Transistors

Transfer Resistor
Chapter 9

Bipolar Transistors
Collector
Base

Emitter

Two PN junctions joined together

Two types available NPN and PNP
The regions (from top to bottom) are called the collector (C), the
base (B), and the emitter (E)

Operation
Begin by reverse biasing the CB junction
Here we are showing an NPN transistor

as an example
Now we apply a small forward bias on

the emitter-base junction

Electrons are pushed into the base,

which then quickly flow to the collector

The result is a large emitter-collector
electron current (conventional current is
C-E) which is maintained by a small E-B
voltage
Some of the electrons pushed into the

base by the forward bias E-B voltage

end up depleting holes in that junction
This would eventually destroy the

junction if we didnt replenish the holes

The electrons that might do this are
drawn off as a base current

Currents

Conventional View

Origin of the names

the Emitter 'emits' the electrons which

pass through the device

the Collector 'collects' them again once
they've passed through the Base
...and the Base?...

Original Manufacture

Base Thickness
The thickness of the unmodified Base region has

to be just right.
Too thin, and the Base would essentially vanish. The

Emitter and Collector would then form a continuous

piece of semiconductor, so current would flow
between them whatever the base potential.
Too thick, and electrons entering the Base from the
Emitter wouldn't notice the Collector as it would be
too far away. So then, the current would all be
between the Emitter and the Base, and there'd be no
Emitter-Collector current.

Amplification Properties
The C-B voltage junction operates near

breakdown.
This ensures that a small E-B voltage causes

avalanche
Large current through the device

Common Base NPN

Common Emitter NPN

Common Collector NPN

How does IC vary with VCE for various IB?

Note that both dc sources are variable
Set VBB to establish a certain IB

Collector Characteristic Curve

If VCC = 0, then IC = 0 and VCE = 0
As VCC both VCE and IC
When VCE 0.7 V, base-collector

becomes reverse-biased and IC

reaches full value (IC = bIB)
IC ~ constant as VCE . There is a
slight increase of IC due to the
widening of the depletion zone
(BC) giving fewer holes for
recombinations with e in base.
Since IC = bIB, different base
currents produce different IC
plateaus.

NPN Characteristic Curves

PNP Characteristic Curves

Load Line
Slope of
the load
line is 1/RL

For a constant load, stepping IB gives different currents (IC) predicted by

where the load line crosses the characteristic curve. IC = bIBworks so long as
the load line intersects on the plateau region of the curve.

Saturation and Cut-off

Cut-off

Note that the load line intersects the 75 mA curve below the
plateau region. This is saturation and IC = bIB doesnt work
in this region.

Example

We adjust the base current to 200 mA and note

that this transistor has a b = 100

Then IC = bIB = 100(200 X 10-6A) = 20 mA

Notice that we can use Kirchhoffs voltage law

around the right side of the circuit

VCE = VCC ICRC = 10 V (20 mA)(220 W)

= 10 V 4.4 V = 5.6 V

Example

Now adjust IB to 300 mA

Now we get IC = 30 mA
And VCE = 10 V (30 mA)(220 W) = 3.4 V

Finally, adjust IB = 400 mA

IB = 40 mA and VCE = 1.2 V

Plot the load line

VCE

IC

5.6 V

20 mA

3.4 V

30 mA

1.2 V

40 mA

Gain as a function of IC

As temperature increases, the gain increases

for all current values.

Operating Limits
There will be a limit on the dissipated power
PD(max) = VCEIC
VCE and IC were the parameters plotted on the

characteristic curve.
If there is a voltage limit (VCE(max)), then you can

compute the IC that results

If there is a current limit (IC(max)), then you can compute
the VCE that results

Example
Assume PD(max) = 0.5 W

VCE(max) = 20 V
IC(max) = 50 mA

PD(max) VCE
0.5 W

IC

5V

100 mA

10

50

15

33

20

25

Operating Range

Operating
Range

Voltage Amplifiers
Common Base PNP

Now we have added an ac source

The biasing of the junctions are:
BE is forward biased by VBB - thus a small resistance
BC is reverse biased by VCC and a large resistance
Since IB is small, IC IE

Equivalent ac Circuit
rE = internal ac emitter
resistance
IE = Vin/rE (Ohms Law)
Vout = ICRC IERC
Vout
AV voltage gain
Vin

I E RC RC
AV

I E rE
rE

Recall the name transfer resistor

Current Gains
Common Base
a = IC/IE < 1
Common Emitter
b = IC/IB

From Kirchhoff' s Current Law

I E IC I B
IE
IB
1
IC
IC
1

1 b

a
b
b a ab
b a( 1 b )
b
a
1 b

Example
If b = 50, then a = 50/51 = 0.98
Recall a < 1

Rearranging,

b = a + ab
b(1-a) = a
b = a/(1-a)

Transistors as Switches

The operating points

We can control the base current using VBB (we

dont actually use a physical switch). The circuit
then acts as a high speed switch.

