Formules / Formulas:

ẋ(t) = Ax(t) + bu(t)

y(t) = cx(t) + du(t)

Linearisering / Linearisation:

ẋ(t) = f (x(t), u(t)) , y(t) = g (x(t), u(t)) , δx(t) , x(t) − x0 , δu(t) , u(t) − u0
" # " # " # " #
∂f ∂f ∂g ∂g
δ ẋ(t) ≈ δx(t) + δu(t), δy(t) ≈ δx(t) + δu(t)
∂x x0 ,u0 ∂u x0 ,u0 ∂x x0 ,u0 ∂u x0 ,u0
 ∂f1 ∂f1   ∂f1 
∂x1 · · · ∂xn ∂u
∂f ..  , ∂f =  ..  , ∂g =
=  ...
h i
∂g ∂g
· · ·

∂x . 
∂u
 . 
∂x ∂x1 ∂xn
∂fn ∂fn ∂fn
∂x1 · · · ∂xn ∂u

Transformasie van toestande / Transformation of states:

x(t) = Px(t), A = P−1 AP, b = P−1 b, c = cP, d = d

Oordragsfunksie / Transfer function:

c (sI − A)+ b β0 sn + β1 sn−1 + . . . + βn

G(s) = +d= n
|sI − A| s + α1 sn−1 + . . . + αn

Beheer-kanoniese vorm / Control canonical form:

     T
0 1 ··· 0 0 βn − β0 αn
 .. .. .. ..   ..   βn−1 − β0 αn−1 
A= . . . . b =  . ,
, c=  , d = β0
     
..
 0 0 ··· 1   0   . 
−αn −αn−1 ··· −α1 1 β1 − β0 α1

Waarnemer-kanoniese vorm / Observer canonical form:

    T 
0 ··· 0 −αn βn − β0 αn 0
 1 ··· 0 −αn−1   βn−1 − β0 αn−1   .. 
A= , b =  , c =  .  , d = β0
     
.. . . .. .. ..
 . . . .   .   0 
0 ··· 1 −α1 β1 − β0 α1 1

Modaal-(Jordan-)kanoniese vorm / Modal (Jordan) canonical form:

     T
λ1 0 · · · 0 1 r1
 0 λ2 · · · 0   1   r2 
Λ= ..  , b =  ..  , c=  , d = β0
     
.. .. . . ..
 . . . .   .   . 
0 0 · · · λn 1 rn
1 1
     
2 −j 2 , A = P−1 ΛP =
σ ω 2  
P= 1 1 , b= , c= p q
2 j 2 −ω σ 0
   
λ1 1 0  
Λ= , b= , c = r1 r2
0 λ1 1

1
Eiewaardes en -vektore / Eigenvalues and -vectors:

Avi = λi vi

∆(λ) = |λI − A| = λn + α1 λn−1 + . . . + αn = 0 (λi I − A) (λi I − A)+ = 0

Oplossing van TV vergelykings / Solution to SV equations:

−1 d At
eA0 = I eA(t+τ ) = eAt eAτ eAt = e−At e = AeAt = eAt A
dt
1 2 2 1
eAt = I + At + A t + A3 t3 + . . . eAt = PeΛt P−1
2! 3!
Z t n o
x(t) = Φ(t − t0 )x(t0 ) + Φ(t − τ )bu(τ )dτ Φ(t) = L −1 (sI − A)−1
t0

Beheerbaarheid en waarneembaarheid / Controllability and observability:

 
c
 cA 
U , b Ab . . . An−1 b
 
V,
 
.. 
 . 
cAn−1

Tydgebied-ontwerp / Time domain design:

π − cos−1 ζ π 4.6 4 − √ πζ
1−ζ 2
tr = p , tp = p , 1%ts =
, 2%ts = , Mp = e
ωn 1 − ζ 2 ωn 1 − ζ 2 ζωn ζωn
p
s2 + 2ζωn s + ωn2 = 0 s = σ ± jωd = −ζωn ± jωn 1 − ζ 2

Kompenseerder-ontwerp / Compensator design:

 
∆CL (s) = |sI − A + bk| kc = (an − αn ) (an−1 − αn−1 ) . . . (a1 − α1 )
 T
∆e (s) = |sI − A + mc| me = (an − αn ) (an−1 − αn−1 ) . . . (a1 − α1 )

Reguleerder / Regulator Waarnemer / Observer

A AT
b cT
k mT

˙
x̂(t) = Ax̂(t) + bu(t) + m (y(t) − cx̂(t))
 −1
u(t) = N r(t) − kx̂(t) N = − c [A − bk]−1 b

U (s)
= k (sI − A + bk + mc)−1 m
−Y (s)
Integraalbeheer / Integral control :
Z t    
A 0 b
z(t) = (y(τ ) − r(τ )) dτ, A = , b=
0 c 0 0
 
k= kp k i , u(t) = −kp x̂(t) − ki z(t)

2
 Transforms: Z ∞ ∞
X
L [f (t)] , f (t)e−st dt Z [f (k)] , f (k)z −k
0 k=0

X(s) x(t); t ≥ 0 x(k); k = 0, 1, 2, . . . X(z)

