMENT QUARTERLY / JUNE 1999/ VOL 47

CONCLUSION
The goals of career counseling and of the school-to-work movement
should be to facilitate the learning of skills, interests, beliefs, val-
ues, work habits, and personal qualities that enable each partici-
pant to create a satisfying life in a constantly changing work envi-
ronment. From this perspective, the school-to-work movement needs
more than human capital theory as the foundation for preparing
youth for the workforce, because ReT promotes a somewhat naive
(or incomplete) economic notion that simply investing time, money,
and energy will produce the desired outcomes. On the other side of
the coin, theories in the tradition of vocational psychology have of-
ten been criticized for their lack of practical utility and inattention
to some important realities faced by people in the midst of career
exploration, transition, and decision making. Learning theory has
the capacity to offer specific insights into distinct methods ofhu-
man capital investment that target optimal learning activities de-
signed to facilitate the skill acquisition and learning motivation of
youth from a variety of backgrounds.
Thinking about the school-to-work transition from a learning per-
spective offers us three major ideas for our future work in career
development:

1. We will make use of assessment instruments for stimulating

new learning, not merely for matching existing characteris-
tics to current environments.
2. We will expand the range of educational interventions in ca-
reer development to include methods for achieving emotional
and performance outcomes as well as cognitive outcomes.
3. We will measure success by the extent to which clients con-
tinue to be engaged in learning activities toward the creation
of satisfying lives for themselves, not merely by measures of
decisiveness and congruence.

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