Outlines

• Transistor Configuration Comparison Chart

• Power Amplifier
• Two Load Lines (Ac & Dc)
• Class A Operation
• Class B Operation
Transistor Configuration Comparison Chart

COMMON COMMON
AMPLIFIER TYPE COMMON BASE
EMITTER COLLECTOR
INPUT/OUTPUT
PHASE 0° 180° 0°
RELATIONSHIP
VOLTAGE GAIN HIGH MEDIUM LOW
CURRENT GAIN LOW(a) MEDIUM(b) HIGH(g)
POWER GAIN LOW HIGH MEDIUM
INPUT RESISTANCE LOW MEDIUM HIGH
OUTPUT
HIGH MEDIUM LOW
RESISTANCE
 Outlines

• Transistor Configuration Comparison Chart

• Power Amplifier
• Two Load Lines (Ac & Dc)
• Class A Operation
• Class B Operation
 BASICS INTRODUCTION OF POWER AMPLIFIER

The term amplifier is very generic.

• In general, the purpose of an amplifier is to take an input
signal and make it stronger (or in more technically correct
terms, increase its amplitude)
• There are many different types of amplifiers, each with a
specific purpose
• A radio transmitter uses an RF Amplifier (Radio Frequency) :
 such an amplifier is designed to amplify a signal so
that it may drive an antenna.
• An Audio power amplifiers :
 which are designed to drive loudspeakers.
INTRODUCTION OF POWER AMPLIFIER

The purpose of a power amplifier, is to take a signal from a source

device and make it suitable for driving a loudspeaker.

 Power amplifiers are used to deliver a relatively high amount of

power, usually to a low resistance load.

 Typical load values range from 300W (for transmission antennas)

to 8W (for audio speaker).

 Typical output power rating of a power amplifier will be 1W or

higher.

 Ideal power amplifier will deliver 100% of the power it draws

from the supply to load. In practice, this can never occur.
The reason for this is the fact that the components in the amplifier
will all dissipate some of the power that is being drawn form the
supply.
Generally, amplifiers can be sub-divided into two distinct types depending upon their power or voltage gain. One type is called the Small Signal Amplifier which include pre-amplifiers, instrumentation amplifiers etc. Small signal amplifies are designed to amplify very small signal voltage levels of only a few micro-volts (μV) from sensors or audio signals.
The other type are called Large Signal Amplifiers such as audio power amplifiers or power switching amplifiers. Large signal amplifiers are designed to amplify large input voltage signals or switch heavy load currents as you would find driving loudspeakers
of a “Power Amplifier” (also known as a large signal amplifier), is to deliver power to the load,.
 Amplifier Power Dissipation
The total amount of power VCC
being dissipated by the
I CC
amplifier, Ptot , is
Ptot = P1 + P2 + PC + PT + PE
I1
The difference between this I CQ
total value and the total P1 = I12R1 R1 RC PC = I2CQR C
power being drawn from
the supply is the power that PT = I2TQR T
actually goes to the load –
i.e. output power. I EQ
2
P2 = I2 R2 R2 RE PE = I2EQR E

I2

6
The power amplifier works on the basic principle of converting the DC
power drawn from the power supply into an AC voltage signal delivered
to the load.

Although the amplification is high the efficiency of the conversion from

the DC power supply input to the AC voltage signal output is usually
poor. (Efficiency h )

Amplifier Efficiency h
• A figure of merit for the power amplifier is its efficiency ( h )
• Efficiency ( h ) of an amplifier is defined as the ratio of ac output
power (power delivered to load) to dc input power .
• By formula : ac output power P (ac)
  100%  o  100%
dc input power Pi (dc)
• As we will see, certain amplifier configurations have much higher
efficiency ratings than others.
• This is primary consideration when deciding which type of power
amplifier to use for a specific application.
7
 Outlines

• Power Amplifier
• Two Load Lines (Ac & Dc)
• Class A Operation
• Class B Operation
 Load Lines
Every amplifier has a dc equivalent circuit and an ac equivalent
circuit. Because of this, it has two load lines:
• dc load line
• ac load line
For small-signal operation: The location of the Q point is not
critical.
But with large-signal amplifiers: The Q point has to be at the
middle of the ac load line to get the maximum possible output
swing.

The both load lines are represent all possible

combinations of VCE and Ic (in DC) and ic
and vce (IN AC)
9
DC Load Line

Fig: (b) shows the dc load line with Q point

10
AC Load Lines

The ac load line is a graph that represents all possible combinations of and for
a given amplifier.

The ac and dc load lines for a given amplifier are not identical.

