PREPARED BY MR N.

NCIWENI
PUBLIC RELATIONS 1 LEARNING MATERIAL
CHAPTER 1
The Scope of Public Relations
Definition of public relations
PRISA defines PR the management, through communication, of perceptions and
strategic relationships between an organization and its internal and external
stakeholders.

Public relations may be defined as the “management of strategic relationships,”

because this symbolizes the fundamental concepts of public relations.
Management involves planning, control, evaluation and corrective reactions.
Strategic refers to planning, prioritization and taking action with regard to the
company’s relationships with all its clients. Relationships imply effective
communication, mutual adjustment and reliance, shared values, trust and
commitment (Hutton, 1999:2008).
This definition indicates that public relations constitute a form of communication
that focuses on managing the perceptions or images, rather than dealing
specifically with products or services. This suggests that merely to communicate
with the customers of a business is not enough. Communication should rather
be directed at all those with an interest or investment in the company, such as
employees, investors, the broad public and the media.

Public relations has a key role to play in developing understanding and support
for a particular cause or event. Essentially to define and explain relationships of
mutual benefit between an organization and its publics.
Public relations has to do with the total communication of an organization, it is
therefore an extensive and comprehensive function within an organization.

The Nature of PR
The fundamental to public relations is the establishment of mutual understanding
between parties, namely an organization, stakeholders, the community. Mutual
understanding should form the basis of a sound relationship between the specific
parties, a relationship based on two-way communication that enables the
organization to explain its policies and procedures, while enabling it to monitor
feedback.
Characteristics of Public Relations

1. It is dynamic: The public relations process is one of continuous and

constant change and adjustment in order to maintain old relationships and
building new ones.
2. It is analytical: it is a process of determining and analyzing a situation and
the factors influencing it, as well as one of evaluating the progress of any
remedial or other action.
3. It is planned: goals are set and priorities are determined in accordance
with the problem or situation analysis and within the constraints of time
and budget.
4. It implies action: This means the executions of planned strategies and the
implementation of alternative strategies in order in order to cope with the
publics changing needs and demands.
5. It requires evaluation: performance is evaluated in terms of the
achievement of goals.
6. It demands adjustment: public relations should be executed in a flexible
manner in order to adjust to goals altered as a result of, for example
underachievement or the changing needs of the stakeholders.
Public relations: An art and a Science
Public relations is described as an art and a science, because the selection and
application of appropriate techniques require judgement from the practitioner, as
well as being attuned to both the organization and its public. It is also a science,
because the identification of an organization’s stakeholders and their needs and
the evaluation of the impact of its actions call for the application of a scientific
principle.

• Art because it requires the judgement of practitioners

• Science as public relations need to search for and ‘re-search’ the needs of
the stakeholders as well as evaluate public relations activities.

Functions and techniques of Public relations.

Functions of the public relations practitioner.
➢ Corporate reputation management: Building and sustaining a
favourable corporate reputation can be achieved through a variety of
corporate branding activities. Corporate reputation is influenced by the
corporate image, which is the net result of the interaction of all experiences,
impressions, beliefs, feelings and knowledge that people have about the
company.
o Publications: Researching, designing and producing a range of
publications is another important responsibility of public relations
practitioners. Writing the content of these publications is the key
focus of the public relations practitioner and should be done in
support of the business strategy of the organization
➢ Branding corporate advertising: organization often use advertising in a
public relations content when they are not satisfied with what is being said
in the editorial WWWH sections of the media, when they feel that their
stake holders do not understand issues or are simply apathetic, or when
they are trying to add their voices to a cause.
➢ Sponsorship: vast sums of money are now being spent by a whole host
companies in the Lucrative sponsorship market. The bulk of it is spent on
the broad sporting arena, although companies are increasingly investing in
arts and culture.
➢ Promotional activities: promotional activities are often high profile and
media sensitive, and public relations practitioners devote a great deal time
of effort to them. Promotional activities range from organizing conferences
and teleconferences to planning exhibitions, preparing audio-visual
material an direct mail literature, and organizing a whole list of so-called
skills. These activities often involve working with other professionals in
marketing, advertising, and design fields.
➢ Issues and risk management: issues management can have a huge impact
on a company’s operations, policies and future direction, and thus needs
very careful monitoring.
➢ Lobbying: an even more specialized part of public relations is lobbying,
which can be defined as activities employed by public relations specialist
to advocate an organization’s position to political decision makers (
Argenti 2009) . Lobbyists at all level of government must understand
legislative processes, know how government functions and be acquainted
with individual law-makers and officials.
 ➢ Networking/social media: practitioners need to take the dynamic concept
of networking into account when communicating with influential people in
a various power structures.
➢ Research: research involves gathering information about public relation
opinion, trends, emerging issues, political climate, media coverage,
concerns of consumer and environmental special interest groups and so
forth, and to plan programs responsive to public and problem situations. It
also includes monitoring programme implementation and assessing
programme impact in order to evaluate programme effectiveness.
➢ Planning and advertising: this involves determining needs, priorities,
goals, publics, objectives, and categories. Essentially it means
collaborating with management or clients in problem-solving processes.
➢ Media placement: This is one of the key functions in which practitioners
may be engaged.

