METHODS OF

PHILOSOPHIZIN
G
 ABSTRACTION
Domains of Truth SOCIAL DOMAIN- “truth” is
SCIENTIFIC TRUTHS – analogous with (not the exact
are covered by the objective equivalent) of a general
domain of life. This pertains agreement or consensus on
to the natural world that what is right as opposed to
maintains a relative what is wrong.
independence from the  Norms and values appear as truths.
 They can be changed through a
perspective and attitude of critical examination and deliberation
human beings that perceive among the members of a community.
them.
 ABSTRACTION
Domains of Truth So, when we ask, “WHAT IS
PERSONAL DOMAIN- THE TRUTH?” It is
where truth is analogous with important to know from
SINCERITY. A person who
what domain we are asking
proves to be consistent with
this question, so we can
what he declares about
himself is regarded as also know in what way we
AUTHENTIC can therefore can test whether or not a
be trusted or trustworthy. claim is true.
 ABSTRACTION
Truth – can be understood as WHAT HAS
PASSED PROCEDURES OF
JUSTIFICATION

JUSTIFICATION –process of proving the

truth and validity of a statement. This process
is made up of ways of critically testing a claim
against a certain criteria.
 ABSTRACTION
CRITERIA FOR TRUTH/JUSTIFICATIONS
SCIENTIFIC TRUTHS – truths are tested against empirical
evidence

SOCIAL DOMAIN – truths are tested against acceptability

to a particular group in a particular time in history

PERSONAL DOMAIN – truths are tested against the

consistency and authenticity of the person who claims it.
 GENERALIZATION
1. Differentiate the following:
A. Objective vs. non-objective truth
B. Truth in the social domain vs. truth in the
personal domain
2. What are the criteria (test of justification) to establish
truth in the following domains of truth?
A. Scientific domain
B. Social domain
C. Personal domain
 ABSTRACTION
Before we discuss truth, it is important to clarify knowledge, since it
it through knowing that we are able to determine what is true.

Let us explore your Knowledge by completing

the following statements:

I know that…
I know how…
I know why…
 ABSTRACTION
One important aspect of Knowledge
- based on REALITY
- observable and evident in the real world

*There are statements however that are not

evidently or immediately known to be true.
Example: “I know that my school is the best
school in the city.”
 ABSTRACTION

Claims are statements that require further

examination to determine their
truthfulness

(e.g. Reading is a better activity than

playing basketball).
 ABSTRACTION
Statements about the world or reality are called
propositions and may or may not carry truth;
usually stated as short statements or sentences.

Knowledge is the clear awareness and

understanding of something. It is the product of
questions that allow for clear answers provided by
facts.
 ABSTRACTION
Truthful statements can be considered as based on
FACTS. Science considers truth as something as
observable and empirical.

Facts are statements that are observed to

be real or truthful.
 ABSTRACTION

Explanations are statements that assume the

claim to be true and provide reasons why the
statement is true.

Beliefs are statements that express convictions

that are not easily and clearly explained by
facts.
ABSTRACTION

Opinions are statements of

judgement of a person about
something in the world and in
need of further justification.
 ABSTRACTION
Prove the statements below:
I am alive. I have a body. I can breathe.
Employ the systematic doubt:
Am I alive? Do I have a body? Can I breathe?
Figuring out the answers:
Do I have a pulse? Can I feel my heartbeat? Do I have
hands, arms, legs, feet, and a head? (If the answers are
yes, then I can conclude that the previous statements
are true. I can now say: I am alive! I have a body! I
can breathe!
ABSTRACTION

1. A belief is true
if it can be
justified or
proven through
the use of one’s
senses.
 ABSTRACTION
Prove the statements below:
I am a Filipino.
Employ the systematic doubt:
Am I a Filipino?
Figuring out the answers:
Dictionary meaning of Filipino: 1. a native of the Philippine Islands,
2. a citizen of the Republic of the Philippines, and 3. the Tagalog-
based official language of the Republic of the Philippines.
Definitions 1 and 2 are the ones that best apply to you, since they
refer to Filipinos as persons. Definition 3 cannot be used since it
refers to the Filipino language and not to Filipinos as persons.
 ABSTRACTION

