EEE/ECE 415

Analog Integrated Circuit Design

Lecture Notes
Discrete Single Stage
Transistor Amplifier

Dr. Md. Mosaddequr Rahman

Professor, Department of EEE

Fall 2022
 Single Stage Transistor Amplifier

 Common Emitter (CE)

 Emitter is grounded
 Input is between Base and Ground
 Output is between Collector and Ground

So, Emitter is common to both input and output. Common

Emitter Amplifier
  Common Collector (CC)

 Collector is grounded
 Input is between Base and Ground
 Output is between Emitter and Ground
  Common Base (CB)

 Base is grounded
 Input is between Emitter and Grounded
 Output is between Collector and Ground
The diagrams we saw in the previous page are called “Conceptual
Circuit diagram of 3 Amplifies configurations.”

Why conceptual?

Ans: The diagrams give us the basic idea of how input and output would be
connected in these configurations. This is not the complete amplifier
circuit because “Biasing” is missing here. Without biasing a transistor
amplifier will not work. We need to apply DC biasing. In the conceptual
diagram we are only showing AC input signal and AC output signal.

For amplifier application, transistors have to be biased in “Active mode”.

After biasing in active mode, the transistor can be used as an amplifier.
 DC Biasing of Discrete Transistor Amplifier

This is the most common Biasing Circuit that is used.

Condition for Biasing in Active Mode:

1) Emitter - Base junction (EBJ) has to be in Forward Bias (FB)
2) Collector - Base junction (CBJ) has to be in Reverse Bias (RB)

VB = Base voltage EBJ Forward Biased: (VB > VE )

VC = Collect voltage VB has to be at a higher potential than VE
VE = Emitter Voltage CBJ Reverse Biased: ( VC > VB )
VC has to be at a higher potential than VB
Applying voltage division rule,
VB VCC We know that,
VBE ≥ 0.7V for Forward Biasing.

VB = VBE + IERE

IE = 1) We get VB from R1, R2 and VCC.

2) VBE is fixed.
3) We can control IE by RE.

Once IE is fixed, IC. and IB are also fixed.

We know,

IC = 𝐼𝐸 In most cases,
= 𝛽 𝐼𝐵 𝛽>>1 ∴ 1
IE = IC + IB
= ( 1 + 𝛽) IB
So, we can say IC IE
For accurate result we can take ∝ 0.99 and then calculate IC. It will be
±1% more/less and for most practical system this much error is
acceptable.
VC = VCC - ICRC
 Here, 1) VCC is fixed (Supply voltage)
2) RC is fixed
3) IC we can adjust by IE , which can be adjusted by RE.
Thus VC can be varied by varying IC and for RB condition, we must
keep VC > VB .
In that case, we control IC accordingly to fulfil the condition.
Or we can control RC if for IC we have to ensure a fixed value.
Then, we can increase/decrease RC to decrease/increase VC .

Thus VC can be changed by 1) Varying RC

2) Varying RE
Condition on IC:
IC has to be greater than load current iL.
ICRC < VCC - VB
𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝑉𝐵 This equation will ensure that VC > VB and thus
Rc <
𝐼𝐶 CBJ is reverse biased.

So in DC biasing we adjust values of R1, R2, RE and RC to find suitable values

for IC and VC
Biasing does not mean only ensuring Forward Bias and Reverse Bias; we
need to achieve suitable values for IC and VC in order to make the transistor
work as Amplifier.
IC , VC called the Quiscent Point (“Q” point)
Also known as the Operating point for the transistor amplifier.
 How do we set this “Operating Point” ? / How do we decide the values of IC
and VC ?
Ans: IC and VC will depend on Load requirement. The load that will be
connected, how much voltage and current will it take, will form the basis
for choosing the values of IC and VC .

