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Complex Power
• Complex Power is basically the representation of electrical power in the form of complex number. Like a complex
number, it consists of real and imaginary part. Real part represents the active power whereas the imaginary part
represents the reactive power. It is generally represented by symbol S.
• If active and reactive power be P & Q respectively, then complex power for an inductive load is written as
S = P + jQ
• The above expression reveals that reactive power is positive. This simply means that reactive power is being
consumed by an inductor.
• Complex power for a capacitive load is given as below.
S = P – jQ
• Since reactive power is negative, this implies that a capacitor is a generator of reactive power. It does not consume
reactive power in a circuit rather it produces reactive power.
Significance of Complex Power:
• Power triangle can easily be constructed if the value of complex power is known. Q will represent the
perpendicular, P the base and S is the hypotenuse of power triangle.
• Real part gives the value active power whereas the imaginary part gives the value of reactive power.
• Magnitude of S gives the value of Apparent Power. Thus, apparent power = √(P2+Q2). 4
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Significance of Power Factor
• The apparent power drawn by a circuit has two components viz. (i) true power and (ii) reactive power.
• True power component should be as large as possible because it is this component which does useful work in the
circuit.
• This is possible only if the reactive power component is small.
• As seen from the power triangle in Fig. 12.7, the smaller the phase angle ϕ (i.e. greater the p.f. cos ϕ), the smaller
is the reactive power component.
• Thus when ϕ = 0° (i.e. cos ϕ = 1), the reactive power component is zero and the true power is equal to the apparent
power.
• That means the whole of apparent power drawn by the circuit is being utilised by it.
• Thus power factor of a circuit is a measure of its effectiveness in utilising the apparent power drawn by it.
• The greater the power factor of a circuit, the greater is its ability to utilise the apparent power.
• Thus 0·5 p.f. (i.e. 50% p.f.) of a circuit means that it will utilise only 50% of the apparent power whereas 0·8 p.f.
would mean 80% utilisation of apparent power.
• For this reason, we wish that the power factor of the circuit to be as near to 1 as possible.

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Causes of low Power Factor
• The main cause of low Power factor is Inductive Load. As in pure inductive circuit, Current lags 90° from Voltage,
this large difference of phase angle between current and voltage causes zero power factor.

Following are the causes of low Power factor:

1. Single phase and three phase induction Motors
2. Varying Load in Power System(As we know that load on power system is varying. During low load period,
supply voltage is increased which increase the magnetizing current which cause the decreased power factor)
3. Industrial heating furnaces
4. Electrical discharge lamps (High intensity discharge lighting) Arc lamps (operate a very low power factor)
5. Transformers

Disadvantage of low power factor

• Large Line Losses (Copper Losses)
• Large kVA rating and Size of Electrical Equipment
• Greater Conductor Size and Cost
• Low Efficiency
• Penalty from Electric Power Supply Company on Low Power factor
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• Larger voltage drop in conductor (IR as larger I), so poor voltage regulation.
Power Factor Correction/Improvement
• Since most of the loads are inductive, pf can be improved by placing capacitor in parallel to load.
• Consider inductive circuit supplied by an ac voltage.
• Let a capacitor C is placed in parallel with load, it will draw leading current IC from the supply and hence total current I
drawn from supply.
From Phasor diagram,
Ø2 < Ø1 i
Thus Cos Ø2 > Cos Ø1
• Pf after placing of capacitor > pf before placing of capacitor Cos Ø1=original pf

• Thus pf can be improved by connecting capacitor.

𝑂𝐷
From △ OBD, Cos Ø2 = 𝑂𝐵 ⇒ OD = OB Cos Ø2 = I Cos Ø2 ..................(i)
𝑂𝐷
Also, from △ OAD, Cos Ø1 = 𝑂𝐴
⇒ OD = OA Cos Ø1 = I1Cos Ø1 ...........(ii)

From (i) and (ii),

I1Cos Ø1 = I Cos Ø2 .....................(iii)
Multiplying bothsides by ‘V’
V I1Cos Ø1 = V I Cos Ø2
⇒ P1 = P 2
Power drawn by the circuit is same before and after placing capacitor. 8
Improvement of power factor
1. Static Capacitor
• We know that most of the industries and power system loads are inductive that take lagging current which decrease
the system power factor.
• For Power factor improvement purpose, Static capacitors are connected in parallel with those devices which work
on low power factor.
• These static capacitors provides leading current which neutralize (totally or approximately) the lagging inductive
component of load current (i.e. leading component neutralize or eliminate the lagging component of load current)
thus power factor of the load circuit is improved.
• Suppose, here is a single phase inductive load which is taking lagging current (I) and the load power factor is Cosθ
as shown in fig-1.

