materials
Article
Effect of Hollow 304 Stainless Steel Fiber on Corrosion
Resistance and Mechanical Properties of Ultra-High
Performance Concrete (UHPC)
Tianran Li 1 , Yulong Yan 1 , Chengying Xu 1 , Xiangnan Han 1 , Yang Liu 1 , Haiquan Qi 1, * and Yang Ming 2, *
Citation: Li, T.; Yan, Y.; Xu, C.; Han,
X.; Liu, Y.; Qi, H.; Ming, Y. Effect of
Hollow 304 Stainless Steel Fiber on
Corrosion Resistance and Mechanical
Properties of Ultra-High Performance
Concrete (UHPC). Materials 2023, 16,
3612. https://doi.org/10.3390/
ma16103612
Academic Editor: Yuri Ribakov
Received: 31 March 2023
Revised: 26 April 2023
Accepted: 4 May 2023
Published: 9 May 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Materials 2023, 16, 3612. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16103612
1 School of Materials Science and Engineering, Guilin University of Technology, Guilin 541000, China
2 School of Civil and Architectural Engineering, Guilin University of Technology, Guilin 541000, China
* Correspondence: alexander_qi@163.com (H.Q.); my574081667@126.com (Y.M.)
Abstract: This study investigated the effect of hollow 304 stainless-steel fiber on the corrosion
resistance and mechanical properties of ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC), and prepared
copper-coated-fiber-reinforced UHPC as the control group. The electrochemical performance of
the prepared UHPC was compared with the results of X-ray computed tomography (X-CT). The
results reveal that cavitation can improve the distribution of steel fibers in the UHPC. Compared
with solid steel fibers, the compressive strength of UHPC with hollow stainless-steel fibers did not
exhibit significant change, but the maximum flexural strength increased by 45.2% (2 vol% content,
length–diameter ratio of 60). Hollow stainless-steel fiber could better improve the durability of UHPC
compared with copper-plated steel fiber, and the gap between the two continued to increase as the
durability test progressed. After the dry–wet cycle test, the flexural strength of the copper-coated-
fiber-reinforced UHPC was 26 MPa, marking a decrease of 21.9%, while the flexural strength of the
UHPC mixed with hollow stainless-steel fibers was 40.1 MPa, marking a decrease of only 5.6%. When
the salt spray test had run for seven days, the difference in the flexural strength between the two
was 18.4%, but when the test ended (180 days), the difference increased to 34%. The electrochemical
performance of the hollow stainless-steel fiber improved, owing to the small carrying capacity of the
hollow structure, and more uniform distribution in the UHPC and lower interconnection probability
were achieved. According to the AC impedance test results, the charge transfer impedance of the
UHPC doped with solid steel fiber is 5.8 KΩ, while that of the UHPC doped with hollow stainless-steel
fiber is 8.8 KΩ.
Keywords: UHPC; hollow steel fiber; mechanical property; durability; electrochemical test; fiber
network structure
1. Introduction
With the development of society, the requirements for concrete in the field of construc-
tion engineering are becoming increasingly higher, and ultra-high performance concrete
(UHPC) has emerged to satisfy these needs. In UHPC, the mixing of concrete particles is
optimized by adding silica fume (nano-silica) and other fillers instead of coarse aggregate.
In concrete, silica works as a nucleation site, accelerating the cement hydration and filling
the voids, which results in higher packing density and lower porosity [1]. Moreover, silica
can also react with calcium hydroxide [2] to form calcium silicate. Therefore, owing to
its advantages of high strength and good durability [3,4], UHPC has been widely used in
bridges, high-rise buildings, and other projects in recent years.
Although UHPC has good mechanical strength and durability, to reduce the porosity,
the water binder ratio of UHPC is very low, which essentially makes UHPC a brittle
material [5]. To achieve higher toughness and improve the practicability of UHPC, fiber
is typically added to UHPC [6,7]. This type of UHPC is called ultra-high performance
fiber-reinforced concrete (UHPFRC). The addition of fiber not only improves the toughness
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials
Materials 2023, 16, 3612 2 of 18

of UHPFRC, but also improves its mechanical strength. After the addition of fiber, UHPFRC
exhibits strain hardening behavior [8]. The strength of concrete is not only expressed by
the strength of the matrix. After the initial fracture of the concrete matrix, the introduced
fiber plays a bridging role to prevent the continuous expansion of cracks. Moreover, the
addition of fiber improves the compactness of concrete, and makes it more difficult for
external corrosive substances to enter the concrete, which further improves the durability
of UHPC [9].
The types of fiber added to UHPC include glass fiber, steel fiber, basalt fiber, polymer
fiber, and so on [10–18]. Jiang et al. [10] found that with the increase of copper-plated steel
fiber content from 1% to 6%, the porosity of UHPC gradually decreased from 18.4% to 8.3%.
Ren et al. [11] demonstrated that the failure mode of a sample with sisal fiber changed from
brittle failure to toughness. Compared with an ordinary UHPC sample, when 2% sisal fiber
(length of 18 mm) was added, the bending strength and toughness of the UHPC increased
by 16.7% and 540.0%, respectively. The addition of polymer fiber, such as polypropylene
fiber, can greatly improve the toughness of UHPC, but the improvement on the mechanical
strength of UHPC is not ideal. Lai et al. [12] found that the simultaneous use of steel fiber
and basalt fiber produced a synergistic effect, which greatly improved the impact and
explosion resistance of the sample. Bei et al. [19] found that after cryogenic attack, the
flexural strength of UHPC increased by 70.06% with the increase of length-to-diameter
ratio of steel fiber, and the peak deflection increased from 0.501 mm, 0.919 mm to 0.609 mm,
1.302 mm.
However, the addition of steel fiber greatly increases the cost of UHPC. Therefore,
many studies have attempted to reduce the amount of steel fiber without reducing the
performance of UHPC so as to control the cost. Hui et al. [20] used 0.5% recycled tire
steel fibers instead of industrial steel fibers, and achieved excellent synergistic effects,
resulting in the highest dynamic splitting tensile property of UHPC at a strain rate of
approximately 4.5–6.5 s−1 , while reducing the material cost, carbon content, and energy
content of UHPC by 9–57%. From practical and economic viewpoints, steel fiber is currently
the most used fiber, and can greatly improve the mechanical properties of UHPC compared
with other fibers [21,22]. The mechanical properties of UHPFRC are mainly affected by
the amount of steel fiber [23], length–diameter ratio [6], fiber shape, and fiber distribution
and orientation. According to a study by Wu et al. [21], compared with UHPC without
any fiber, 1–3% straight steel fiber content increased the compressive strength and flexural
strength by 8–32% and 22–72%, respectively. Moreover, compared with a reference mixture
containing the same amount of straight fiber, the flexural strength of the reference mixture
increased by 4–10% and 10–27%, respectively, after adding 1–3% corrugated fiber and hook
fiber. Gesoglu et al. [22] found that the fracture energy of concrete increased by 101 times,
601 times, and 50 times when using micro-steel-fiber-, hook-steel-fiber-, and micro-glass-
fiber-reinforced concrete, respectively. Yoo et al. [24] found that the flexural strength of
fiber with an aspect ratio of 97.5 was higher by 40% compared with that of fiber with an
aspect ratio of 65 at 2% by volume. However, the flexural strength of the fiber with the
aspect ratio of 100 was lower by 20% compared with that of the fiber with the aspect ratio
of 97.5. The main reason for this is that, when many long fibers are included, the interaction
between the fibers interferes with the fiber arrangement in the tensile load direction. By
investigating the influence of the concrete pouring height, pouring length, and viscosity,
Song et al. [25] found that the concrete pouring height had the greatest influence on the
fiber distribution and orientation in UHPFRC.
Steel fiber mainly affects the mechanical properties of UHPFRC through the bond
strength with the concrete matrix [26]. The mechanism by which the fiber addition can
effectively improve the toughness of the specimen is as follows: after micro cracks appear
in the UHPFRC specimen, the released deformation energy is first used for fiber debonding
instead of supporting the crack’s continued expansion, which delays the fracture process
and achieves a toughening effect [27]. Therefore, the strengthening effect of fiber on the
mechanical properties of UHPFRC can be quantified as the bonding performance of the fiber
Materials 2023, 16, 3612 3 of 18