Additional proof to prove that you

are a Filipino:
1. Ask your parents and other
relatives.
2. Look for official documents that
prove you are a Filipino.
 ABSTRACTION

2. A belief or
statement is
true if it is
based on facts.
ABSTRACTION
3. Getting a consensus or
having people agree on a
common belief is another
way of determining what
is true. (Limitation:
getting everyone to agree
on something may not
make that belief true)
 ABSTRACTION
Claims and beliefs should also be subjected to tests to
determine truth.
The inquiry would result in any of the following
realizations:
 I can play basketball.
 I cannot play basketball.
 I can fry an egg.
 I cannot fry an egg.
 I understand the lesson.
 I do not understand the lesson.
 ABSTRACTION
Prove the statements below:
I can play basketball. I can fry an egg. I understand the
lesson.
Employ the systematic doubt:
Can I play basketball? Can I fry an egg? Do I understand the
lesson?
Figuring out the answers:
You can prove that you can really do the act by doing it.
However, some would argue that the proof is not only in the
act but also in the product. This means that you should not
only do the act but you should do it better.
 ABSTRACTION

4. Determining the
truth requires a
person to prove a
statement through
an action.
 APPLICATION
Let us take a look at the following statements and determine which one
states fact or opinion.
1. It takes me 30 minutes to walk from my home to school.
2. Living near the school is better because we don’t have to spend much
for transportation.
3. My sister ate the last piece of pizza pie.
4. My sister is a selfish person because she ate the last piece of pizza pie
and did not share it with me.
5. The policeman firmly pushed the suspect to his knees and placed him
in handcuffs.
6. The aggressive manner by which the policeman arrested the suspect is
an example of the brutality that characterizes our police force.
 APPLICATION
More Factual Statements Opinions
1. It takes me 30 minutes 2. Living near the school is better
to walk from my home because we don’t have to spend
to school. much for transportation.
3. My sister ate the last 4. My sister is a selfish person
because she ate the last piece of
piece of pizza pie.
pizza pie and did not share it with
5. The policeman firmly me.
pushed the suspect to 6. The aggressive manner by which
his knees and placed the policeman arrested the suspect
him in handcuffs. is an example of the brutality that
 GENERALIZATION

1. How will you know that something is

true?
2. How does studying philosophy help us
in distinguishing what is true from what
is not?
 AGREEMENT

Imagine that you are

part of the conversation
that follows, how will
you react to the
statement given?
 AGREEMENT
Friend 1: Did you hear about what happened between Clarisse and
her boyfriend?
Friend 2: What happened?
Friend 1: They got in a huge fight last night. Clarisse called me up.
She was crying and she said that Roger hit her.
Friend 3: Wait, what? That’s not right. Roger came by may place last
night and he was pretty shaken up. He had scratch marks on his
arms and a bite on his left hand. He said Clarisse just attacked
her and was accusing him of seeing another girl.
Friend 1: No! Clarisse said it was Roger who started to hit her and
she had to defend herself!
You:
 REFLECTION

How do you feel about knowing

that there is no single method in
arriving at truths? Do you feel
uncomfortable? Or does it give
you a sense of freedom? Why?
 OBJECTIVES
The students are expected to:
1. define and explain the methods of
philosophizing;
2. realize that the methods of philosophy lead to
wisdom and truth (PPT11/12-Id-2.3); and
3. justify the validity of the statement that the
methods of philosophizing leads to wisdom
and truth.
PRESENTING THE NEW LESSON
Your teacher asked you to give a concrete
definition of love. You confidently
answered the question: “Love is kind.
Love is patient.” However, instead of
accepting your answer, she responded to
you with another question: “Yes, but what
do you mean by kindness and patience?”
Surprised, you answered her question
again, this time giving some examples to
raise your point. Your teacher continued
to ask you further questions as responses
to your statements.
 PRESENTING THE NEW LESSON