A typical ac and dc load line combination is shown in Figure 1(a)

The two lines intersect at the circuit Q-point. The endpoints of the ac load line are
defined as shown in Figure 1(b)

As shown, the ac saturation and cutoff points can be defined using circuit Q-point
values.
 DC Biasing + AC signal
• When an ac signal is applied to the base of the
transistor, IC and VCE will both vary around their
Q-point values.

• When the Q-point is centered, IC and VCE can

both make the maximum possible transitions
above and below their initial dc values.

• When the Q-point is above the center on the

load line, the input signal may cause the
transistor to saturate. When this happens, a
part of the output signal will be clipped off.

• When the Q-point is below midpoint on the

load line, the input signal may cause the
transistor to cutoff. This can also cause a
portion of the output signal to be clipped.

12
DC Biasing + AC signal

13
 DC and AC Equivalent Circuits
+VCC
+VCC

RC IC RC
R1 R1

RL rC
vin vce
vin

R2 R1//R2
R2
IE
RE
RE

rC = RC//RL

Bias Circuit DC equivalent AC equivalent

circuit circuit

14
 Ac Load Line

• In term of Dc operation ,the load on the

transistor is equal to the Rc
• The RL value does not consider because of the
coupling capacitor ,provide the isolation
between the transistor and load .
• In Ac equivalent circuit shows the ac load (rc)
consist of Rc parallel with RL

15
 AC Load Line
• The ac load line of a given
IC(sat) = VCC/(RC+RE) amplifier will not follow the
plot of the dc load line.
DC Load Line
• This is due to the dc load of an
IC amplifier is different from the
(mA) ac load.
VCE(off) = VCC

ac load line
VCE
IC Q - point

dc load line

VCE

The saturation and cutoff points on the ac load line differ from those on the dc load line. Because the
ac collector and emitter resistance are lower than the respective dc resistance, the ac load line is much
steeper. It’s important to note that the ac and dc load lines intersect at the Q point. 16
Determine the ac load line:
Ac saturation current

ic = the change in collector current

IC = the peak value of ac collector current
ICQ = the quiescent value of IC
 AC Load Line
What does the ac load line tell you?
• The ac load line is used to tell you the maximum
possible output voltage swing for a given common-
emitter amplifier.
• In other words, the ac load line will tell you the
maximum possible peak-to-peak output voltage (Vpp )
from a given amplifier.
• This maximum Vpp is referred to as the compliance
of the amplifier.
(AC Saturation Current Ic(sat) , AC Cutoff Voltage VCE(off) )

19
 AC Saturation Current and AC Cutoff
Voltage

IC(sat) = ICQ + (VCEQ/rC)

ac load line
rC IC
vin vce

R1//R2
VCE(off) = VCEQ + ICQrC

VCE
rC = RC//RL

20
 Amplifier Compliance
• The compliance of an amplifier is found by
determine the maximum possible of IC and VCE from
their respective values of ICQ and VCEQ. Shown in fig:
below

Maximum Possible Compliance

21
 Compliance
The maximum possible transition for VCE is equal to the
difference between VCE(off) and VCEQ. Since this transition is
equal to ICQrC, the maximum peak output voltage from the
amplifier is equal to ICQrC. Two times this value will give the
(A)
maximum peak-to-peak transition of the output voltage:

VPP = 2ICQrC

VPP = the output compliance, in peak-to-peak voltage

ICQ = the quiescent value of IC
rC = the ac load resistance in the circuit
22
 Compliance
• When IC = IC(sat), VCE is ideally equal to 0V. When IC = ICQ, VCE is at VCEQ.
Note that when IC makes its maximum possible transition (from ICQ to IC(sat)),
the output voltage changes by an amount equal to VCEQ. Thus the maximum
peak-to-peak transition would be equal to twice this value:
VPP = 2VCEQ (B)

• Equation (A) sets the limit in terms of VCE(off). If the value obtained by this
equation is exceed, the output voltage will try to exceed VCE(off), which is not
possible. This is called cutoff clipping, because the output voltage is clipped
off at the value of VCE(off).

• Equation (B) sets of the limit in terms of IC(sat). If the value obtained by this
equation is exceed, the output will experience saturation clipping.
23
Example :– DC and AC Load Line: For the voltage-divider bias amplifier
shown in Figure 1, plot the ac and dc load line. Determine the maximum
output compliance.

Make presentation From net( power amplifier + malvino book ch-12

plot the ac and dc load line. Determine the maximum output compliance.

From malvino anf net lec 8

 Outlines

• Power Amplifier
• Two Load Lines (Ac & Dc)
• Classification of Amplifiers
• Class A Operation
• Class B Operation
 Amplifier Classifications
• The classification of an amplifier as either a voltage or a power amplifier is
made by comparing the characteristics of the input and output signals by
measuring the amount of time in relation to the input signal that the current
flows in the output circuit.