and concrete matrix. For example, long fiber is more effective compared with short fiber,
because the bonding area of long fiber and the concrete matrix is larger [28,29]. Owing to
the shape change of shaped fiber types (end hook type, wave type, and so on), the anchoring
effect of shaped fiber is stronger than that of straight fiber and the concrete matrix; therefore,
the improvement of the mechanical properties of UHPFRC is more obvious [30]. In addition
to the above-mentioned methods for changing the bonding strength, various scholars are
currently investigating the improvement of bonding performance with a concrete matrix
by changing the surface state of steel fiber. Relevant methods include the chemical solution
immersion method [31,32], sandpaper polishing method [33,34], and nano silica coating.
The chemical solution immersion method modifies steel fiber by placing it in solutions
such as ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) to increase the fiber surface roughness
with the objective of improving the tensile strength of UHPC. The surface roughness
parameter can increase 10 times and the tensile strength can increase by 36% [31]. The
sandpaper polishing method uses sandpaper with different particle sizes to polish the fiber
and increase its surface roughness with the objective of increasing the bonding performance.
After sanding, the fibers are typically combined with PVA fibers to improve the mechanical
properties [34]. Pi et al. [35] coated the steel fiber surface with nano-SiO2 multilayer film,
and the SiO2 on the fiber surface reacted with Ca(OH)2 in the concrete. Thus, the interface
transition zone between the fiber and the matrix formed a denser microstructure and the
UHPC performance improved. From the above-mentioned studies, it is understood that
the improvement of the mechanical properties of UHPC by physical modification is not as
good as that by chemical modification.
Owing to the compactness of UHPC, the durability of steel fiber concrete can also
be guaranteed. However, the main corrosion area of UHPFRC is the interface transition
zone between the steel fiber and the concrete matrix. When the steel fiber content reaches
a certain level, the durability of UHPFRC may decline, because an excessive amount of
steel fiber leads to the formation of a fiber network in the concrete matrix, resulting in the
connection of steel fibers. Therefore, the interface transition zone is also combined and
connected through the concrete, and thus provides channels for corrosive ions, such as
chloride ions, and results in electrochemical corrosion [36]. To prevent the above-mentioned
situation, it is necessary to investigate the electrochemical performance of UHPC.
The objective of this study was to reduce the cost of UHPC by using steel fibers with
cavitation structures instead of using solid steel fibers to reduce the use of materials. To
improve the durability of UHPC in corrosive environments, such as the ocean, 304 stainless
steel was used as the steel fiber material. Existing studies have mainly focused on the
impact of steel fibers in solid structures on the performance of UHPC, while research on
steel fibers in hollow structures is lacking. There is also limited research on stainless-steel
fibers. This study investigated the effect of hollow stainless-steel fiber on the corrosion
resistance and mechanical properties of UHPC. First, the effect of hollow stainless-steel
fiber on the mechanical properties of UHPC was investigated by comparison to ordinary
steel fiber. The influence of hollow stainless-steel fiber on the corrosion resistance of
UHPC was investigated by dry–wet cycling and salt spray corrosion testing. Moreover,
the electrochemical properties of UHPC with hollow stainless-steel fiber and the hollow
stainless-steel fiber distribution were tested by X-ray computed tomography (X-CT).

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials
The cementitious materials used in this study were Portland cement (P·O425) and silica
fume. Three types of quartz sand (20-grain, 40-grain, and 80-grain) with different particle
sizes were used as aggregates. Additionally, a water reducer and defoamer were added
to improve the performance of UHPC (see Table 1 for the amount of UHPC materials).
Three steel fiber types were used: hollow stainless-steel fiber, solid stainless-steel fiber, and
copper-plated steel fiber, as illustrated in Figure 1. The properties of the three types of steel
fiber are summarized in Table 2.
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 19

Materials 2023, 16, 3612

added to improve the performance of UHPC (see Table 1 for the amount of UHPC mate- 4 of 18
rials). Three steel fiber types were used: hollow stainless-steel fiber, solid stainless-steel
fiber, and copper-plated steel fiber, as illustrated in Figure 1. The properties of the three
types of steel fiber are summarized in Table 2.
Table 1. Mix proportion of ultra-high performance fiber-reinforced concrete matrix (calculated by
self-weight
Table 1. Mixratio).
proportion of ultra-high performance fiber-reinforced concrete matrix (calculated by
self-weight ratio).
Quartz Sand Quartz Sand Quartz Sand Active Defoaming
Cement Silica Fume Water
(20-Grain) Quartz Sand Quartz
(40-Grain) Sand Quartz
(80-Grain) Sand Active
Superplasticizer Defoaming
Agent
Cement Silica Fume Water
(20-Grain) (40-Grain) (80-Grain) Superplasticizer Agent
1 0.25 0.375 0.375 0.375 0.007 0.00036 0.25
1 0.25 0.375 0.375 0.375 0.007 0.00036 0.25

Figure
Figure 1.
1. (a)
(a) Copper-plated
Copper-plated steel
steel fiber;
fiber; (b)
(b) hollow
hollow stainless-steel
stainless-steel fiber.
fiber.

Table 2.
Table Specifications of
2. Specifications of various
various types
types of
of steel
steel fiber.
fiber.

Diameter/Outer Diameter/Outer Inside Diameter

Inside Diameter Length-Diameter
Length-Diameter Tensile
Tensile Strength
Strength
Type Type Length (mm)
Length (mm)
Diameter (mm) Diameter (mm)
(mm) (mm) Ratio Ratio (MPa)
(MPa)
Copper-plated
Copper-plated steel fiber 0.2 13 65 >2800
steel0.2
fiber 13 65 >2800
0.5 0.5 30 30 60 60 >1200
>1200
Solid stainless-
0.4 30 75 >1200
Solid stainless-steel fiber 0.4 30 75 >1200
steel0.3
fiber 30 100 >1200
0.3 30 100 >1200
0.5 0.5 0.25 0.25 30 30 60 60 >1000
>1000
Hollow0.4stainless-
Hollow stainless-steel fiber 0.4 0.20 0.20 30 30 75 75 >1000
>1000
steel0.3
fiber
0.3 0.15 0.15 30 30 100 100 >1000
>1000

2.2.
2.2. Experimental
Experimental Method
Method
2.2.1.
2.2.1. Mechanical
Mechanical Property
Property Test
Test
After
After all
all materials were mixed evenly, the the mix
mix was
was poured
pouredinto
intoaa40
40×× 40 ×× 160
160 mm
mm
mold
mold to to cure
cure for
for 1 day. The specific preparation
preparation process
process is shown
shown in Figure 2. TheThe mold
mold
was
was removed,
removed, andand the
the mix
mix was
was then
then placed
placed in
in aa curing
curing room
room (temperature
(temperature of of 20 ◦ C and
20 °C and
humidity of
humidity of 95%)
95%) toto cure up to the specified age.
The flexural strength of the sample was tested using a three-point bending test with a
span of 100 mm and a loading rate of 50 N/s. In the compressive strength test of the UHPC,
the loading rate was 2400 N/s, as shown in Figure 3. Three samples were used in each test.
The flexural strength and compressive strength of the UHPC were measured according to
the Chinese national standard GB/T 39147-2020. Data were obtained by averaging the test
results of the three samples. When the data fluctuated over 15%, the data were rounded off.
Moreover, when there were two data fluctuations exceeding 15%, the group of experiments
was repeated.
Materials 2023,16,
Materials2023, 16,3612
x FOR PEER REVIEW 55 of
of 18
19

Figure 2. Preparation process of UHPC.