Processing Questions:
1. What did your teacher do that?
2. What was she doing?
3. What did she want to get from you
in doing so?
Do a role play on the following:
1. A lawyer is asking further questions about the suspect’s whereabouts
during the crime because she is not entirely convinced by his alibi.
2. An entrepreneur wants to open a café in a middle class residential area in
the city. Before buying the property, she looked first at previous business
ventures that were established within the area to determine the feasibility of
her plan.
3. Debate Which part of the day is better for studying for an exam: Day or
Night?
4. Role Play - A mother is questioning her son’s real reason for his excessive
absences from school.
5. Role Play - Conducting an experiment with your classmates who do not
believe that condensed milk can turn into caramel sauce.
PRESENTING EXAMPLE OR INSTANCE
OF THE NEW LESSON

Vocabularies:
1. Method of Philosophizing

2. Socratic Method

3. Dialectic Method
 ANALYSIS

1. What are the different

methods of philosophizing?
2. How do the methods of
philosophizing lead to
wisdom and truth?
 ABSTRACTION

Method of Philosophizing is a process

of determining the truth of drawing a
conclusion from a statement using
various philosophical methods such as
Socratic, dialectic, scientific, and
historical.
 ABSTRACTION
1. Socratic Method
 An exchange of ideas using Socratic questioning (Greek
term: elenchus – to inquire or to cross-examine)
 In a classroom setting, this method is used not to intimidate
students, but to produce a deeper understanding of thoughts
and ideas through further questioning statements or claims.
 There is no particular end goal aside from reaching an
absolute truth from probing statements and, in the process,
eliminating ideas that are questionable or contradicting.
 ABSTRACTION
Examples of Socratic Method
 A psychologist is trying to dig deeper into the story
of his patient who only mentions vague and general
ideas.
 A lawyer is asking further questions about the
suspect’s whereabouts during the crime because she
is not entirely convinced by his alibi.
 A mother is questioning her son’s real reason for his
excessive absences from school.
 ABSTRACTION
Socratic method leads to wisdom and truth because it
has been emphasized to use statement deconstructions
and creative questioning to delve deeper into an
issue. It is a systematic process whereby random and
ambiguous ideas are eliminated to reach a sound
conclusion. Reaching an endpoint, therefore, would
only mean that truth has been realized, and new
knowledge has been acquired.
 ABSTRACTION
2. Dialectic Method
 Comes from the Greek word dialektike which means ‘the
art of conversation’
 It is the act of talking back and forth, disagreeing with one
another, and arguing about contentious issues.
 It is a method of coming up with a conclusion from an
exchange of contradicting logical arguments.
 Its aim is the clarification of controversial notions and
arguments with other people. In this process, personal and
shared conceptions should be considered and corrected.
 ABSTRACTION
Examples of Dialectic Method Dialectic method leads to
 Discussing the pros and cons wisdom and truth. It is much
of a variety of human like a debate that poses two
resource strategies as forms clashing but valid arguments
of managing employees in the to determine an endpoint that
workplace, then choosing the is correct and true. In this
best option sense, the truth of both
 Evaluating two physical
arguments is always expected
activities regarding their
to rise from each conversation.
ability to increase work
performance
 ABSTRACTION
3. Scientific Method
 Comes from the Latin word scientia which means ‘to produce
knowledge’
 The scientific method (experimental method) is a process of
determining truth or knowledge through experimentation, inductive
and deductive reasoning, and hypothesis or theory testing.
 The process begins with an idea about any given topic. Hypothesis
testing is done to prove the validity of this idea.
 The scientific method also values observation as an important
aspect because it contributes to further understanding the results of
the hypothesis testing.
 ABSTRACTION

1. My classmate 2. Why does my 3. If I show her the

does not believe classmate refuse to process of making
consider the
that condensed transformative caramel sauce,
milk can turn into properties of then she would
caramel sauce. condensed milk? believe.

