Methods of

philosophizing
Let’s embark
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:
1. define the role of philosophy in determining truth and knowledge;
2. distinguish opinion from truth;
3. analyze situations that show the difference between opinion and truth;
4. realize that the methods of philosophy lead to wisdom and truth; and
5. evaluate opinions.

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 In today's society, we encounter a lot of information from various sources such as
the media and our interactions with friends, family, and members of the community. Most
of the information we receive is helpful, but some may mislead us or may even be utterly
false. These kinds of information often have a negative impact on our lives. For instance,
many people have been misled by claims of "miracle drugs" which were eventually proven
to have no significant effects on health or may have harmful effects for some people. In
addition, "news" on the Internet and social media sites often relies on sensational
headlines which often twist and distort the truth. These often result in heated online
debates and feuds. In some cases, innocent individuals become targets of harassment
because of false claims and testimonials issued online. Every day we are confronted with
news, claims and announcements from our peers, family members, figures of authority, the
government, and media. How do we know if they are telling the truth?

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 Philosophers often grapple with the concept of truth. Truth lies at the heart of
any inquiry. Knowledge must be truthful to gain validity and acceptance. However,
the concept of truth remains a highly debated and much-discussed topic among
philosophers. Philosophers consider truth as a kind of quality or value. For example,
when we answer a "True or False" test, we judge if the statements we read are true or
false. This means that statements may have truth or may not have truth. Statements
about the world or reality are called propositions and these propositions may or may
not carry truth. Propositions are usually stated as short statements or sentences.

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What is truth
and why is it
important?
Before we discuss truth, it is important to
clarify knowledge, since it is through
knowing that we are able to determine what
is true. Knowledge is the clear awareness and
understanding of something. It is the product
of questions that allow for clear answers
provided by facts. Our knowledge is
comprised of ideas and beliefs that we know
to be true.

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Let’s explore you’re knowledge by
completing the following statements:
These statements correspond to one
important aspect of knowledge - that
o I know that... it is based on reality. This simply
means that what we know is what is
o I know why... observable or evident in the real
o I know how... world. For example, we say that "I
know that fish live in water" because
fish do live in water. Propositions or
statements which are observed to be
real or truthful are considered facts.

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There are statements, however, that are not evidently or
immediately known to be true. For example, we can say that "I
know that my school is the best school in the city." This
statement, however, cannot be taken as true since it is simply
not immediately evident. This statement is a claim, and further
examination is required to establish whether it is true or false.
You may know why reading is a better activity than playing
basketball, but the truth of your statement will be contested by
other people.

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Truthful statements, therefore, can be considered as based on
facts. Science considers truth as something observable and
empirical. This means that any claim can be proven by
verification and experimentation. Philosophy has various views
which can help tackle the concepts of knowing the truth, and
arrive at a reasonable assessment if a statement, idea, or event is
believable.

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How do we know if
something is true?
There are several views regarding
truth. Philosophers emphasize the
importance of belief as a basis for
determining truth. But what kind of
belief is truthful? How do we know
that what we believe is true?

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 Ancient Greek philosophers approached the problem of truth by
looking at the nature of knowledge and how we know what we know.
We assume that everything we know about this world is true. But
philosophers who pondered upon the origins of knowledge doubted
everything that there is to know about themselves and the world. In
doing so, they were able to better understand the means by which
humans gain knowledge and determine the truth about everything. It is
said that there are instances when we have to unlearn something so that
we may learn anew. Philosophers questioned what they knew and even
analyzed their methods of knowing in order to understand themselves
and the world much better.

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 I am alive.
I have a body.
I can breathe.
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Let’s review some concepts
The obvious answer would be to examine yourself to determine if
indeed you are alive, that you have a body, and you can breathe. Do
you have a pulse? Can you feel your heartbeat? Do you have
hands, arms, legs, feet, and a head? Try to take a deep breath, then
exhale. Were you able to do it? If you answered "yes" to all these
questions, then you can conclude with certainty that the previous
statements about yourself are true. You can now say:
 I am alive!
 I have a body!
 I can breathe!