The flexural strength of the sample was tested using a three-point bending test with
a span of 100 mm and a loading rate of 50 N/s. In the compressive strength test of the
UHPC, the loading rate was 2400 N/s, as shown in Figure 3. Three samples were used in
each test. The flexural strength and compressive strength of the UHPC were measured
according to the Chinese national standard GB/T 39147-2020. Data were obtained by av-
eraging the test results of the three samples. When the data fluctuated over 15%, the data
were rounded off. Moreover, when there were two data fluctuations exceeding 15%, the
group
Figureof experiments
2. Preparation was repeated.
process of UHPC.
Figure 2. Preparation process of UHPC.

The flexural strength of the sample was tested using a three-point bending test with
a span of 100 mm and a loading rate of 50 N/s. In the compressive strength test of the
UHPC, the loading rate was 2400 N/s, as shown in Figure 3. Three samples were used in
each test. The flexural strength and compressive strength of the UHPC were measured
according to the Chinese national standard GB/T 39147-2020. Data were obtained by av-
eraging the test results of the three samples. When the data fluctuated over 15%, the data
were rounded off. Moreover, when there were two data fluctuations exceeding 15%, the
group of experiments was repeated.

Figure
Figure 3.
3. Schematic
Schematic diagram
diagram of
of mechanical
mechanical performance
performancetesting:
testing:(a)
(a)flexural
flexuralstrength;
strength;(b)
(b)compres-
compres-
sive strength.
sive strength.

2.2.2.
2.2.2. Corrosion
Corrosion Resistance
Resistance Test
Test
The
The UHPC
UHPC was was removed
removed after after 28
28 days
days of
of curing,
curing,dried
driedat at80 ◦ Cfor
80 °C for22 days
days inin an
an oven,
oven,
weighed,
weighed, and and then
then put into a dry–wet cycle test machine for sulfate resistance testing. The
solution
solution waswas 5% Na22SO SO44. . To
To keep solution concentration
keep the solution concentration unchanged,
unchanged, the the water
water was
changedevery
changed every3030days.
days.Soaking
Soaking was
was carried
carried outout
for for 16followed
16 h, h, followed by drying
by drying for 4 for
h and 4 hcool-
and
cooling
ing for 2 for 2 h.above-mentioned
h. The The above-mentioned dry–wet dry–wet cycles
cycles lasted forlasted for 22
22 h. The h. The
cycle cyclefor
numbers numbers
testing
for
the testing
sulfate
Figure the sulfate
resistance
3. Schematic of resistance
UHPC
diagram wereof30,
UHPC
of mechanical 90,were
120, 30,
60,performance 60,
15090,
andtesting: 120,
cycles.
(a) and 150
After
flexural the cycles.
number
strength; (b)After
of the
cycles
compres-
number of cycles wasblock
reached, ◦
was
sive reached,
strength. the test wasthe test block
removed andwas removed
dried at 80 °C andfordried at and
1 day, 80 Ctheformechanical
1 day, and
the mechanical properties were tested. The test block was compared to a test block that had
the same
2.2.2. curing age
Corrosion but wasTest
Resistance not subjected to dry–wet cycles, and the performance decline
rate was obtained.
The UHPC was removed after 28 days of curing, dried at 80 °C for 2 days in an oven,
Afterand
weighed, 28 days
then of
putcuring,
into a the UHPC
dry–wet wastest
cycle removed
machine andforplaced
sulfateinto the salttesting.
resistance spray test
The
chamber; the temperature of the box was 35 ◦ C, the temperature of the saturated barrel
solution◦ was 5% Na2SO4. To keep the solution concentration unchanged, the water was
was 47 C, and the solution was 5% NaCl. The specific parameters are listed in Table 3.
changed every 30 days. Soaking was carried out for 16 h, followed by drying for 4 h and cool-
The salt spray test times were 7 days, 30 days, 60 days, 120 days, and 180 days. After
ing for 2 h. The above-mentioned dry–wet cycles lasted for 22 h. The cycle numbers for testing
reaching the test time, the UHPC was removed to measure the change of the flexural and
the sulfate resistance of UHPC were 30, 60, 90, 120, and 150 cycles. After the number of cycles
compressive strength.
was reached, the test block was removed and dried at 80 °C for 1 day, and the mechanical

Materials 2023, 16, 3612
age but was not subjected to dry–wet cycles, and the performance decline rate was obtained.
After 28 days of curing, the UHPC was removed and placed into the salt spray test
chamber; the temperature of the box was 35 °C, the temperature of the saturated barrel
was 47 °C, and the solution was 5% NaCl. The specific parameters are listed in Table 3.
The salt spray test times were 7 days, 30 days, 60 days, 120 days, and 180 days. After
reaching the test time, the UHPC was removed to measure the change of the flexural6and of 18
compressive strength.

Table
Table3.3.Relevant
Relevantparameters
parametersof
ofsalt
saltspray
spraytest
testchamber.
chamber.

Saturation Salt Spray

Saturation Salt Spray Relative Air Intake Spray
Relative Air Intake Pres- Spray
Barrel DepositionBarrel Spray
Tem- Mode
Deposition Spray Mode Humid- Source/(kg/ Pres-
Humidity/% Source/(kg/cm2 ) Pressure/MPa Pressure/MPa
Temperature/◦ C Rate perature/°C Rate ity/% cm )
2 sure/MPa sure/MPa
1–2 mL/80 1–2 mL/80
Continuous Continuous
35 ± 2 35 ± 2 95 ± 5 895 ± 5 80.3–0.4 0.3–0.4 0.05–0.17
0.05–0.17
cm2 /h spray cm /h
2 spray

2.2.3.
2.2.3.Electrochemical
ElectrochemicalImpedance
ImpedanceSpectroscopy
Spectroscopy(EIS)(EIS)Test
Test
All samples subjected to electrochemical testing
All samples subjected to electrochemical testing were were dried
dried at ◦80
at 80 C °C
for for 8 h after
8 h after 7 days7
days of standard curing. After the samples were cooled, stainless-steel iron
of standard curing. After the samples were cooled, stainless-steel iron sheets with a length sheets with a
length of 50width
of 50 mm, mm, width
of 40 mm, of 40and
mm, and thickness
thickness of 0.5
of 0.5 mm mmfixed
were wereon fixed
bothonends
bothofends of the
the UHPC
UHPC testusing
test block blockausing a conductive
conductive graphitegraphite
adhesive.adhesive. After
After the the stainless-steel
stainless-steel iron
iron piece piece
and test
and
blocktest block
were were completely
completely fixed for 1fixed
d, anfor 1 d, an alternating
alternating current (AC)current (AC) impedance
impedance test
test was carried
was
out carried
using theoutCHI660
using the CHI660 electrochemical
electrochemical workstation.workstation.
The amplitudeThewasamplitude
0.5 mAwas and0.5
themA
test
and the test frequency was 0.1 Hz–1 Mhz. According to Keddam [37],
frequency was 0.1 Hz–1 Mhz. According to Keddam [37], the entire system was considered the entire system
was considered
as the as theincircuit
circuit shown Figureshown
4. in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Procedure of electrochemical impedance measure.