6. My classmate 5. I opened the can with my

4. With my classmate, I placed a can
of condensed milk in a pan of
believed me classmate. In it, the boiling water. I left it there for 3
hours (stove top still on), ensuring
condensed milk changed
because I showed into a silky golden brown
that the whole can is completely
submerged in water at all times.
her proof through color and tasted Once done, I turned off the stove
recognizably of caramel. and removed the can from the pan
the experiment. with water.
 ABSTRACTION
The scientific method leads to
wisdom and truth because it
Examples of Scientific Method uses an evidence-based
 Exposing one plant to sunlight
approach to come up with its
while limiting the exposure of
conclusion. In this method, all
another is done to test which
truths are supported by facts
setting promotes better plant
growth. that can easily be tested or
proven again through
experiments, logical
reasoning, or observation.
 ABSTRACTION
3. Historical Method
 From the Greek word iotopia which means ‘to investigate’ or ‘to
find out’
 The process of gathering evidences, examining them, and
formulating ideas about the past to come up with present truths
 The process of learning the truth is simply through looking at
past records to validate the present hypothesis.
 Using the historical approach is much like researching for an
answer to a particular question. Reviewing what has been done in
the past is the primary method of looking at a solution for a
problem at present.
 ABSTRACTION
Examples of Historical Method
 You are going to Baguio for the first time with your family.
You have the option to use one of two routes. You look for
reviews published in the internet to determine which of the
two routes is better.
 An entrepreneur wants to open a café in a middle class
residential area in the city. Before buying the property, she
looked first at previous business ventures that were
established within the area to determine the feasibility of her
plan.
 ABSTRACTION
The historical method leads to wisdom and
truth. Because history is repetitive, it is
believed that the things that are occurring at
present already happened in the past.
Following this logic, the historical method
serves the purpose of digging into historical
data and analyzing together the findings to
come up with a conclusion.
APPLICATION
As a student, you are exposed to
doing assignments on almost every
subject you are taking. In some
classes, English for example, your
primary project would be a position
paper on the literary work you have
been asked to read. In putting
content into your project, how do you
go about writing it? Do you review
other sources first before proceeding
to write your final position?
 GENERALIZATION
1. How Socratic Method of philosophizing is
done?
2. How does the dialectic method of
philosophizing work?
3. How does the scientific method of
philosophizing work?
4. How historical method of philosophizing is
done?
 OBJECTIVES
The students are expected to:

1. evaluate opinions (PPT11/12-Ie-

2.4);
2. encourage oneself to make well-
grounded opinions; and
3. construct reasonable opinions.
 All opinions are not equal. Some are a very
great deal, more robust, sophisticated and well
supported in logic and argument than others –
Douglas Adams, The Salmon of Doubt
 ABSTRACTION

Arguments are a series of

statements that provide reasons to
convince the reader or listener that
a claim or opinion is truthful.
 ABSTRACTION

Logic is the branch of Philosophy that focuses on

the analysis of arguments. Arguments are given
great importance since these are used to convey
ideas that influence the thinking, actions, and
behaviour of people. It can lead people to either
right or wrong decision and action. Thus we need
to be very careful when we listen to arguments
since not all arguments are truthful.
 ABSTRACTION
An OPINION is a statement of
judgement of a person about something
in the world and are in the need for
further justification.
 ABSTRACTION
Arguments often take the form of statements
that are either claims of facts and are phrased
in such a way that they seem reasonable.

ARGUMENT – is a group of statements that

serve to support a conclusion.
 ABSTRACTION

ARGUMENT – composed of
CLAIM (the conclusion of an
argument) and PREMISES
(the reason used to support the
conclusion).
 ABSTRACTION
ARGUMENT
“There is no hope in the Philippine
government (CLAIM) because many
officials are corrupt, and Filipino
voters continue to elect them
(PREMISES).”
Some arguments may contain
fallacies or arguments based on
faulty reasoning. We must be
aware of the various kinds of
fallacies as these affect the validity
of arguments.
 ABSTRACTION
Fallacy Characteristics Example
ad hominem attacking the person “Of course he believes that the
(against the person) presenting the argument government is flawed, he is a rebel
instead of the argument and a Communist!’
itself

appeal to force (ad using the threat of force “If this peace agreement will not
Baculum) or an undesirable event to be signed by the government, then
advance an argument we will have no resource but go to
war.”
 ABSTRACTION
Fallacy Characteristics Example
appeal to the the idea is presented as “Every boy your age already
popular acceptable because a lot of has a girlfriend, you should go
(Bandwagon) people accept it find one!”