Details
In Cut-off
All currents are zero and VCE = VCC
In Saturation
IB big enough to produce IC(sat) bIB

Using Kirchhoffs Voltage Law through the

ground loop
VCC = VCE(sat) + IC(sat)RC

but VCE(sat) is very small (few tenths), so

IC(sat) VCC/RC

Example
a) What is VCE when Vin = 0 V?
Ans. VCE = VCC = 10 V
b) What minimum value of IB is
required to saturate the transistor if
b = 200? Take VCE(sat) = 0 V
IC(sat) VCC/RC = 10 V/1000 W
= 10 mA

Then, IB = IC(sat)/b = 10 mA/200 = 0.05mA

Example

LED

If a square wave is input for VBB,

then the LED will be on when the
input is high, and off when the
input is low.

Transistors with ac Input

Assume that b is such that
IC varies between 20 and 40
mA. The transistor is
constantly changing curves
along the load line.

Pt. A corresponds to the positive peak. Pt. B

corresponds to the negative peak. This graph shows
ideal operation.

Distortion
The location of the point Q (size of the dc

source on input) may cause an operating

point to lie outside of the active range.

Driven to saturation
Driven into Cutoff

Base Biasing
It is usually not necessary to provide two

sources for biasing the transistor.

The red arrows follow the base-emitter
part of the circuit, which contains the
resistor RB. The voltage drop across RB
is VCC VBE (Kirchhoffs Voltage
Law). The base current is then

VCC VBE
IB
RC

and

IC = bIB

Base Biasing
Use Kirchhoffs Voltage Law on the black

arrowed loop of the circuit

VCC = ICRC + VCE
So, VCE = VCC ICRC
VCE = VCC bIBRC
Disadvantge
b occurs in the equation for both VCE and IC
But b varies thus so do VCE and IC
This shifts the Q-point (b-dpendent)

Example
Let RC = 560 W

RB = 100 kW
VCC = +12 V

@ 25 C b = 100
@ 75 C b = 150

@ 25 C

@ 75 C

VCC VBE 12 V - 0.7 V

IB

113mA
RB
100,000 W

IB is the same

IC b I B (100)(113 mA) 11.3 mA

VCE VCC b I B R C
12 V - (100)(113 mA)(560 W )
5.67 V

IC = 16.95 mA
VCE = 2.51 V
IC increases by 50%
VCE decreases by 56%

Transistor Amplifiers
Amplification
The process of increasing the strength of a
signal.
The result of controlling a relatively large
quantity of current (output) with a small
quantity of current (input).
Amplifier
Device use to increase the current, voltage, or
power of the input signal without appreciably
altering the essential quality.

Class A
Entire input waveform is faithfully

reproduced.
Transistor spends its entire time in the
active mode
Never reaches either cutoff or saturation.
Drive the transistor exactly halfway between

cutoff and saturation.

Transistor is always on always dissipating
power can be quite inefficient

Class A

Class B
No DC bias voltage
The transistor spends half its time in active

mode and the other half in cutoff

Push-pull Pair

Transistor Q1 "pushes" (drives the output voltage in a positive direction with

respect to ground), while transistor Q2 "pulls" the output voltage (in a negative
direction, toward 0 volts with respect to ground).
Individually, each of these transistors is operating in class B mode, active only for
one-half of the input waveform cycle. Together, however, they function as a team to
produce an output waveform identical in shape to the input waveform.

Class AB
Between Class A (100% operation) and

Class B (50% operation).

Class C
IC flows for less than half then cycle. Usually get
more gain in Class B and C, but more distortion

Common Emitter Transistor Amplifier

Notice that VBB forward biases the emitter-base junction and dc

current flows through the circuit at all times
The class of the amplifier is determined by VBB with respect to the
input signal.
Signal that adds to VBB causes transistor current to increase
Signal that subtracts from VBB causes transistor current to decrease

Details
At positive peak of input, VBB is adding to the

input
Resistance in the transistor is reduced
Current in the circuit increases
Larger current means more voltage drop across
RC (VRC = IRC)
Larger voltage drop across RC leaves less
voltage to be dropped across the transistor
We take the output VCE as input increases, VCE
decreases.

More details
As the input goes to the negative peak
Transistor resistance increases
Less current flows
Less voltage is dropped across RC
More voltage can be dropped across C-E
The result is a phase reversal
Feature of the common emitter amplifier

The closer VBB is to VCC, the larger the

transistor current.

PNP Common Emitter Amplifier

NPN Common Base Transistor

Amplifier

Signal that adds to VBB causes transistor current to increase

Signal that subtracts from VBB causes transistor current to decrease
At positive peak of input, VBB is adding to the input
Resistance in the transistor is reduced
Current in the circuit increases
Larger current means more voltage drop across RC (VRC = IRC)
Collector current increases
No phase reversal

PNP Common Base Amplifier

NPN Common Collector Transistor

Amplifier

Also called an Emitter Follower circuit output on emitter is almost a replica of the
input

Input is across the C-B junction this is reversed biased and the impedance is high
Output is across the B-E junction this is forward biased and the impedance is low.
Current gain is high but voltage gain is low.