Figure 4. Procedure of electrochemical impedance measure.
2.2.4. Three-Dimensional Structure of UHPFRC Test
2.2.4. Three-Dimensional Structure of UHPFRC Test
In this experiment, the steel fiber distribution in the UHPC was investigated us-
ing the Zeiss Xradia 510 versa high-resolution three-dimensional X-ray microscope. A
total of 1012 two-dimensional images were captured for the test block with a size of
30 × 30 × 40 mm, and the resolution was 1000 × 1024. Owing to the different densities
of steel fibers and the UHPC matrices, when X-rays pass through the sample, they will
exhibit different grayscales. The whiter part in the CT image is the steel fibers [38]. The
steel fibers were labeled in the obtained 1102 CT images using the Avizo 2020.1 software,
and three-dimensional reconstruction was carried out to obtain the steel fiber distribution
in the UHPC. Subsequently, the Avizo 2020.1 software was used to remove interconnected
fibers and calculate the connection probability. The specific process is shown in Figure 5.
 mm, and the resolution was 1000 × 1024. Owing to the different densities of steel fibers
and the UHPC matrices, when X-rays pass through the sample, they will exhibit different
grayscales. The whiter part in the CT image is the steel fibers [38]. The steel fibers were
labeled in the obtained 1102 CT images using the Avizo 2020.1 software, and three-dimen-
Materials 2023, 16, 3612 sional reconstruction was carried out to obtain the steel fiber distribution in the UHPC.
7 of 18
Subsequently, the Avizo 2020.1 software was used to remove interconnected fibers and
calculate the connection probability. The specific process is shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5. Process of rebuilding designed 3D UHPC structure.

Figure 5. Process of rebuilding designed 3D UHPC structure.

3.3.Results
Resultsand
andDiscussion
Discussion
3.1.
3.1. Mechanical PropertiesofofDeveloped
Mechanical Properties DevelopedUHPC UHPC
Figure
Figure 6a,b shows the flexural strengthand
6a,b shows the flexural strength andcompressive
compressive strength
strength of of UHPC,
UHPC, respec-
respec-
tively,
tively, after mixing with hollow stainless-steel fiber and curing for 28 days. As
after mixing with hollow stainless-steel fiber and curing for 28 days. As can
can be
be
clearly
clearlyseen
seenininFigure
Figure6a, 6a,as
asthe
thehollow
hollowstainless-steel
stainless-steelfiberfibercontent
contentincreased,
increased,the theflexural
flexural
strength
strengthof ofUHPC
UHPCalso alsoincreased
increasedand andreached
reachedthe themaximum
maximumof of42.3
42.3MPaMPaat ataacontent
contentof of
2.5%.
2.5%. According
According to to aa previous
previous study
study by by Boulekbache
Boulekbache [39], [39], the
the reason
reason forforthis
thisisisthat
thatthe
the
fiber
fiberplays
playsaabridging
bridgingroleroleininthe
theconcrete.
concrete.As Asthe
thefiber
fibercontent
contentincreases,
increases,this thisbridging
bridgingrolerole
becomes
becomes more obvious, and thus the bending strength of UPHC is improved.This
more obvious, and thus the bending strength of UPHC is improved. Thisalso
also
explains
explainswhywhythetheimproving
improvingeffect effectof of0.5-mm
0.5-mmhollow
hollowstainless-steel
stainless-steelfiber
fiberon onthe
theflexural
flexural
strength
strength of UHPC diminishes when the fiber content is high: when the content ishigh,
of UHPC diminishes when the fiber content is high: when the content is high,the
the
fibers
fibersmay
maybecome
becomeintertwined
intertwinedand andthe theworking
workingefficiency
efficiencyof ofthe
thefibers
fibersisisreduced,
reduced,which
which
affects
affectsthetheworkability
workabilityof ofUHPC
UHPCand andresults
resultsininweak
weakbonding
bondingbetween
betweenthe thefibers
fibersand
andthethe
concrete matrix [40].
concrete matrix [40].
In
Inaddition
additiontotothe
theinfluence
influenceof ofthe
themixing
mixingamount,
amount,FigureFigure44alsoalsoshows
showsthe theinfluence
influence
of
of the length–diameter ratio of the steel fiber on the mechanical properties ofUHPC.
the length–diameter ratio of the steel fiber on the mechanical properties of UHPC.As As
the length–diameter ratio becomes greater, the effect of the steel fiber on the mechanical
the length–diameter ratio becomes greater, the effect of the steel fiber on the mechanical
properties of UHPC becomes more obvious [41]. At 2.5%, the effect of the steel fiber with
properties of UHPC becomes more obvious [41]. At 2.5%, the effect of the steel fiber with
an aspect ratio of 75 and 100 on the UHPC was higher by 55.8% and 91.4%, respectively,
an aspect ratio of 75 and 100 on the UHPC was higher by 55.8% and 91.4%, respectively,
compared with that of the steel fiber with an aspect ratio of 60.
compared with that of the steel fiber with an aspect ratio of 60.
The influence trend of the steel fiber on the compressive strength of UHPC shown in
Figure 6b is similar to that of the flexural strength shown in Figure 6a. Therefore, the content
and aspect ratio of the steel fiber have obvious effects on the mechanical properties of UHPC.
Materials2023,
Materials 2023,16,
16,3612
x FOR PEER REVIEW 88 of
of 18
19

Figure 6. (a) Bending strength of UHPC with hollow stainless-steel fiber at 28 days; (b) compressive
Figure 6. (a) Bending strength of UHPC with hollow stainless-steel fiber at 28 days; (b) compressive
strength
strengthof
ofUHPC
UHPCwith
withhollow
hollowstainless-steel
stainless-steelfiber
fiberatat28
28days.
days.

The influence trend of the steel fiber on the compressive strength of UHPC shown
Figure 7 shows the effect of copper-coated fiber, solid steel fiber, and hollow stain-
in Figure 6b is similar to that of the flexural strength shown in Figure 6a. Therefore, the
less-steel fiber on the flexural and compressive properties of UHPC at a content of 2%. The
content and aspect ratio of the steel fiber have obvious effects on the mechanical properties
results reveal that the effect of hollow stainless-steel fiber on the flexural strength of UHPC
of UHPC.
is better than that of solid steel fiber. For example, the flexural strength of UHPC with 2%
Figure 7 shows the effect of copper-coated fiber, solid steel fiber, and hollow stainless-
content of 0.5-mm solid steel fiber is 16.6 MPa, while the flexural strength of UHPC with
steel fiber on the flexural and compressive properties of UHPC at a content of 2%. The
0.5-mm hollow stainless-steel fiber is 24.1 MPa, that is, higher by 45.2% compared with
results reveal that the effect of hollow stainless-steel fiber on the flexural strength of UHPC
issolid fiber.
better thanAsthat
shown in Figure
of solid 7a, as For
steel fiber. the fiber’s
example,length–diameter ratio increased,
the flexural strength of UHPCthe bend-
with 2%
ing strength of UHPC first increased and then decreased, and the bending
content of 0.5-mm solid steel fiber is 16.6 MPa, while the flexural strength of UHPC with strength of the
UHPC mixed
0.5-mm hollowwith steel fiberfiber
stainless-steel withisa 24.1
length–diameter ratio ofby7545.2%
MPa, that is, higher is thecompared
largest. Atwith
this solid
time,
the bending strength of the UHPC mixed with solid steel fiber and
fiber. As shown in Figure 7a, as the fiber’s length–diameter ratio increased, the bending hollow stainless-steel
fiber wasof24.8
strength UHPC MPafirst
andincreased
31.8 MPa,and respectively. These and
then decreased, phenomena
the bendingare attributed
strength of to the
the
fiber type and distribution. It is not difficult to imagine that, under the
UHPC mixed with steel fiber with a length–diameter ratio of 75 is the largest. At this time, same volume and
diameter,
the bending asstrength
the length–diameter
of the UHPCratio mixed increases,
with solidthesteel
numberfiberofand
steel fibers stainless-steel
hollow with the same
quality
fiber wasdecreases.
24.8 MPaTherefore,
and 31.8 MPa, appropriately increasing
respectively. the length–diameter
These phenomena ratio (60–75)
are attributed to the
of fibers can significantly increase the number of steel fibers incorporated
fiber type and distribution. It is not difficult to imagine that, under the same volume and into the UHPC
and makeasthe
diameter, thesteel fibers more ratio
length–diameter evenly distributed
increases, in the UHPC.
the number of steelThus,
fibers the
withUHPC can
the same
achieve high bending strength. However, with the continuous increase
quality decreases. Therefore, appropriately increasing the length–diameter ratio (60–75) of of the length–di-
ameter
fibers canratio (75–100), increase
significantly the fiberstheadded
numberto the UHPC
of steel willincorporated
fibers interconnect into and the
become
UHPC entan-
and
gled, the
make whichsteeldoes notmore
fibers onlyevenly
reducedistributed
the fluidity inoftheconcrete
UHPC. and Thus,increase
the UHPC the can
difficulty
achieve of
operation
high bending andstrength.
construction,
However,but also
withreduces the mechanical
the continuous increase properties of UHPC. ratio
of the length–diameter
(75–100), the fibers added to the UHPC will interconnect and become entangled, which
does not only reduce the fluidity of concrete and increase the difficulty of operation and
construction, but also reduces the mechanical properties of UHPC.
Materials 2023, 16, x3612
FOR PEER REVIEW 9 9of
of 19
18