• Power amplifiers are classified according to the percent of time that collector
current is nonzero.
• The amount the output signal varies over one cycle of operation for a full cycle
of input signal.

Amplifiers are designated by different vin Av vout Class-A

classes of operation such as class “A”,
class “B”, class “C”, class “AB”, etc.
Av Class-B
These different Amplifier Classes range vin vout
from a near linear output but with low
efficiency to a non-linear output but with
a high efficiency. vin Av vout Class-C
33
• Class A Amplifier: Has low efficiency of less than 40% but good signal reproduction and
linearity.

• Class B Amplifier : Is twice as efficient as class A amplifiers with a maximum theoretical

efficiency of about 70% because the amplifying device only conducts (and uses power) for
half of the input signal.

• Class AB Amplifier : has an efficiency rating between that of Class A and Class B but
poorer signal reproduction than class A amplifiers.

• Class C Amplifier - is the most efficient amplifier class as only a very small portion of
the input signal is amplified therefore the output signal bears very little resemblance to the
input signal. Class C amplifiers have the worst signal reproduction.
Efficiency Ratings

Amplifier Maximum Theoretical Efficiency,

max

Class A 25%
Class B 78.5%
Class C 99%

• The maximum theoretical efficiency ratings of class-A, B, and C amplifiers are: 34

According Classes of Operation
Class A operation of an amplifier means that the transistor operates in the active
region at all times. This implies that collector current flows for 360° of the ac cycle,
as shown in Fig. (a) With a class A amplifier, the designer usually tries to locate the Q
point somewhere near the middle of the load line. This way, the signal can swing over
the maximum possible range without saturating or cutting off the transistor, which
would distort the signal.

Class B operation is different. It means that collector current flows for only half
the cycle (180°), as shown in Fig.(b). To have this kind of operation, a designer
locates the Q point at cutoff. Then, only the positive half of ac base voltage can
produce collector current. This reduces the wasted heat in power transistors.

Class C operation means that collector current flows for less than 180° of the ac
cycle as shown in Fig. (c). With class C operation, only part of the positive half cycle
of ac base voltage produces collector current. As a result, we get brief pulses of
collector current like those of Fig. (c)
From malvino anf net lec 8
 According to Coupling method
There are different ways to describe transistor amplifiers classified as their
classes of operation, by their coupling, by their frequency range, and by their
usage

Figure(a) shows capacitive coupling. The coupling capacitor transmits the

amplified ac voltage to the next stage.

Figure (b) illustrates transformer coupling. Here the ac voltage is coupled through
a transformer to the next stage

Capacitive coupling and

transformer coupling are
transformer coupling both examples of ac
coupling, which blocks
capacitive coupling
the dc voltage. From malvino anf net lec 8
Direct coupling is different. In Fig. (c)
there is a direct connection between the
collector of the first transistor and the base
of the second transistor. Because of this,
both the dc and the ac voltages are
coupled. Since there is no lower frequency
limit, a direct-coupled amplifier is
sometimes called a dc amplifier.

By frequency: Another way to describe amplifiers is by stating their frequency range.

For instance, an audio amplifier refers to an amplifier that operates in the range of
20 Hz to 20 kHz. On the other hand, a radio-frequency (RF) amplifier is one that
amplifies frequencies above 20 kHz, usually much higher.
For instance, the RF amplifiers in AM radios amplify frequencies between 535 and 605kHz,
and the RF amplifiers in FM radios amplify frequencies between 88 and 108 MHz.
Amplifiers are also classified as narrowband or wideband
 A narrowband amplifier works over a small frequency range like 450 to 460 kHz.
 A wideband amplifier operates over a large frequency range like 0 to 1 MHz.
Narrowband amplifiers are usually tuned RF amplifiers, which means that their ac load is a
high-Q resonant tank tuned to a radio station or television channel.
 Wideband amplifiers are usually un tuned; that is, their ac load is resistive. Figure (a) is
an example of a tuned RF amplifier. The LC tank is resonant at some frequency. If the tank
has a high Q, the bandwidth is narrow. The output is capacitively coupled to the next stage.

From malvino anf net lec 8

Figure(b) is another example of a tuned RF amplifier. This time, the narrowband output
signal is transformer-coupled to the next stage.

From malvino anf net lec 8

 Outlines

• Power Amplifier
• Two Load Lines (Ac & Dc)
• Classification of Amplifiers
• Class A Operation
• Class B Operation
Basic Operation of Class A Amplifier
Common-emitter (voltage-divider) configuration (RC-coupled amplifier)

Amplifiers do not actually increase

the strength of an electronic signal
but it simply the signal is copied
and amplified. There are different
schemes for amplifying the signal.