appeal to emotion using emotions such as pity “All these charges are baseless;
(ad or sympathy this is just plain harassment –
Misericordiam)
can’t you see how this is
“Argument to By exploiting his affecting my family?”
Compassion” opponent’s feelings of pity
or guilt
 GENERALIZATION

Identify and
differentiate the
fallacies discussed .
 ABSTRACTION
Fallacy Characteristics Example
APPEAL TO The idea is acceptable because “Marriage should be between a
TRADITION it has been true for a long time. man and a woman. It has been
so for a long time in this
country; it should remain so
today in the future.”

BEGGING Assuming the thing or idea to “I have a right to free speech,

THE be proven is true; Assuming the therefore you cannot stop me
QUESTION initial thing. It’s really just restating from talking.”
one’s assumptions in a way that
looks like an argument. They start
where they finish.
 CIRCULAR ARGUMENT
• Begging the Questions is also called PETITIO PRINCIPII or
arguing in circle (Circular Argument)
Example:
• “According to my brain, my brain is reliable”.
• “ the bible is true because the bible says it’s true.”
• “Ryan makes delicious burgers because he’s an excellent
cook.”
• ”You must obey the law, because it’s illegal to break the
law.”
• “The book is a bestseller because it sold the most copies.”
 ABSTRACTION
Fallacy Characteristics Example
CAUSE- Assuming a “cause-and- “Ever since you bought that
AND- effect” relationship sweater, everything has
EFFECT between unrelated been going wrong in your
events. life. You should get rid of
it.”
FALLACY OF Assuming that what is “These cases of robbery in
COMPOSITION true of a part is true for this district have convinced
the whole me that the city has become
a den of thieves and
criminals.”
 ABSTRACTION
Fallacy Characteristics Example
FALACY OF Assuming that what is “You came from a family of
true for a whole is true doctors and intellectuals!
DIVISION Surely, you can do better in this
for its parts
course.”
Tu Quoque latin In this fallacy, the arguer Mother: “ Smoking is bad for your
for “YOU TOO” points out that the opponent health and expensive. I hope you
will never do it.”
has done the things that he
An attempt to divert the Son: But you did it when
blame but it really only is arguing against and we
distracts from the initial should not listen to the you were my age,
problem.
argument. therefore, I can do it too.
 ABSTRACTION
Fallacy Characteristics Example
Argumentum ad A proposition is true simply on “No one has ever been able to
ignorantiam the basis that it has not been prove definitively that extra-
proven false simply because it
terrestrial exists, so they must
Appeal to ignorance has not been proven true.
not be real.”
Appeal to authority Misuse of authority. It refers to “Because Martin Sheen played
irrelevant authorities like President in television, he’d
(Ad verecundiam)
citing a foot doctor when trying probably make a great President in
to prove something about real life.”
Psychiatry.
“One day robots will enslave us all.
My computer science teacher says
so.”
 ABSTRACTION
Fallacy Characteristics Example
FALSE Is often manipulated tool designed “Either we go to war, or we
DILEMMA or to polarize the audience, heroizing appear weak.”
FALSE one and demonizing the other
DICHOTOMY where in fact there are more than
the stated options. “Either you love me, or you
hate me.”
SLIPPERY SLOPE Works by moving from a seemingly “But you have to let me go to the
benign premise or starting point and party! If I don’t go to the party, I’ll
working through a number of small steps
to an improbable extreme.
be loser with no friends. Next thing
you know I’ll end up alone and
- Suggest that unlikely or ridiculous jobless living in your basement when
outcomes when there’s just enough I’m 30.
evidence to think so.
 ABSTRACTION
Fallacy Characteristics Example
HASTY Are general statements without
“People nowadays
GENERALIZATIO sufficient evidence to support them.
N
There are general claims too hastily only vote with
made, hence they commit some
sort of illicit assumption, their emotions
stereotyping, unwarranted
conclusion, overstatement, or instead of their
exaggeration.
brains.”
 HASTY GENERALIZATIONS
• How to avoid hasty
generalizations?

