Standing at almost 84 meters tall, this is the largest known living tree on the planet.

Nicknamed General Sherman,

this giant sequoia has sequestered roughly 1,400 tons of atmospheric carbon over its estimated 2,500 years
on earth. Very few trees can compete with this carbon impact, but today, humanity produces more than 1,400
tons of carbon every minute.

To combat climate change, we need to steeply reduce fossil fuel emissions, and draw down excess CO2 to restore
our atmosphere’s balance of greenhouse gases. But what can trees do to help in this fight? And how do they
sequester carbon in the first place?

Like all plants, trees consume atmospheric carbon through a chemical reaction called photosynthesis. This
process uses energy from sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide into oxygen and energy-storing
carbohydrates. Plants then consume these carbohydrates in a reverse process called respiration, converting them
to energy and releasing carbon back into the atmosphere. In trees, however, a large portion of that carbon isn’t
released, and instead, is stored as newly formed wood tissue.

During their lifetimes, trees act as carbon vaults, and they continue to draw down carbon for as long as they
grow. However, when a tree dies and decays, some of its carbon will be released back into the air. A significant
amount of CO2 is stored in the soil, where it can remain for thousands of years. But eventually, that carbon also
seeps back into the atmosphere.

So, if trees are going to help fight a long-term problem like climate change, they need to survive to sequester
their carbon for the longest period possible, while also reproducing quickly.

Is there one type of tree we could plant that meets these criteria? Some fast growing, long-lived, super
sequestering species we could scatter worldwide? Not that we know of. But even if such a tree existed, it wouldn’t
be a good long-term solution.

Forests are complex networks of living organisms, and there’s no one species that can thrive in every ecosystem.
The most sustainable trees to plant are always native ones; species that already play a role in their local
environment. Preliminary research shows that ecosystems with a naturally occurring diversity of trees have less
competition for resources and better resist climate change. This means we can’t just plant trees to draw down
carbon; we need to restore depleted ecosystems.

There are numerous regions that have been clear cut or developed that are ripe for restoring. In 2019, a study
led by Zurich’s Crowtherlab analyzed satellite imagery of the world’s existing tree cover. By combining it with
climate and soil data and excluding areas necessary for human use, they determined Earth could support nearly
one billion hectares of additional forest. That’s roughly 1.2 trillion trees. This staggering number surprised the
scientific community, prompting additional research. Scientists now cite a more conservative but still remarkable
figure. By their revised estimates, these restored ecosystems could capture anywhere from 100 to 200 billion
tons of carbon, accounting for over one-sixth of humanity’s carbon emissions.

More than half of the potential forest canopy for new restoration efforts can be found in just six countries. And
the study can also provide insight into existing restoration projects, like The Bonn Challenge, which aims to
restore 350 million hectares of forest by 2030.

But this is where it gets complicated. Ecosystems are incredibly complex, and it’s unclear whether they’re best
restored by human intervention. It’s possible the right thing to do for certain areas is to simply leave them alone.
Additionally, some researchers worry that restoring forests on this scale may have unintended consequences,
like producing natural bio-chemicals at a pace that could actually accelerate climate change. And even if we
succeed in restoring these areas, future generations would need to protect them from the natural and economic
forces that previously depleted them.

Taken together, these challenges have damaged confidence in restoration projects worldwide. And the
complexity of rebuilding ecosystems demonstrates how important it is to protect our existing forests. But
hopefully, restoring some of these depleted regions will give us the data and conviction necessary to combat
climate change on a larger scale. If we get it right, maybe these modern trees will have time to grow into carbon
carrying titans.
1. Air Quality in the Philippines: The article discusses the air quality in the Philippines, particularly in
Manila, with a focus on the levels of PM2.5, a major pollutant. In December 2020, the air quality index
(AQI) for Manila was recorded at 91 US AQI, classified as "Moderate" by WHO standards.
2. Population Density and Pollution: Manila has seen rapid population growth, with a density of
approximately 12,600 people per square kilometer. This high population density, coupled with
industrial activities and traffic, contributes to air pollution in the city.
3. Improvement during Lockdown: The article highlights that air quality improved during the COVID-19
lockdown due to reduced emissions from traffic and industries. PM2.5 levels dropped significantly
during the lockdown period.
4. Causes of Air Pollution: The primary causes of air pollution in the Philippines are motor vehicles (80%)
and stationary sources such as factories and open burning (20%). Weather conditions can also affect
pollution levels.
5. Efforts to Improve Air Quality: Proposals to address air pollution include phasing out leaded gasoline,
reducing industrial emissions through filtration, promoting recycling, and restricting older vehicles.
Expanding public transportation, like the overhead rail system, is also suggested.
6. Air Pollution's Economic Impact: Air pollution can negatively impact a country's GDP, with estimates of
0.8-1.9% loss due to health-related issues caused by poor air quality.
7. Health Effects: The article mentions the adverse health effects of air pollution in the Philippines,
including respiratory illnesses, especially in children. High levels of lead in urine samples from children
living near traffic are noted.
8. Future Air Quality: After the lockdown, air pollution levels began to rise again as industries and
transportation resumed. Recommendations for improving air quality include using clean fuels and green
transportation systems.
9. Global Impact: Air pollution, particularly PM2.5 and PM10, is linked to severe respiratory and
cardiovascular diseases, vulnerability to COVID-19, and environmental consequences such as glacial
melt and changes in weather patterns.
10. Particulate Matter (PM) Pollution: PM2.5 and PM10 are particulate matter pollutants that pose health
risks, with PM2.5 being particularly dangerous due to its ability to penetrate deep into the lungs.
11. Air Quality Ranking: The Philippines has ranked high in terms of air pollution-related deaths, with
Manila experiencing high levels of pollution. Some areas like Meycauayan and Bulacan have recorded
especially high AQI levels.
12. Long-Term Air Quality Challenges: Despite short-term improvements during lockdowns, the article
suggests that air quality remains a persistent challenge in the Philippines due to the reliance on fossil
fuels and older vehicles.
13. Impact on Food and Water Systems: Air pollution can affect food and water systems by reducing
sunlight for photosynthesis and altering weather patterns, potentially impacting food production.