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 This one perspective on truth that a belief is true if it can be justified or
proven through the use of one’s senses.

is one perspective on truth-that a beliefAmisI Filipino?

I am Filipino. true if it can be justified
or proven through the use o

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Filipino (noun)
1. a native of the Philippine Islands
2. a citizen of the Republic of the Philippines
3. the Tagalog-based official language of the
Republic of the Philippines Which of these
definitions applies to you?

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Definitions 1 and 2 are the ones that best apply to you,
since they refer to Filipinos as persons. Based on the
definitions outlined, you can say that you and
everyone in your community are Filipinos because 1)
1. a native of the
you, your classmates, your teachers, your family
Philippine Islands
members, and other people in your community were
born in the Philippines and are thus natives; and 2)
you are all citizens of the Republic of the Philippines,
which means you were born of Filipino parents and
are recognized as citizens by the government. 2. a citizen of the
Definition 3 cannot be used in this case since it refers Republic of the
to the Filipino language and not to Filipinos as Philippines
persons.

This is another basis in determining truth: a belief or

statement is true if it is based on facts.

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Are you now convinced
that you can call yourself
a Filipino? If not, what 1. Ask your parents and other
relatives.
additional proof should
you look for to prove, 2. Look for official documents
that prove you are a Filipino.
without a doubt, that you
are a Filipino? You can
try doing the following:

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how can 1. It takes me 30 minutes to walk from my

philosophy guide home to school.

2. Living near the school is better because

us in
we don't have to spend much for
transportation.
3. My sister ate the last piece of pizza pie.

distinguishing 4. My sister is a selfish person because

she ate the last piece of pizza pie and did

truth from not share it with me. 5. The policeman

firmly pushed the suspect to his knees and
placed him in handcuffs.
opinion? 6. The aggressive manner by which the
policeman arrested the suspect is an
example of the brutality that characterizes
our police force.

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Which box has a statements that
are more factual?
1. It takes me 30 minutes to walk
from my home to school.
3. My sister ate the last piece of
pizza pie.
5. The policeman firmly pushed the
suspect to his knees and placed him
in handcuffs.
2. Living near the school is better because
we don't have to spend much for
transportation.
4. My sister is a selfish person because
she ate the last piece of pizza pie and did
not share it with me.
6. The aggressive manner by which the
policeman arrested the suspect is an
example of the brutality that characterizes
our police force
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A conclusion is a judgment based on certain facts. The facts that
form the bases of a conclusion may not be disputed but the
conclusion itself could still be contested or questioned.
Meanwhile, beliefs are statements that express convictions that
are not easily and clearly explained by facts. If a person states "I
believe that God put me on this earth to spread His message of
love", we will find it difficult to prove his or her statement as
truthful if we rely merely on facts. To judge the truthfulness of
belief, we must also consider things such as a person's experiences
and views.

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explanatio are statements that assume the
n
claim to be true and provide
reasons why the statement is
true. Statement 4 asks the
readers to simply accept the
fact that "the sister is selfish."
 are a series of statements that provide reasons to
arguments convince the reader or listener that a claim or
opinion is truthful. Arguments are made with the
assumption that the truth of the claim or opinion
is still to be determined. You often encounter
arguments in a formal debate, where
participants explain two sides of a proposition,
and judgment regarding the truthfulness of the
proposition is made after hearing the arguments
of both sides.
 is the branch of Philosophy that focuses on the analysis
of arguments. Arguments are given great importance
logic since these are used to convey ideas that influence the
thinking, actions, and behavior of people. It can lead
people to either right or wrong decision and action.
Thus we need to be very careful when we listen to
arguments since not all arguments are truthful. In
addition, not all arguments have the same merit
because some are better presented and substantiated
than others. It is also possible that claims and
arguments are given by persons who have ill intentions
and wish to twist or manipulate facts to suit their own
purposes. As we analyze what is presented to us, we
must always keep in mind the standards of critical
thinking.
What should we consider when looking at
arguments or opinions?
Arguments often take the form of statements that are either
claims of facts and are phrased in such a way that they seem
reasonable. However, a number of arguments may be based on
faulty reasoning. These kinds of arguments are called fallacies.
Some of these fallacies may be intentional, as the person making
the claim is desperate to convince you to accept his or her
argument. The following are examples of fallacies.