IC > iLmax
When we connect load to the circuit, part of IC will flow through that load.
If IC is smaller than iLmax, then all of IC will go to the load and transistor
will go into “Cut off” mode.
VC > vomax + VB and IC RC > vomax
For faithful reproduction of the output signal. Otherwise, the output voltage signal
will be distorted.
*** First we will see the load requirements

According to that we will fix IC and VC

Then the Biasing circuit is designed to achieve that particular IC and VC

 Biasing done Transistor ready to work as Amplifier
Now connecting i/p and o/p signals to the biasing circuit.

CE with DC Biasing:
What happens when input signal and the load at the output are
connected directly to the amplifier?

1) For ac signal, RC becomes parallel with RL . This will put RC in series

with RE, which will change the current flowing through RC. Following it,
our VC will change. So the end result, the biasing point will change.

*** IC does not depend on RC, it is affected by changing RE .

*** IC is dependent on VB, R1 and R2 .
Another thing will happen, there will be unnecessary DC current flow
(IDC) along with AC signal current (iac) in the Load. This will damage
the load with overheating. (Waste of power)
2) At the input side, RS comes in parallel with R2 .
∴R2 eff = R2 RS R2 changes VB changes RE and IE

changes
Unnecessary IDC will flow in the source which may be damaging for the
source.

**Solution to these problems DC blocking capacitor

= CC1, CC2
So, instead of connecting Input signal and load directly, we will use “coupling capacitor”
In between.

Detailed circuit
diagram of
Common Emitter
Amplifier

Another capacitor we will need is the “Bypass Capacitor”. In this

configuration, the Emitter is grounded through RE (not directly).
Through this Emitter there will flow.

IE (DC Emitter Current) + ie (AC Signal Current).

So, Emitter is not at ground potential, it is at some different potential.
We connect a capacitor (CE) in parallel with RE and ground the Emitter
through it. This CE is open circuit for the dc current IE and IE will flow
through RE. The ac current ie will go through CE. Now, Emitter is
grounded for the AC signal current, not for DC. For ie the path (through
CE) is shorted and Emitter seems to be at 0 voltage for ac signal.

 CC Amplifier with DC Biasing:

Here, we see that the collector is directly connected to VCC , meaning

there is no AC voltage ( vac = 0). So, for AC signal, the collector is at
ground potential.
If we connected RC , then there would have developed an AC voltage
(vc) and icRc .
  CB Amplifier with DC Biasing:

We made the Base grounded through CC1 . For AC signal capacitor acts
are short circuit, so there will be no voltage drop. There is only DC
voltage (VB). The capacitor is open circuit for DC.
We need RC here because without voltage drop across it, we will not get voltage
at the output (vo).
*The circuits we saw until now (with all the resistors, capacitors,
signals together) are called Discrete Amplifier Circuits.

Analysis of Amplifier Circuits

CE Amplifier:
 Parameters we are interested in:
1) Voltage gain, AV
2) Current gain, Ai
3) Input resistance (Ri) is seen by the signal source.
4) Output resistance (Ro) is seen by the load.
vo AC output voltage
VCC DC supply voltage

∴ Ro is also AC parameter because it is related to vo ; where as RC is DC

parameter.
∴Ri is also AC quantity.
We are going to do AC analysis of the Amplifier.
We have already seen the DC analysis while making the Biasing circuit. If we
remove the capacitors we will be left with the DC parameter.
AC Analysis:
-Capacitors are short - circuited.

XC = for high frequency XC becomes very small compared to the

Resistances that are in k range. So, we can consider the capacitor short circuited.
-We set VCC = 0 (= ground)
-Due to capacitor (CE) being shorted, our RE has to be removed.
-R1 R2 (both being between Base and ground)
-RC RL ( both being between Collector and ground)

Simplifying the input side by taking thevenin’s equivalent

v´s R´s = (R1||R2) || Rs
 *** In CB Amplifier simplified circuit, we will see that due to setting
VCC = 0 and CC1 = short circuit, our R1 and R2 will become redundant. In
the source side, when we take thevenin equivalent RE will not be present.
 Small Signal Analysis:

In a transistor, we cannot apply circuit analysis techniques (like - Node

Analysis, KCL, KVL) because it is a device / symbol. We need to take
its equivalent circuit models, T - model / Hybrid - model where we can
apply those techniques.
[ If vbe < 10 mV, then it is considered Small Signal. “π”/ “T” models only works
for small signal.]

gm Transconductance ( conductance that is transferred from

input to the output side)
In electronic circuits, current is measured in (mA) or ( A) and voltage is
measured in (V).
∴ Transconductance is measured in mA/V
ro = output resistance of the transistor itself between Collector and Emitter
Ro = output resistance of the overall Amplifier.

