WHAT IS KNOWLEDGE?

THREE SENSES/KINDS OF KNOWLEDGE

1. Propositional Knowledge
• Knowledge of facts or true propositions
• Proposition = a statement of what is the case; of the state of affairs of things
• The objects of knowledge or what is known are true propositions
➢ Sentences vs. Propositions
❖ We can have different sentences for the same proposition
Sentence 1: Mary is a student.
Sentence 2: Si Mary ay isang mag-aaral.
Sentence 3: Mary es alumna.
Proposition: Mary is a student.
2. Acquaintance Knowledge
• Knowledge by acquaintance
➢ John knows the president of Spain = John has met the president of Spain = John
is acquainted with the president of Spain
➢ Joseph knows Pope Francis = Joseph worked for Pope Francis = Joseph is
acquainted with Pope Francis
• One can have a great deal of propositional knowledge about someone without having
acquaintance knowledge of him/her
• One can have acquaintance knowledge of things other than people
➢ Acquaintance knowledge of Parañaque City = I have been to or even live in
Parañaque City
➢ Acquaintance knowledge of Wolfgang ribeye steak = I have tasted a Wolfgang
ribeye steak
• One can have a great deal of propositional knowledge of things and places without
having acquaintance knowledge of that thing or place
3. Practical Knowledge
• “How to” knowledge or knowledge-how
➢ Hannah knows how to drive = Hannah has the ability to drive
• There is a sense of “how to” knowledge that is merely propositional in nature
➢ Hannah knows how to drive = Hannah has mastered the driving manual.
Hannah has a perfect score in the theoretical driving exam. Hannah memorized
all the parts of a vehicle.
➢ Simply having propositional knowledge of how to do something, but not the
sense of having the ability to do something
• One can have a lot of propositional knowledge about how to do something without
having the ability to do it
➢ Sexual Intercourse = one may have watched all the pornography there is to
watch; one may have read the Kama Sutra over and over again; one may have
attended Sex education there is to attend; BUT, it is possible that one has no
ability to have sex actually
• Conversely, one can have the ability to do something without having much propositional
knowledge about it
➢ Kids who knows how to bike = Kids can be expert bikers without having known
the parts of a bike, how such parts work together, etc. Kids never have touched
a biking manual at all and yet they know how to bike
PROPOSITIONAL KNOWLEDGE
• What is knowledge? = What is it for someone to have propositional knowledge?” = What
is it for a subject, S, to know that p (where p is some proposition)?”
• To have propositional knowledge p is to have epistemically justified true belief that p.
• Some mistaken views:
➢ S knows that p if and only if S believes that p. (Believing something is sufficient
for knowing it.)
❖ If the above is correct, then someone who believed a false
proposition would know it.
❖ A child believing that 2 + 3 = 6 would then know that 2 + 3 = 6. But
definitely that is wrong! One can be mistaken about one’s beliefs.
➢ S knows that p if and only if S believes that p and p is true. (Having a true belief
is sufficient for knowledge.)
❖ One might have a true belief that is not knowledge
True beliefs that are mere lucky guesses or mere hunches or
based on wild superstitions are not instances of knowledge.
I believe that there will be an earthquake today. By chance, there
was an earthquake. One cannot still say that I knew there will be
an earthquake.
Suzette is a pessimist who always believes that something bad
will happen to her each day. This day she was robbed. While her
belief became true, still we cannot say Suzette knew that
something bad will happen
❖ Beliefs that became true without the person believing having evidence or
reasons for believing are not instances of knowledge
• BELIEF
➢ Whenever we consider a proposition, there are three different attitudes we can
take toward it.
1. We can believe it or accept it as true.
(Theist = I believe that God exists = I accept as true that God exists)
2. We can disbelieve it or believe that it is false or not accept it as true.
(Atheist = I do not believe that God exists = I do not accept as true that
God exists)
3. We can withhold belief in it or suspend judgement.
(Agnostic = I neither believe nor disbelieve that God exists = I neither
accept nor deny as true that God exists)
➢ Believing a Proposition vs. Entertaining/Considering a Proposition
❖ Believing a proposition = Accepting the proposition as true
❖ Entertaining a proposition = considering, studying, examining a
proposition
❖ One can entertain or consider a proposition without believing it
❖ One can also believe something without entertaining or considering it
➢ The requirement for knowledge
❖ Knowledge is not strict about intensity of belief. Beliefs can range from
complete and firm conviction to tentative and cautious acceptance.
• TRUTH
➢ Theories about the Nature of Truth (What is truth?)
1. Correspondence Theory of Truth
❖ A proposition is true if and only if it corresponds to facts. A proposition if
false if and only if it fails to correspond to facts.
 ❖ The truth of a proposition or belief is dependent on the facts or upon the
way the world is
❖ A proposition is not true because of what we believe about it. A
proposition is true because it is how the world is.
❖ One and the same proposition cannot be both true and false. Neither can
the proposition be “true for you and false for me”
2. Pragmatic Theory of Truth
❖ True beliefs are generally useful and false beliefs are not
❖ A proposition is true if and only if believing it or acting on it is, or would
be, useful (in the long run)
3. Coherence Theory of Truth
❖ For a proposition to be true is nothing more than a matter of its
coherence with other propositions
❖ A proposition is true if and only is it belongs to a coherent set of
propositions
❖ Example:
Proposition 1: I have the sense experience of something white in my
hand.
Proposition 2: I have the experience of something round in my hand.
Proposition 3: I have the experience of something cold in my hand.
Proposition 4: There is a snowball in my hand.
Proposition 5: I have a hot lump of coal in my hand.
• EPISTEMIC JUSTIFICATION
➢ Some general points about epistemic justification:
1. A proposition can be true and not justified.
There are propositions that are true but we can have no
evidence for it. (Ex. The number of stars in the universe.)
One is not justified in believing them but one is justified in
withholding belief in them
2. A proposition can be justified and not true.
One can be justified in believing a proposition that is false
One can be justified in believing that it is now 12 noon via
looking at your watch, but unknown to you your watch is
broken and the real time is 1pm.
One can be justified in believing that the person you saw is
your friend via the looks, outfit, etc., but unknown to you it is
her twin.
3. Epistemic justification comes in degrees
It ranges from propositions that are certain or maximally
justified for us to propositions that are barely justified, that are
just barely reasonable to accept.
If justification comes in degrees, what degree of justification
does knowledge require?
o Knowledge does not require maximal justification
or certainty, but only a high degree of justification
4. A proposition can be epistemically justified for a person even if he
does not believe it
There are students who despite being presented with all
evidences that he or she failed the subject, he or she still does
not believe that he or she failed.