Figure 7.
Figure Effect of
7. Effect ofdifferent
different fiber
fiber types
types on
on bending
bending strength
strength of
of UHPC
UHPC at
at content
content of
of 22 vol%:
vol%: (a)
(a) flexural
flexural
strength; (b)
strength; (b) compressive
compressive strength.
strength.

3.2. Corrosion Resistance of Developed UHPC

3.2. Corrosion Resistance of Developed UHPC
3.2.1. Dry–Wet Cycle Test
3.2.1. Dry–Wet Cycle Test
Figure 8a,b shows the change of the flexural strength of UHPC with copper-coated
fiberFigure 8a,b shows
and hollow the change
stainless-steel of respectively,
fiber, the flexural strength of UHPC
after dry–wet cyclewith copper-coated
testing. As can be
fiber
seen and
fromhollow stainless-steel
the figure, the bending fiber, respectively,
strength of UHPC after dry–wet
with cycle testing.
copper-plated fiber As can be
or hollow
seen from the figure, the bending strength of UHPC with copper-plated
stainless-steel fiber reached the maximum at the curing age of 60–90 d. The reason for thisfiber or hollow
stainless-steel fiber reached
is that the hydration theinside
reaction maximum at the curing
the concrete age of[42];
continued 60–90therefore,
d. The reason for this
the strength
is that the hydration reaction inside the concrete continued [42]; therefore,
of UHPC increased for a certain period of time. Owing to the influence of the dry–wet the strength of
UHPC increased for a certain period of time. Owing to the influence of
cycles, after the strength reached the maximum, the strength of the comparison sample the dry–wet cycles,
after
underthe strength
standard reached
curing did the
not maximum,
change, while thethe
strength
flexural ofstrength
the comparison
of the UHPCsample under
subjected
standard
to dry–wet curing
cyclesdid not change,
decreased, andwhile the flexural
the maximum strength
strength of the
of the UHPC
UHPC subjected
subjected to dry–
to dry–wet
wet cycles
cycles wasdecreased,
lower thanand thatthe
of maximum
the samplestrength
subjected ofto
thestandard
UHPC subjected
curing. to dry–wet cycles
was lower than that of the sample subjected to standard curing.
Figure 8a shows that, after 150 days of dry–wet cycles, the flexural strength of the
UHPC mixed with copper-coated fiber was reduced by 16.5% compared with the maxi-
mum value, and by 28.1% compared with the sample subjected to standard curing with
the same age. According to Figure 8b, the UHPC with hollow stainless-steel fibers de-
creased only by 7.2% compared with the highest flexural strength after 150 days of dry–
wet cycles, and decreased only by 6% compared with the sample subjected to standard
curing. The performance difference of copper-coated fiber and hollow stainless-steel fiber
 strength of the UHPC with two steel fiber types first decreased and then increased as the
dry–wet cycles increased. The intensity difference between the two was as high as 65.7%
before the start of the dry–wet cycle test, and the difference was reduced to 38% when the
intensity was maximum at 90 days. Therefore, the UHPC with hollow stainless-steel fiber
achieved better performance in shorter time. As the dry–wet cycle period (90–150 days)
Materials 2023, 16, 3612 10 of 18
progressed, the gap between the copper-coated steel fiber and hollow stainless-steel fiber
became increasingly larger.

Figure
Figure 8. 8. Dry–wet
Dry–wet cycles:
cycles: (a)(a) flexural
flexural strength
strength of of UHPC
UHPC mixed
mixed with
with copper-coated
copper-coated fiber
fiber after
after dry–
dry–
wet
wet cycles;
cycles; (b)(b) flexural
flexural strength
strength of UHPC
of UHPC withwith hollow
hollow stainless-steel
stainless-steel fiberfiber
after after dry–wet
dry–wet cycles;
cycles; (c)
differences in mechanical
(c) differences in mechanicalproperties of UHPC
properties mixed
of UHPC with
mixed copper-plated
with copper-platedsteel fibers
steel and
fibers andhollow
hollow
stainless-steel
stainless-steelfibers after
fibers afterdry–wet
dry–wet cycling.
cycling.

Figure
Figure9 shows
8a showsthe that,
change of the
after 150UHPC
days ofsurface morphology.
dry–wet cycles, theAs can bestrength
flexural clearly seen,
of the
theUHPC
surfacemixed
rustwith copper-coated
of the UHPC to which fiber was reduced by steel
copper-coated 16.5%fiber
compared with the
was added maximum
became in-
value, and
creasingly by 28.1%
more severe compared with cycles
as the dry–wet the sample subjected
progressed, to standard
while the UHPCcuring with the
with hollow
same age. According
stainless-steel fiber didtonotFigure
change8b, significantly.
the UHPC with Thehollow stainless-steel
corrosion fibersindecreased
of steel fibers UHPC
onlynot
does by only
7.2% result
compared with the
in inferior highest flexural
performance, but strength
also causesafterrust
150stains
days of
ondry–wet cycles,
the surface,
which is extremely detrimental to the promotion and use of UHPC. According to Lee The
and decreased only by 6% compared with the sample subjected to standard curing. et
al.performance
[43], modified difference of copper-coated
sulfur-coated aggregate can fiber and hollow
significantly stainless-steel
enhance fiber in
the durability UHPC
of Port-
after
land the dry–wet
cement concrete.cycle test is shown
Additionally, in Figureto8c.
according Asstudy,
this can beusing
seen,stainless-steel
the bending strength
fibers
of the of
instead UHPC withsteel
ordinary two fibers
steel fiber types
can also first decreased
improve and then increased as the dry–wet
durability.
cycles increased. The intensity difference between the two was as high as 65.7% before the
start of the dry–wet cycle test, and the difference was reduced to 38% when the intensity
was maximum at 90 days. Therefore, the UHPC with hollow stainless-steel fiber achieved
better performance in shorter time. As the dry–wet cycle period (90–150 days) progressed,
the gap between the copper-coated steel fiber and hollow stainless-steel fiber became
increasingly larger.
Figure 9 shows the change of the UHPC surface morphology. As can be clearly
seen, the surface rust of the UHPC to which copper-coated steel fiber was added became
increasingly more severe as the dry–wet cycles progressed, while the UHPC with hollow
stainless-steel fiber did not change significantly. The corrosion of steel fibers in UHPC
does not only result in inferior performance, but also causes rust stains on the surface,
which is extremely detrimental to the promotion and use of UHPC. According to Lee
et al. [43], modified sulfur-coated aggregate can significantly enhance the durability of
Materials 2023, 16, 3612 11 of 18

Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 19

Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 19
Portland cement concrete. Additionally, according to this study, using stainless-steel fibers
instead of ordinary steel fibers can also improve durability.