From malvino anf net lec 8

41
Typical Characteristic Curves for
Class-A Operation

42
 Typical Characteristic

• Previous figure shows an example of a

sinusoidal input and the resulting collector
current at the output.
• The current, ICQ , is usually set to be in the
center of the ac load line. Why?

43
 DC Input Power/ Amplifier dc power
+VCC

The total dc power, P(dc)/Ps , that an I CC

amplifier draws from the power supply : Icc = ICQ +I1
I CQ RC
I1
R1
P(dc )  V I CC CC By current divider
RL
rule
I CC  I CQ  I1

I CC  I (I CQ  I1 ) v in R2
CQ RE

P(dc)  VCEQ I CQ

Note that this equation is valid for most amplifier power analyses. We can rewrite for the
above equation for the ideal amplifier as P(dc)  2VCEQ I CQ

44
 EX: 11.2

HW: Determine the total dc power that is drawn from the

supply by amplifier also calculate VB, VE,IE shown in figure

V  10 v, R  10k, R  2.2k
CC 1 2

Rc  3.6k, R E
 1.1k
  100
P(dc)  VCC I CQ
 AC Output Power ic

vo
AC output (or load) power, Po(ac)
rC RC//RL
v2 vin vce
L(rms)
P (ac) 
L R
L R1//R2
(0.707 V Pk ) 2
PL 
RL
V PP
V PK 
2
1 PL = (Pac) the ac load power
OR(R.M .S)   .5
2
VL = the rms load voltage
(.5  .707 V PK ) 2
PL 
RL Above equations can be used to calculate the maximum
V PP 2 possible value of ac load power. HOW?
(0.3535 )
2
PL 
RL

0.125( V PP) 2
PL  The ideal amplifier have
RL
1
0.125 
8
( V PP) 2
PL 
8R L
46
Amplifier Efficiency:

 The efficiency equals the ac output power divided by the dc

input power.

 The efficiency of any amplifier is between 0 and 100 percent.

 Efficiency gives us a way to compare two different designs

because it indicates how well an amplifier converts the dc
input power to ac output power. The higher the efficiency, the
better the amplifier is at converting dc power to ac power.
Malvino EX:12.3

EX: Shown in fig: If the peak-to-peak output voltage is 18 V and the input impedance of
the base is 100 ohm, what is the power gain .

HW: What is the transistor power dissipation and efficiency of above Fig.
Malvino EX:12.4 (HW)
Efficiency of class A amplifier
( V PP) 2
PL 
8R L
1 IPP

RL VPP

( V PP) 2 IPP
PL  
8 VPP

PL 
V PP I PP
8
2 VCEQ2 I CQ
PL 
8
1
PL  VCEQ ICQ
2
P ( dc )  VCC I CQ
I CC  I CQ  I1
I CC  I
CQ
( I CQ  I1 )
P ( dc )  VCEQ I CQ

  P L  100
Pdc
VCEQ ICQ
 2  100
2 VCEQ ICQ
1
  100
4
  25PERCENT AGE
 RC coupled transistor amplifier

Fig: 1
Hw pro: from notes and EX 14.11,13 from v.k mehta bo
 Operation
When a.c. signal is applied to the base of the first transistor, it is amplified and
developed across the out of the 1st stage. This amplified voltage is applied to the
base of next stage through the coupling capacitor Cc where it is further amplified
and reappears across the out put of the second stage. Thus the successive stages
amplify the signal and the overall gain is raised to the desired level. Much higher
gains can be obtained by connecting a number of amplifier stages in succession
(one after the other).

Resistance-capacitance (RC) coupling is most widely used to connect the output of

first stage to the input (base) of the second stage and so on. It is the most popular
type of coupling because it is cheap and provides a constant amplification over a
wide range of frequencies. Fig. 1 shows the circuit arrangement of a two stage
RC coupled CE mode transistor amplifier where resistor R is used as a load and
the capacitor C is used as a coupling element between the two stages of the
amplifier.
 Frequency response curve
The curve representing the variation of gain of an amplifier with frequency is
known as frequency response curve. It is shown in Fig. 2. The voltage gain of the
amplifier increases with the frequency, f and attains a maximum value. The maximum
value of the gain remains constant over a certain frequency range and afterwards the
gain starts decreasing with the increase of the frequency. It may be seen to be divided
into three regions. 1) Low frequency range ( <50 Hz ) 2) Mid frequency range ( 50 Hz to
20 KHz ) and 3) High frequency range ( > 20 kHz ).
Fig: 2
HW: Series –fed class A amplifier
Single ended class A power amplifier