In the 𝜋 - model we look from the Base side.

In the T- model we look from the Emitter side.
*** - model we see voltage dependent (vbe) current source
T - model we see current dependent (ie) current source

Vbe = ib𝑟𝜋 = 𝑖𝑒𝑟𝑒

= ib(𝛽 + 1)𝑟e

 𝑟𝜋 = (𝛽 + 1)𝑟e
 re Resistance Reflection Rule

We see that,

If we look from Emitter side, “𝑟𝜋” we will be reflected there and be

divided by (𝛽 + 1).
If we look from the Base side, “re” will be reflected there and be multiplied
by (𝛽 + 1).
We have said previously that IC > load current and now we see the value of
IC determines “gm”.

“gm” determines the gain of the Amplifier.

So, to adjust the gain, you need to get suitable value of IC.
Magnitude of ro Early Voltage

All these AC parameters are dependent on DC biasing currents (IC , IB , IE )

IC = IE
= IB

VT = thermal voltage ( at room temperature 25mV)

gm = , , (for large value of 𝛽)

/
 and (for most cases)

Small Signal Analysis of CE Amplifier

Ri = 𝑟 , Ro = 𝑟 Av = =
Here, Ri and Ro are part of the Amplifier; whereas, RS comes with the source and RL is from Load. They are
external part. Due to Emitter being grounded, Ro becomes same as ro .

vo = -gmvbe (ro || RL)

= -gm (ro || RL)
vb = vbe because Emitter is grounded
= <1 Voltage gain of CE Ampl. Is
Negative
∴ AV = - gm (ro || RL)
We lose some signal at the
Gain Attenuation input side as there is voltage
drop in Rs

Io = - gmvbe usually,
ro >> RL because ro is in 100
- gmvbe kΩ RL is in 2kΩ
𝑟𝑜
∴ 1
𝑟𝑜 𝑅𝐿
A small amount of current will be going through ro, so most of the current from
“gmvbe” source will go through RL. Thus, we say io = -gmvbe .
ii = ib
Ai = =- = - gmrπ

=- .

=- = -β

Now, we will see the range of values these parameters can have.
We got, Ri = rπ =

Ro = ro =

VT = we usually take 25 mV at Room Temperature

Let’s assume, VA = 100 V

assuming
(VA is constant for a particular transistor but varies from transistor to transistor,
usually its value lies in the range of 50 – 100 V)

Typical numerical values:

Ic = 1 mA (assuming a convenient value)
 = 100 (assuming a convenient value) In electronic circuits, resistance values are
∴ IB = = = 0.01 mA in the range of kΩ, and few kΩ of
resistance is considered low, resistances
∴ Ri = 2500Ω 2.5 kΩ (Low) in the range of hundreds of kΩ is
. considered to be high.
 Ro = 𝑟 = 00 kΩ (High) Few kΩ low
100 kΩ High
several hundred to MΩ Very High

Low value of Ri means voltage gain will be low too.

Lower the value of rπ the more will be voltage drop in RS and more signal will be
lost.
This is the downside of CE Amplifier due to low input resistance, you will lose
some signal at the input side and it causes overall gain to fall.
If we look at the output side, we need ro to be high for the gain to be high.
Let’s assume RL 2.5 kΩ
We see that ro (100 kΩ ) >> RL ∴ ro ǁ RL RL
∴ | = - gm (ro ǁ RL ) - gm R L

gm = = = = 40 mA/V
. .