Figure 9. Surface morphology of UHPC after dry–wet cycles: (a) after 30 days with copper-plated
Figure
Figure
steel fiber;9. Surface
9. (b) after morphology
Surface days with of
morphology
60 UHPC after steel
copper-plated dry–wet cycles:
fiber;cycles: (a)90
(a)
(c) after after
after
days30with
30 dayscopper-plated
days with copper-plated
with copper-plated
steel
steel
steel fiber;
fiber; (b)
(b) after
after 60 days with copper-plated steel fiber; (c) after
after 90
90 days
days with
with copper-plated
copper-plated
fiber; (d) after 120 days with copper-plated steel fiber; (e) after 150 days with copper-plated steel steel
steel
fiber;(f)
fiber;
fiber; (d)
(d) after120
hollow
after 120days
dayswith
with
stainless-steel copper-plated
fiber.
copper-plated steel
steel fiber;
fiber; (e) (e) after
after 150 150
daysdays
withwith copper-plated
copper-plated steel steel
fiber;
fiber;
(f) hollow(f) hollow stainless-steel
stainless-steel fiber. fiber.
3.2.2. Salt Spray Test
3.2.2.
3.2.2. Salt Spray Test
Figure 10 shows the bending strength of the UHPC with copper-coated steel fiber
Figure
and hollow 10
10 shows
shows thefiber
Figurestainless-steel bending
after strength of thetest.
the salt spray UHPC The with
figure copper-coated
copper-coated
shows that assteel steel fiber
fiber
the salt
and
and hollow
hollow stainless-steel
stainless-steel fiber after the salt spray test.
test. The
The figure
figure
spray test time increased, the bending strength of UHPC with two types of steel fiber first shows
shows that
that as
as the
the salt
salt
spray
spray test
test time
time increased, the bending strength of UHPC with
increased and then decreased. After 60 days, the bending strength of the UHPC reached two
two types
types of
of steel
steel fiber
fiber first
first
increased
theincreased
maximum, and then
then decreased.
andsimilar to the resultsAfter
Afterof60 days,
thedays, the bending
the
dry–wet bending
cycle test. strength
strength of the
of the UHPC
At the beginning UHPC reached
reached
of the ex-
the
the maximum,
periment, similar to the
similar reaction
the hydration results
to the results of the
in theofconcrete dry–wet
the dry–wet cycle
cycle
was still test. At
test. Atand
ongoing, the
the the beginning
beginning
strength of ex-
ofexhib-
the the
experiment,
periment,
ited an upward the hydration
the hydration
trend. As the reaction
reaction in the
in the concrete
experiment concrete
progressed, was
wascorrosive still
still ongoing,ongoing, and
and thepenetrated
substances the strength
strength exhib-
into
exhibited
ited an an
upward upward
trend.trend.
As the As the experiment
experiment progressed,
progressed, corrosive
the concrete and had a negative impact on the concrete matrix and steel fiber, resultinginto
corrosive substances
substances penetrated
penetrated in
into
the the concrete
thedecrease
concrete theand
ofand had
UHPChad a negative
a negative
strength. impact
impact on concrete
on the the concrete matrix
matrix andandsteelsteel
fiber,fiber, resulting
resulting in
in
thethe decrease
decrease of of
thethe UHPC
UHPC strength.
strength.

Figure
Figure10.
10.Effect
Effectofofthe
thesalt
saltspray
spraytest
testononbending
bendingstrength
strengthofofUHPC.
UHPC.
Figure 10. Effect of the salt spray test on bending strength of UHPC.
 Materials
Materials 2023,
2023, 16,16, x FOR
x FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 1212ofof1919
Materials 2023, 16, 3612 12 of 18

Figure1111shows
Figure showsimprovement
improvementofofbending bendingstrength
strengthofofhollow
hollowstainless-steel-fiber
stainless-steel-fiber
UHPC
UHPC Figure
compared 11 shows
compared with improvement
withcopper-coated-fiber
copper-coated-fiber of bending UHPC
UHPC strength of hollow
afterdifferent
after different times
times stainless-steel-fiber
ofofsalt
saltspraying.
spraying.
UHPC
Unlikethe
Unlike compared
thedry–wet
dry–wet with copper-coated-fiber
cycles,
cycles, thethedifference
differenceininthe UHPC afterstrength
theflexural
flexural different
strengthofof times
the of
theUHPC
UHPCsaltwith
spraying.
withtwo two
Unlike
types the
typesofofsteel dry–wet
steelfiber cycles, increased
fibergradually
gradually the difference
increased with
with in the For
time.
time. flexural strength
Forexample,
example, of the UHPC
theflexural
the flexural with
strength
strength two
ofofthethe
UHPC to which hollow stainless-steel fiber was added was higher by 18.4% comparedof
types
UHPC of steel
to whichfiber gradually
hollow increased
stainless-steel with
fiber time.
was For
added example,
was higherthe flexural
by 18.4% strength
compared
the
with
with UHPC
thatofof
that to which
solid
solid steelhollow
steel fiberatstainless-steel
fiber at7 7days
daysofofsalt fiber
salt was added
spraying,
spraying, and was
andthe higher byincreased
thedifference
difference 18.4% compared
increased toto34%
34%
with
atatthe that
the180th of
180thday solid steel
dayofofthe fiber
theexperiment. at 7 days
experiment.Therefore, of salt
Therefore,the spraying,
thesalt
saltspray and the
sprayresistance difference
resistanceofofUHPC UHPCincreased
withhol-
with to
hol-
34%
low at the 180th fiber
lowstainless-steel
stainless-steel day of
fiber the
isisbetterexperiment.
better thanthat
than thatofofTherefore,
UHPCwith
UHPC thecopper-coated
with salt spray resistance
copper-coated of Addi-
steelfiber.
steel fiber.UHPC
Addi-
with
tionally,hollow
tionally, Figurestainless-steel
Figure 1212shows
showsthe fiber
thechangeis better
change than
ofofthe that ofmorphology
thesurface
surface UHPC with copper-coated
morphology ofofUHPC
UHPCafter steel
after fiber.
thesalt
the salt
Additionally,
spray test. As Figure
can be 12 shows
seen, the the
surface change
rust of
of the
the surface
UHPC tomorphology
which
spray test. As can be seen, the surface rust of the UHPC to which copper-coated steel fiber of
copper-coated UHPC after
steel the
fiber
salt
was spray
addedtest.
wasadded became As can
became be seen, the
increasingly
increasingly surface
more
more severe
severe rust of the
with
with the UHPC
thepassage
passagetoofwhich
time,copper-coated
oftime, andwas
and moresteel
wasmore ob-ob-
fiber was added
viouscompared
vious comparedwith became
withthe increasingly
thedry–wet
dry–wetcycle more
cycletest. severe
test.The with
TheUHPC the passage
UHPCtotowhich of
whichhollow time, and was
hollowstainless-steel more
stainless-steel
obvious
fiber wascompared
fiberwas addeddid
added did with
not the
notexhibitdry–wet
exhibit cycle
obvious
obvious test. The UHPC to which hollow stainless-steel
change.
change.
fiber was added did not exhibit obvious change.

Figure
Figure 11.
Figure11. Differences
11.Differences
Differencesbetween
between mechanical
mechanical
mechanical properties ofof
properties
properties UHPC in salt
ofUHPC
UHPC spray
ininsalt teststests
saltspray
spray with copper-plated
testswith
withcopper-
copper-
plated
plated
steel steelfibers
steel
fibers fibers
and andhollow
and
hollow hollow stainless-steel
stainless-steel
stainless-steel fibers.
fibers.fibers.