• Add qualifiers like “sometimes,

maybe, often, or it seems to be
the case that….
 ABSTRACTION
Fallacy Characteristics
STRAW Occurs when a person rebuts an
MAN argument by misconstruing it.
The concept comes from the
metaphor of a strawman (or
scarecrow). It’s a fake
representation of one.
Distorting an opposing position
into an extreme version of itself
and then arguing against that
extreme version.
Example
A parent doesn’t let their
daughter go to a party. The
daughter responds with
“Why do you hate me.”
A teacher says her class needs
to spend more time on Math
tasks. A parent complains,
saying the teacher doesn’t care
about literacy subjects.
 ABSTRACTION
Fallacy Characteristics Example
RED Distraction from the argument “ My wife wants to talk
HERRING typically with some sentiment about cleaning out the
that seems to be relevant but garage, so I asked her what
(IGNORATIO
ELENCHI) isn’t really on topic.
she wants to do with our
It is common when someone patio furniture? Now she’s
doesn’t like the current topic and shopping for new patio
wants to detour into something furniture and not bothering
else instead, something easier or me with the garage.”
safer to address.
 ABSTRACTION

Opinions are often influenced by bias. This

means that a person having the opinion may
have views and tendencies that affect the way
he or she sees reality.

We must be aware of bias so that we can

objectively and critically examine points of
view.
 ABSTRACTION
When looking at an opinion, be aware of bias
or the personal views of the person
presenting it.

BIASES are NOT necessarily errors in

reasoning, but refer to TENDENCIES or
INFLUENCES which affect the views of
people.
 ABSTRACTION
Biases cannot be avoided in any
discussion or debate. What is important
is that the people engaging in the
discussion are AWARE of their personal
biases and have an open but critical
attitude toward other views which
conflict with their own.
 ABSTRACTION
BIAS Characteristics Example
Correspondence Tendency to judge a “These soldiers who fought in
bias or person’s personality by his the war are all bloodthirsty
attribution or her actions, without murderers”.
effect regard for external factors
or influences
Confirmation Tendency to look for and “How can I accept his view
bias readily accept information that there is no God? I am
which fits one’s own Christian!”
beliefs or views and to
reject ideas or views that
go against it.
 ABSTRACTION
BIAS Characteristics Example
framing Focusing on a certain “Preliminary evidence has still
aspect of a problem while not pointed out the actual cause
ignoring other aspects of the plane crash, but
investigators are currently
focusing on the possibility of
pilot error.”

Hindsight The tendency to see past “Magellan’s assault on Mactan

events as predictable, or to
ascribe a pattern to
historical events.
Island was a foolhardy venture,
made by an overconfident,
careless man who
underestimated the valor of the
native Filipinos”.
 ABSTRACTION
BIAS Characteristics Example
Conflict A person or group is
connected to or has a
“as the daughter of the accused,
I believe I have the right to
of interest vested interest in the issue
being discussed.
express my opinion on the issue
of his alleged corrupt
practices”.

Cultural Bias Analyzing an event or “I do not agree with this

issue based on one’s Western practice of placing
cultural standards. aged parents in retirement
homes. We Filipinos take care
of our family members.
 ABSTRACTION

Conscious and unconscious bias

impact the way we INTERACT with
the world. If we don’t confront our
biases, we miss the opportunity to
learn, connect and grow.
PHILOSOPHY can help us examine
various views on relevant issues in our
lives.
An OBJECTIVE evaluation of opinions and
awareness of our own personal biases can help us
make wise choices regarding the most acceptable
views to adopt and the RIGHT actions to
undertake.
 ABSTRACTION
An individual cannot live his or her life just
agreeing with everybody he or she meets. A
critical mind aided by philosophy can help us
FORM our own personal point of view that can
guide us in making decisions and actions when
faced with a problem.
 ABSTRACTION
Each individual’s point of view is UNIQUE but it
should be based on sound and reasonable ideas
and views.

Philosophy can help us determine ideas that are

TRUTHFUL and ACCEPTABLE, which we can
use to form our own views regarding certain
matters.