– – δ(k) 1
1 z
s µ(t) µ(k) z−1
1
s+a e−at e−akT z
z−e−aT
1 Tz
s2
t kT (z−1)2
T e−aT z
1
(s+a)2
te−at kT e−akT
(z−e−aT )2
(1−e−aT )z
a
s(s+a) 1 − e−at 1 − e−akT (z−1)(z−e−aT )
ω (sin ωT )z
s2 +ω 2
sin ωt sin ωkT z 2 −(2 cos ωT )z+1
s z 2 −(cos ωT )z
s2 +ω 2
cos ωt cos ωkT z 2 −(2 cos ωT )z+1
(e−aT sin ωT )z
ω
(s+a)2 +ω 2
e−at sin ωt e−akT sin ωkT z 2 −(2e−aT cos ωT )z+e−2aT
z 2 −(e−aT cos ωT )z
s+a
(s+a)2 +ω 2
e−at cos ωt e−akT cos ωkT z 2 −(2e−aT cos ωT )z+e−2aT

Laplace transform z-transform

L [af (t) + bg(t)] = aF (s) + bG(s) Z [f (k + n)] = z n F (z) − z n f (0) − z n−1 f (1) . . . − zf (n − 1)
h i
L f˙(t) = sF (s) − f (0) Z [f (k − n)] = z −n F (z)
hR i hP i
t k
L 0 f (τ )dτ = 1s F (s) Z z
i=0 f (i) = z−1 F (z)
hP i
∞
L [f (t) ∗ g(t)] = F (s)G(s) Z j=0 f (j)g(k − j) = F (z)G(z)
L [f (t − a)µ(t − a)] = e−as F (s) Z a f (k) = F az
 k 

Z [kf (k)] = −z dFdz(z)

lim f (k) = lim (z − 1)F (z)

k→∞ z→1
Diskrete-tyd-modelle / Discrete-time models:
y(k) + a1 y(k − 1) + . . . + an y(k − n) = b0 r(k) + b1 r(k − 1) + . . . + bn r(k − n)
Y (z) b0 z n + b1 z n−1 + . . . + bn
G(z) = = n
R(z) z + a1 z n−1 + . . . + an
Diskretisering / Discretisation:
Impuls-invariant / Impulse invariant G(z) = Z [Ga (s)]

h i
Trap-invariant / Step invariant G(z) = 1 − z −1 Z Gas(s)
z−1
Voorwaartse-verskil / Forward rectangular/difference s= T
Truwaartse-verskil / Backward rectangular/difference s = z−1
Tz
2 z−1
Bilineêr / Bilinear s = T z+1
Padé-benadering / Padé approximation:
1
e−as ≈
1 + as

3
 Direkte digitale ontwerp / Direct digital design:

1 − e−sT
 
−1

G(s) Y (z) D(z)Gho G(z)
Gho G(z) = 1 − z Z = Gho (s) =
s R(z) 1 + D(z)Gho G(z) s

Spesifikasies / Specifications:
p
z = esT = e−ζωn T ∠±ωn T 1 − ζ2
  
z−1
Kp = lim [D(z)Gho G(z)] Kv = lim D(z)Gho G(z)
z→1 z→1 T
" #
z−1 2

Ka = lim D(z)Gho G(z)
z→1 T

1
Eenheids-trap / Unit-step ess = 1+Kp
Eenheids-helling / Unit-ramp ess = K1v
Eenheids-parabool / Unit-parabola ess = K1a

Wortellokus / Root locus:

|D(z)Gho G(z)| = 1 ∠D(z)Gho G(z) = 180◦ ± 360◦ N

1 P P
−σA = n−m [ Re(OL poles) − Re(OL zeros)]
Asimptote / Asymptotes φA = 1
n−m [180◦ + 360◦ N ] , N = 0, 1, . . . , (n − m − 1)
Wegtrekhoek / Angle of departure φp = 180◦ + φ
Aankomshoek / Angle of arrival φz = 180◦ − φ
Qn
dK (z−pi )
Wegbreekpunt / Breakaway point dz = 0, K = − Qj=1
m
(z−zi )
i=1

Algemene vergelykings / General equations:

∞
X a
ark = , |r| < 1 AT = |A|
1−r
k=0
 
a11 a12 a13
A+
A =  a21 a22 a23  A+ A = AA+ = |A|I A−1 =
|A|
a31 a32 a33
 
a22 a33 − a23 a32 a13 a32 − a12 a33 a12 a23 − a13 a22
A+ =  a23 a31 − a21 a33 a11 a33 − a13 a31 a13 a21 − a11 a23 
a21 a32 − a22 a31 a12 a31 − a11 a32 a11 a22 − a12 a21
|A| = a11 (a22 a33 − a23 a32 ) + a12 (a23 a31 − a21 a33 ) + a13 (a21 a32 − a22 a31 )
 
A B
A, D square matrices, |A| = 6 0⇒ = |A| · D − CA−1 B
C D