Figure
Figure12.
Figure 12. Surface
12.Surface morphology
morphologyofof
Surfacemorphology UHPC
ofUHPC after
UHPCafter salt
aftersalt spray
saltspray test:
test:(a)(a)
spraytest: copper-plated
(a)copper-plated steel
copper-platedsteel fiber
fiberatat
steelfiber at7 77days;
days;
days;
(b)
(b) copper-plated
copper-plated steel fiber
steel fiberat 30
at days;
30 (c)
days; copper-plated
(c) copper-plated steel fiber
steel at
fiber60 days;
at 60
(b) copper-plated steel fiber at 30 days; (c) copper-plated steel fiber at 60 days; (d) copper-plated (d)
days;copper-plated
(d) copper-plated steel
fiber
steel at
steelfiber120
fiber days;
atat120 (e) copper-plated
120days;
days; steelsteel
(e)(e)copper-plated
copper-plated fiber at
steelfiber 180
fiberatatdays; (f) hollow
180days;
180 days; stainless-steel
(f)(f)hollow
hollow fiber.fiber.
stainless-steel
stainless-steel fiber.
 Based on the analysis of the dry–wet cycle and salt spray test results, the durability
of UHPC with hollow stainless-steel fiber is better than that of UHPC with copper-coated
steel fiber. Therefore, in practical engineering applications, with consideration to durabil-
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 19
ity, copper-coated steel fiber is not suitable for engineering with high corrosion resistance.
Materials 2023, 16, 3612 13 of 18
3.3. Electrochemical Experiment
Based on the analysis of the dry–wet cycle and salt spray test results, the durability
The AC impedance of UHPC was investigated to verify the effect of hollow stainless-
of UHPCBased with hollow stainless-steel fiber iscycle
betterand
than that of UHPC with copper-coated
steel fiber ononthethefiber
analysis
networkof the dry–wet
structure of UHPC salt
and spray test results,
investigate the durability
the electrochemical
steel fiber. Therefore,
of UHPC resistance
with hollow in practical engineering applications, with consideration to durabil-
corrosion of stainless-steel
UHPC with fiber hollow is better than that fiber.
stainless-steel of UHPC with13
Figure copper-coated
shows the
ity, copper-coated
steel fiber. Therefore,steel fiber is
in practicalnot suitable for engineering with high corrosion toresistance.
Nyquist diagram of UHPC mixedengineering
with 2% byapplications,
volume of hollow with consideration
stainless-steel durability,
fiber and
copper-coated steel fiber is not suitable for engineering with high corrosion
solid steel fiber. In the figure, the horizontal axis is the real part, the vertical axis is the resistance.
3.3. Electrochemical Experiment
imaginary part, and the arc part represents the resistance of UHPC, which is represented
3.3. The
Electrochemical
AC impedance Experiment
of UHPC was investigated to verify the effect of hollow stainless-
by charge transfer resistance and electric double-layer capacitance in parallel.
steelAsfiber
The on the fiber
AC impedance
shown network
in Figure 13, of UHPC structure
the matrix of
was resistanceUHPC
investigated and investigate
to verify
of UHPC the
of electrochemical
the effectdecreased
gradually hollowwith stainless-
the
corrosion
steel fiber resistance
on the of
fiber UHPC
network with hollow
structure of stainless-steel
UHPC and fiber.
investigate
steel fiber diameter. When the length of the steel fibers is the same, diameter reduction Figure
the 13 shows
electrochemical the
Nyquist
corrosion diagram
resistanceof UHPC
of UHPC mixed
with with
hollow2% by volume
stainless-steel of hollow
fiber. stainless-steel
Figure
indicates that more steel fiber has been added. Therefore, the steel fibers in the UHPC are 13 shows fiber
the and
Nyquist
diagram
solid
more steeloffiber.
densely UHPC In mixed
arranged, thewith
the figure, 2% horizontal
the by volume
probability of hollow
axis is the stainless-steel
of interconnection real part, theand
increases, fiber and
vertical
the solid
axis
UHPC steel
is can
the
fiber.
imaginaryIn the figure,
part, and the
the horizontal
arc part axis is
representsthe real
the part, the
resistance vertical
of UHPC, axis
be considered as a conductor. The same results are shown in Figure 14. As the steel fiber is
whichthe imaginary
is represented part,
and
by theincreased,
charge
content arc part represents
transfer resistance
the matrix the
andresistance ofthe
UHPC,
electricofdouble-layer
resistance UHPC which is represented
capacitance
decreased. by charge transfer
in parallel.
resistance and electric double-layer capacitance in parallel.
As shown in Figure 13, the matrix resistance of UHPC gradually decreased with the
steel fiber diameter. When the length of the steel fibers is the same, diameter reduction
indicates that more steel fiber has been added. Therefore, the steel fibers in the UHPC are
more densely arranged, the probability of interconnection increases, and the UHPC can
be considered as a conductor. The same results are shown in Figure 14. As the steel fiber
content increased, the matrix resistance of the UHPC decreased.

Figure 13. Nyquist diagram of UHPC with 2% solid and hollow stainless-steel fiber.
Figure 13. Nyquist diagram of UHPC with 2% solid and hollow stainless-steel fiber.
As shown in Figure 13, the matrix resistance of UHPC gradually decreased with the
steel fiber diameter. When the length of the steel fibers is the same, diameter reduction
indicates that more steel fiber has been added. Therefore, the steel fibers in the UHPC are
more densely arranged, the probability of interconnection increases, and the UHPC can
be considered as a conductor. The same results are shown in Figure 14. As the steel fiber
Figure 13. Nyquist diagram of UHPC with 2% solid and hollow stainless-steel fiber.
content increased, the matrix resistance of the UHPC decreased.

Figure 14. Nyquist diagram of UHPC with different solid steel fiber and hollow stainless-steel fiber
content (0.4 mm).

Figure14.
Figure Nyquistdiagram
14.Nyquist diagramofofUHPC
UHPCwith
withdifferent
differentsolid
solidsteel
steelfiber
fiberand
andhollow
hollowstainless-steel
stainless-steelfiber
fiber
content(0.4
content (0.4mm).
mm).
Materials 2023, 16, 3612 14 of 18

As shown in Figures 13 and 14, the matrix resistance of the UHPC to which hollow
stainless-steel fiber was added is greater than that of the UHPC to which solid steel fiber
was added, regardless of the steel fiber specification or different mixing amounts. The
specific reason is related to the heat balance of the conductor material when it is energized.
Let the heat generation Q1 of the energized conductor be as follows:

Q1 = K f I 2 ρ0 (1 + αθ ) Lt/S (1)

Here, Kf is the AC additional coefficient generated by the skin effect and proximity
effect. For 50 Hz AC, Kf = 1.02; I is the current; ρ0 is the resistivity of the conductor
material at 0 ◦ C; L is the length of the conductor material; S is the cross-sectional area of the
conductor material; α is the resistance temperature coefficient; θ is the surface temperature
of the conductor material; and t is the energization time.
Let the heat dissipation Q2 of the surface temperature of the conductor material
entering the steady state after power on be as follows:

Q2 = Kt MLτt (2)

where Kt is the comprehensive heat dissipation coefficient; M is the circumference of the

conductor section; L is the length of the conductor; τ is the difference between the surface
temperature of the conductor material and the ambient temperature; and t is the power
on time.
When the surface temperature of the conductor is stable after power on, Q1 = Q2 , that
is, the heat generation is equal to the heat dissipation, and the following relationship holds:

K f I 2 ρ0 (1 + αθ ) Lt/S = Kt MLτt (3)

Hence, the rated current In of the conductor material is expressed as follows:

s
Kt Mτd S
In = (4)
K f ρ0 (1 + αθ )

where τ d represents the maximum allowable temperature increase.