∴ | = - (40 mA/V) 2.5 kΩ - 100 V/V (High)

So, increasing IC will increase gm and will give more gain.

But more IC means more power loss (I2R) and decreasing ro and rπ.
∴ Av = - gmRL ; [ Ri = rπ and ro ǁ RL RL ]

∴ Ai = -β -100 (High)
For CE Amplifier both the voltage gain and current gain is high.
Power gain, AP = = = AvAi = very high

*** Drawback of CE Amplifier Low input resistance

 Merits of CE Amplifier 1) High voltage gain
2) High current gain
3) Very high Power gain

Small Signal Analysis of CC Amplifier

Ri is the resistance we look from the Base side, but we do not have any resistance
there. We have re and RL at the Emitter side. So, they will be reflected to the Base.
∴ Ri β+ re + RL) by Resistance Reflection Rule

or we can do Ri = = = β+ re+RL)

Ri (β+1) ( re + RL )
(β+1)re + (β+1)RL
= rπ + (β+1)RL >> rπ (High)
Among the three amplifier configurations, CC Amplifier has the highest input
resistance.
R’o = re + Rs is reflected to the Emitter side

Ro = re + (Low)

CC Amplifier has the lowest output resistance.

io = ie Assuming, IC = 1 mA and rπ = 2.5 k
.
∴re = 25Ω (very low)

Rs is usually in the range of kΩ.

∴ = ~Ω, in the range of few ohms.

vb = ie (re + RL)
vo = ioRL = ieRL
𝑣𝑜 𝑖𝑒 𝑅𝐿
∴ =
𝑣𝑏 𝑖𝑒 𝑟𝑒 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝐿
= <1
𝑟𝑒 𝑅𝐿
At input side we see
∴ = <1

∴Av = = <1

∴ CC Amplifier has the lowest voltage gain

We have seen that, re<<RL ∴ 1

And for CC, Ri is high ∴ Ri >> RS 1

So, we can say that CC Amplifier has Unity Voltage Gain.

Ideal Voltage Buffer Unity gain
Infinite input resistance
Zero output resistance
CC Amplifier Close to 1 voltage gain
High Ri
Low Ro
*** CC Amplifier is often used as “Voltage Buffer”

Ai = = β+1 (High)

CC Amplifier = 1) Lowest Voltage gain

2) Highest Current gain among all the configurations
 Small Signal Analysis of CB Amplifier

Ri = re (Few ohms; very low) Lowest Ri among all the configurations

Ro = ro (1+gm (rπ ǁ RS) ) [MΩ ; very high] Highest Ro among all the configurations
In the T- model we ignore ro because it complicates the analysis. The justification is
that the current that flows through ro is much smaller than the current that passes
through Collector. If we consider “ ie” to be ideal current source then ro will be
infinite. But in practical case, ro do exist.
vo = ioRL = - ieRL
vs = ii (Rs+re) = -ie(Rs+re)

∴ Av = = = [ ] (Moderate Voltage Gain)

∴ Av =

Ai = = = (Unity Current Gain, Lowest among all the configurations)

CB Ampl can be used as “Current Buffer”

CE Amplifier with Emitter Resistance

ie

Ri (β+1)(re + RE)
(β+1) re + (β+1) RE Adding RE has increased
the value of Ri
= rπ + (β+1) RE > Ri | CE
(High)

Ro = ro [1+ gm (rπ || RE)] (Very high) >> Ro |CE without RE

vo = ioRL = - 𝑖𝑒
vb = ie (re + RE)
𝑖𝑒
∴ −
𝑖𝑒 𝑟𝑒 + 𝐸

− ;

In CE, = -gm(ro ǁ RL)

CE -gmRL ; as ro>>RL
= - RL ;

<

CE with RE CE
∴ The higher RE 1) Higher Ri
2) Higher Ro
3) Lower

= <1

In the case of just CE, Ri = rπ , so <1

But in case of CE with RE , Ri is much high.

So, = . =-

Ai = = =- = -β

High Ri , Very High Ro , Low Av , High Ai