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• In fig-2, a Capacitor (C) has been connected in parallel with load.
• Now a current (Ic) is flowing through Capacitor which lead 90° from the supply voltage ( Note that Capacitor
provides leading Current i.e., In a pure capacitive circuit, Current leading 90° from the supply Voltage, in other
words, Voltage are 90° lagging from Current).
• The load current is (I).
• The Vectors combination of (I) and (Ic) is (I’) which is lagging from voltage at θ2 as shown in fig 3.
• It can be seen from fig 3 that angle of θ2 < θ1 i.e. angle of θ2 is less than from angle of θ2.
• Therefore Cosθ2 is less than from Cosθ1 (Cosθ2> Cosθ1).
• Hence the load power factor is improved by capacitor.
• Also note that after the power factor improvement, the circuit current would be less than from the low power factor
circuit current.
• Also, before and after the power factor improvement, the active component of current would be same in that circuit
because capacitor eliminates only the re-active component of current.
• Also, the Active power (in Watts) would be same after and before power factor improvement.

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Calculation of Rating of capacitor to improve pf

In phasor diagram,
P = Active power drawn from supply
Q1= Reactive Power taken by load
Q2= Reactive Power taken by load after capacitor placement
QC= Leading Reactive power drawn by capacitor from supply
From phasor diagram,
𝑄1
tan Ø1 =
𝑃
or, Q1 = P tan Ø1 ...................(i)
𝑄
Also, tan Ø2 = 2
𝑃
or. Q2 = P tan Ø2 .....................(ii)
Now, Qc = Q1− Q2
= P tan Ø1 − P tan Ø2
Qc = P (tan Ø1 − tan Ø2) Var
This eqn gives Var rating of capacitor to improve the pf from Cos Ø1 to Cos Ø2

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Again for value of capacitance,
We have, QC= V IC Sin 900 [ as IC leads V leads by 900]
= V IC
𝑉
Also, IC =
𝑋𝐶
𝑉
= 1ൗ = 𝜔𝐶 V
𝜔𝐶
So, from above relation,
QC= V. 𝜔𝐶 V
= 𝜔𝐶 𝑉 2
𝑸
⇒ C = 𝝎 𝑽𝑪𝟐 F
Where V is RMS value of supply voltage.

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Measurement of power in 1-Ø AC circuits
• Power in 1-Ø AC circuits can be measured by using dynamometer wattmeter.
• Wattmeter consists fixed coils and movable coils, arrangement is as shown in figure.
• Fixed coils are connected in series with load to carry load current ‘i1’, hence they are called current coil.
• Moving coil is connected in parallel with load which carries current ‘i2’ which is in fact proportional to voltage
across the load, hence interaction of two different currents results into deflecting torque on the pointer due to
mechanical force (torque) acting between two coils whereas restoring or controlling torque to the pointer is
provided by a spring attached to the pointer through moving coil.
• Deflecting torque is proportional to product of currents in both coils.
Td ∝ i1 i2
But i2 ∝ V ( assuming coils are ideal)
So, Td ∝ I1 V

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Let the load is inductive in nature and such that load current lags voltage by some angle ‘Ø’.
So, if v = Vm Sin ωt
and, i1 = Im Sin (ωt−∅)
Now, Average Deflecting Torque,
Td ∝ Average of V i1 over a complete cycle
𝟏 2π
∝ Vm Im Sin ωt Sin (ωt −Ø)𝒅 ωt
2π ‫𝟎׬‬
V I
∝ m m Cos ∅ ∝ 𝑽RMS IRMS Cos ∅ ∝ Load Active Power
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Let W, I & V be wattmeter, Ammeter & Voltmeter readings, then
W = VI Cos ∅
So, pf can be calculated,
𝑊 𝑊
Cos ∅ = ⇒ ∅ = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 −1 ( )
𝑉𝐼 𝑉𝐼

And, Reactive Power (Q) = V I Sin ∅, S = V I or 𝑃2 + 𝑄 2

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