As can be seen from the conductor cross-sectional area s in Formula (3), the solid steel
fiber is larger than the hollow stainless-steel fiber. Therefore, under the condition of the
same allowable temperature increase τ d , the carrying capacity of the solid steel fiber of the
same material is larger than that of the hollow stainless-steel fiber. Consequently, when
hollow stainless-steel fiber is used in UHPC, the UHPC will exhibit higher resistance.
Additionally, hollow stainless-steel fiber is more evenly distributed in UHPC and
cannot easily form a fiber network. The specific results were verified by the X-CT test
discussed below.

3.4. X-ray CT Test

To analyze the hollow stainless-steel fiber and solid steel fiber networks in UHPC in
a more detailed manner, this study conducted X-ray CT tests on the UHPC. Figure 15a–c
shows the three-dimensional structure of UHPC with steel fibers (diameters of 0.3 mm,
0.4 mm, and 0.5 mm, respectively) added at 2% by volume. The figure shows the steel
fibers that are not interconnected in the UHPC. To investigate the connection probability of
steel fibers in the UHPC more intuitively, the connection probability of various types of
steel fiber in UHPC was calculated using the AVIZO 2020.1 software and the results are
shown in Figure 16.
Materials 2023,
Materials 2023, 16,
16, 3612
x FOR PEER REVIEW 1515of
of 19
18

Figure 15. Three-dimensional structure of non-interconnected steel fibers in UHPC: (a) 0.3-mm hol-
Figure 15. Three-dimensional structure of non-interconnected steel fibers in UHPC: (a) 0.3-mm
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16hollow
of 19
low stainless-steel fiber (left) and solid steel fiber (right); (b) 0.4-mm hollow stainless-steel fiber (left)
stainless-steel fiber (left) and solid steel fiber (right); (b) 0.4-mm hollow stainless-steel fiber (left) and
and solid steel fiber (right); (c) 0.5-mm hollow stainless-steel fiber (left) and solid steel fiber (right).
solid steel fiber (right); (c) 0.5-mm hollow stainless-steel fiber (left) and solid steel fiber (right).
Based on the probability of steel fiber interconnection shown in Figure 16, it can be
found that the interconnection rate of 0.3-mm hollow stainless-steel fibers in UHPC is 80.1%,
while the interconnection rate of 0.4-mm and 0.5-mm steel fibers is only 46.7% and 26.1%,
respectively. As can be seen, the connection probability in the UHPC increased with the
change of the steel fiber diameter, because the number of added steel fibers increased as
the diameter decreased under the condition of constant volume content. Because the dis-
tribution space of the steel fibers was limited, the interconnection probability increased
[44]. Moreover, it can be seen that the interconnection probability of hollow stainless-steel
fiber is lower than that of solid steel fiber, regardless of the steel fiber specification. In
conclusion, the distribution of hollow structures in UHPC is more advantageous.

Figure 16. Connection probability of hollow stainless-steel fiber and solid steel fiber in UHPC.
Figure 16. Connection probability of hollow stainless-steel fiber and solid steel fiber in UHPC.
Based on the probability of steel fiber interconnection shown in Figure 16, it can be
found Withthata the
content of 3.3 and 3.4,
interconnection theofUHPC
rate 0.3-mm with hollow
hollow stainless-steel
stainless-steel fibers
fibers in achieved
UHPC is
better electrochemical corrosion resistance because the conductivity
80.1%, while the interconnection rate of 0.4-mm and 0.5-mm steel fibers is only 46.7% of steel fibers in hol-
and
low structures is lower than that in solid structures when electricity is conducted.
26.1%, respectively. As can be seen, the connection probability in the UHPC increased with Addition-
ally, the probability
the change of interconnecting
of the steel hollow stainless-steel
fiber diameter, because the number offibers
added in steel
UHPC is lower,
fibers which
increased as
makes it difficult
the diameter to formunder
decreased a connected fiber network.
the condition Therefore,
of constant volume UHPC
content. doped
Because with hollow
the distri-
stainless-steel
bution space fibers
of thehassteelhigher
fibersresistance and the
was limited, better electrochemical
interconnection corrosion resistance.
probability increased [44].
Moreover, it can be seen that the interconnection probability of hollow stainless-steel fiber
4. Conclusions
This study systematically investigated the effects of hollow structural steel fiber and
solid steel fiber on the mechanical properties, durability, and electrochemical properties
of UHPC. The following conclusions were drawn:
Materials 2023, 16, 3612 16 of 18

is lower than that of solid steel fiber, regardless of the steel fiber specification. In conclusion,
the distribution of hollow structures in UHPC is more advantageous.
With a content of 3.3 and 3.4, the UHPC with hollow stainless-steel fibers achieved
better electrochemical corrosion resistance because the conductivity of steel fibers in hollow
structures is lower than that in solid structures when electricity is conducted. Additionally,
the probability of interconnecting hollow stainless-steel fibers in UHPC is lower, which
makes it difficult to form a connected fiber network. Therefore, UHPC doped with hollow
stainless-steel fibers has higher resistance and better electrochemical corrosion resistance.

4. Conclusions
This study systematically investigated the effects of hollow structural steel fiber and
solid steel fiber on the mechanical properties, durability, and electrochemical properties of
UHPC. The following conclusions were drawn:
(1) The improving effect of hollow stainless-steel fiber on the mechanical properties
of UHPC is better than that of solid steel fiber because the distribution of hollow
stainless-steel fibers in concrete is more uniform, and the stress is more uniform
when UHPC is subjected to loading. For example, the bending strength of UHPC
with a content of 2% by volume of 0.5-mm hollow stainless-steel fiber is higher by
45.2% compared with that of solid steel fiber. Moreover, owing to the type of steel
fiber and its distribution in the UHPC, the length–diameter ratio of the steel fiber is
within a suitable range (approximately 75), which has a more significant impact on
the mechanical properties of the UHPC.
(2) In the durability experiments, the degradation of UHPC performance was caused by
the combined effect of the concrete matrix and steel fiber degradation. Using stainless
steel as the steel fiber material can greatly improve the durability of UHPC while
avoiding surface rust stains. After dry–wet cycle testing, the flexural strength of the
copper-coated-fiber-reinforced UHPC decreased by 21.9%, while the flexural strength
of the UHPC with hollow stainless-steel fibers only decreased by 5.6%. When the salt
spray test had run for seven days, the difference in the flexural strength between the
two was 18.4%, but when the test was completed (180 days), the difference increased
to 34%.
(3) The addition of steel fiber led to a reduction in the resistance of the UHPC matrix.
As more steel fibers are added, this phenomenon becomes more obvious, and may
lead to electrochemical corrosion. However, compared with solid steel fiber, hollow
stainless-steel fiber plays a positive role in reducing the resistance of UHPC, mainly
because the carrying capacity of the hollow structure during conduction is smaller
than that of the solid structure, and the hollow stainless-steel fiber is more evenly
distributed in the UHPC and cannot easily form a fiber network.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, T.L., Y.Y., H.Q. and Y.M.; writing original draft prepara-
tion, T.L., H.Q. and Y.M.; writing review and editing, Y.Y., C.X., X.H., Y.L. and Y.M.; supervision, H.Q.
and Y.M.; project administration, H.Q. and T.L.; funding acquisition, C.X., X.H. and Y.L. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial supports provided by Guangxi Natu-
ral Science Foundation (2020GXNSFBA297034) and the Fundamental Research Funds for Guilin
University of Technology.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Data sharing is not applicable for this article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Materials 2023, 16, 3612 17 of 18

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