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 FALACY CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLE

Attacking the person “Of course, he believes

presenting the argument that the government is
ad hominem instead of the argument flawed, he is a rebel and
itself. a Communist!”

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 FALACY CHARACTERISTICS
Using the threat of force or
appeal to force an undesirable event to
advance an argument.
EXAMPLE
“If this peace agreement
will not be signed by the
government, the we will
have a recourse but to
go to war.”

“All these charges are

appeal to Using emotion such as pity baseless this is just plain
or sympathy. harassment. Can’t you
emotion see how this is affecting
my family?”

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 FALACY CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLE

appeal to the The idea is presented as “Every boy your age has
acceptable because a lot of already has a girlfriend, you
popular people accept it. should go find one!”

“Marriage should be between a

The idea is acceptable
appeal to because it has been true for
man and a woman. It has been
so for a long time country, it
tradition a long time. should remain so today and in
the future.”

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 FALACY CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLE

Assuming the thing or idea “I have a right to free

begging the to be proven is true also speech, therefore you
questions known as “circular cannot stop me from
argument” talking.”

Assuming a “cause-and- “Ever since you bought that

sweater, everything has been
Cause-and-effect effect”relationship between
going wrong in your life. You
unrelated events.
should get rid of it.”

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 FALACY CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLE

“These cases of robbery in this

Fallacy of Assuming that what is true
district have convinced me that
of a part is true for the
composition whole.
the city has become a den of
thieves and criminals.”

“You come of a family of

Fallacy of Assuming that what is true for doctors and 5 intellectuals!
the whole is true for its parts.
division Surely you can do better in this
course!.”

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 When looking at an opinion, be aware of bias or the
personal views of the person presenting it. Biases are not
necessarily errors in reasoning, but refer to tendencies or
influences which affect the views of people. Bias cannot be
avoided in any discussion or debate. What is important is that
the people engaging in the discussion are aware of their
personal biases and have an open but critical attitude toward
other views which conflict with their own.

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 BIAS CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLE

tendency to judge a person's

Corresponding bias "These soldiers who fought in
personality by his or her actions,
the war are all bloodthirsty
or attribution effect without regard for external
murderers!"
factors or influences

tendency to look for and readily

Confirmation accept information which fits
one's own beliefs or views and
"How can I accept his view that
there is no God? I am a
bias to reject ideas or views that go Christian!"
against it

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 BIAS CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLE

"Preliminary evidence has still not

focusing on a certain aspect of a pointed out the actual cause of the
framing problem while ignoring other plane crash, but investigators are
aspects currently focusing on the
possibility of pilot error.'

"Magellan's assault on Mactan

the tendency to see past events Island was a foolhardy venture,
hindsight as predictable, or to ascribe a made by an overconfident, careless
pattern to historical events man who underestimated the valor
of the native Filipinos."

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 BIAS CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLE

a person or group is "As the daughter of the accused,

Conflict of connected to or has a vested I believe I have the right to
interest interest in the issue being express my opinion on the issue
discussed of his alleged corrupt practices."

"I do not agree with this Western

analyzing an event or issue practice of placing aged parents
based on one's cultural retirement homes. We Filipinos
standards take care of our family
members."

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 How can an understanding of the difference between truth and opinion lead us to
wisdom?
An understanding of opinions and facts and the means to distinguish one from the other
can further improve our understanding and appreciation of varied views and ideas. The
ability to determine truth goes hand in hand with the holistic perspective and enables us to
make wiser decisions, especially in choosing the ideas and views which we find acceptable.
An individual cannot live his or her life just agreeing with everybody he or she meets. A
critical mind aided by philosophy can help us form our own personal point of view that can
guide us in making decisions and actions when faced with a problem. Each individual's
point of view is unique but it should be based on sound and reasonable ideas and views.
Philosophy can help us determine ideas that are truthful and acceptable, which we can then
use to form our own views regarding certain matters.

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