PNP Common Collector Transistor

Amplifier

Gain Factors
IC
a
IE

Usually given for common base amplifier

IC
b
IB

Usually given for common emitter amplifier

IE

IB

Usually given for common collector amplifier

Gamma
Recall from Kirchhoffs Current Law
a
IB + IC = IE
And since b
1-a

IB

IC IE
1
IB IB
1 b

Ex. For b = 100

LCD

a
1

1-a
1-a a
1

1-a
1-a

a = b/(1+b) = 0.99
= 1 + b = 101

Bringing it Together
Type

Common
Base

Common
Emitter

Common
Collector

Relation
between
input/output
phase

180

Voltage Gain

High

Medium

Low

Current Gain

Low (a)

Medium (b)

High ()

Power Gain

Low

High

Medium

Input Z

Low

Medium

High

Output Z

High

Medium

Low

Hybrid Parameters
Condition
hi

Input resistance

Output shorted

hr

Voltage feedback ratio

Input open

hf

Forward current gain

Output shorted

ho

Output conductance

Input open

Second subscript indicates common base (b), common emitter

(e), or common collector (c)

Hybrid Parameters
=b
= Slope of curve

Hybrid Parameters
hie = VB/IB

Ohms Law

hie =input impedance

hre = VB/VC

Hybrid Parameters
hfe = IC/IB
Equivalent of b

hoe = IC/VC

Various Forms
Common
Emitter (e)

Common
Base (b)

Common
Collector (c)

hi (ohms)

VB/IB

VE/IB

VB/IB

hr (unitless)

VB/VC

VE/VC

VB/VE

hf (unitless)

IC/IB

IC/IE

IE/IB

ho (watts)

ICVC

ICVC

IEVE

Pin-outs

No standard look at the spec sheet or the case

Loudness
When the energy (intensity) of the sound

increases by a factor of 10, the loudness

increases by 1 bel
Named for A. G. Bell
One bel is a large unit and we use 1/10th bel, or

decibels
When the energy (intensity) of the sound

increases by a factor of 10, the loudness

increases by 10 dB

Decibel Scale
For intensities
L = 10 log(I/Io)

For energies
L = 10 log(E/Eo)

For amplitudes
L = 20 log(A/Ao)

Threshold of Hearing
The Io or Eo or Ao refers to the intensity, energy, or

amplitude of the sound wave for the threshold of

hearing
Io = 10-12 W/m2
Loudness levels always compared to threshold
Relative measure

Common Loud Sounds

160
Jet engine - close up
150

Snare drums played hard at 6 inches away

Trumpet peaks at 5 inches away

140

Rock singer screaming in microphone (lips on mic)

130
Pneumatic (jack) hammer
Planes on airport runway

Cymbal crash
120

Threshold of pain - Piccolo strongly played

Fender guitar amplifier, full volume at 10 inches away

Power tools

110

Subway (not the sandwich shop)

100

Flute in players right ear - Violin in players left

ear

Common Quieter Sounds

90
Heavy truck traffic
Chamber music

80

Typical home stereo listening level

Acoustic guitar, played with finger at 1 foot away

Average factory
70
Busy street

Small orchestra
60

Average office noise

50

Quiet conversation

40

Quiet office

30

Quiet living room

20

Conversational speech at 1 foot away

10

Quiet recording studio

Threshold of hearing for healthy youths

The Math
l1 = 10 log(I1/Io)
l2 = 10 log(I2/Io)
l2 l1 = Dl = 10(log I2 log Io log I1 + log Io)
= 10(log I2 log I1)
l2 l1 = Dl = 10 log(I2/I1)
Threshold of Hearing when I = Io

l = 0 dB

Threshold of Pain when I 1012 Io l = 120 dB

Example
A loudspeaker produces loudness rated at 90

dB (l1) at a distance of 4 ft (d1). How far can the

sound travel (d2) and still give a loudness at the
listeners ear of 40 dB (l2 - conversation at 3 ft.)?
Sound follows the inverse square law I1/I2 = d22/d12
Dl = 50 dB = 10 log(I2/I1)

log(I2/I1) = 5 which means I2/I1 = 105

If d1 = 4 ft, then d22 = (I1/I2) d12 = 105 (4 ft)2
d2 = 1260 ft (about mile)

Common Emitter Current Gain

0 dB
-3 dB

hfe
Frequency

For the -3 dB point

Dl = 3 dB = 10 log (I1/I2)
I1/I2 = 2 = P1/P2
so 3 dB below initial level mean half the power

Why do Frequency limits occur?

It takes a certain time for e- to travel from emitter

to collector (transit time)

If frequency is too high, applied current varies
too rapidly
Electrons may be unable to dislodge rapidly
enough to move from E to C before current
surges in the other direction.
Making the base thinner reduces transit time and
improves frequency response

Interelement Capacitance
As reverse bias increases on the C-B junction,

the depletion zone increases and C decreases

(C = eA/d and d increasing).
As emitter current increases, C increases (d
decreasing).
If capacitance changes, so does capacitive
reactance X 1
C
2 f C
Increasing C decreases XC

Feedback

Small base current provides a path back to

input
If the feedback voltage aids the input voltage,

then it is positive (regenerative) feedback

If the feedback is too large, the amplifier will
oscillate

Superheterodyne Receiver