Techniques
➢ Business knowledge: An essential aspect of any organization is its
business practices. The public relations practitioner needs to ensure that
he/she relates to these practices and enhance their success.
➢ Writing : The public relation practitioner should be skilled at writing new
releases, speeches, newsletters, correspondence, reports, booklets, text,
radio and television copy, film scripts, trade paper and magazine articles,
corporate advertisements, product information, social media messages and
website material.
➢ Editing : In addition to researching and writing special features,
practitioners are involved editing special publications, employee
newsletters, shareholders report at internal and external stake holders.
➢ Production : production is multi-faceted and can be very challenging. It
involves creating communications using multi-media knowledge and
skills, including art, photography ; corporate for brochures, booklets,
reports, corporate advertisements and occasional publications: also
recording, editing and preparing audio-visual production s, for example
corporate videos.
➢ Speaking : public relations work requires skills in face to face
communication and public speaking. Addressing groups and arranging
platforms for others before appropriate audiences. Form an essential part
of public relations activities. Even more so when dealing with media where
individual interviews are often required.
 ➢ Training : this involves working with executives and other organizational
representatives to prepare them for dealing with the media and for making
presentations and other public appearances. Practitioners could also assist
with in-services staff development.
➢ Management : Another very important duty is the management of the
public relations projects, which includes staff, finances, and processes.

What to look for in a public relations practitioner

Such diversity of functions calls for a wide range of skills and experiences:
• Knowledge of and use social media plat forms: Are of critical
importance to success in executing public relations programmes.
• Organizational ability and administrative talent: There are no second
chances in public relations, so any activity must be handled correctly the
first time
• Communication proficiency: ( both written and spoken) : The ability to
communicate in more than one language is a major advantage
• A lively, enquiring mind : public relations people are essentially problem-
solvers. They look for the new ways of doing both conventional and
unconventional things.
• Tenacity and adaptability : The ability to work long and inconvenient
hours is essential. The ability to work under pressure and to be flexible is
also important.
• Moral courage and integrity : It is important for a public relations people
to stand up for what they believe is right. An independent spirit and moral
integrity are essential.
• Professionalism: Ideally membership of the professional bod PRISA
should be given top priority.
• Cultural sensitive and engaging: public relations practitioners need to be
sensitive to the cultural diversity of their stake holders as well as have the
ability to engage on all levels.
Steps to be taken in drawing up a successful media strategy include:
• Researching the available media
• Identifying key media contacts
• Briefing these contacts and providing them with detailed information
• Arranging interviews and visits
• Writing special articles and features
 • Encouraging debates on issues of importance
• Monitoring social media

CHAPTER 3
PUBLIC RELATIONS AND COMMUNICATION
Communication is essential in any public relations concept and activity
Seeing public relations as a relationship building practice, it is obvious that
communication will be central to public relations
Public relations also aim to inform, persuade, influence attitudes which leads to
action - impossible without communication.

Communication is the key component in any relationship. Communication is thus

central to the practice of public relations, with the general aim of establishing
understanding, but specifically to persuade, inform, influence attitudes and to
bring about action.
Communication is the transaction between participants during which a
relationship develops between them.
COMMUNICATION SETTINGS
❖ Intrapersonal communication: this refers to communication that an
individual has with him/ herself and includes reasoning, motivation and
confidence.
❖ Interpersonal communication: Also known as dynamic communication,
described as an interaction between two people/parties. Because the
communication between them is direct, both parties have an equal
opportunity to communicate and give feedback. This type of
communication includes both verbal and nonverbal communication.
 ❖ Small group communication: This type of communication normally
includes people between three and fifteen. These people see themselves as
belonging to or being identified with a group. All members are able to
communicate among themselves on face to face basis and create their own
unique dynamics.
❖ Intercultural communication: which is defined as communication
between members of different cultures: whether racial, ethnic, socio-
economic or a combination of the above mentioned. Culture plays an
important role in ensuring an effective communication and the
development of a shared understanding.
❖ Public communication: occurs within a more formal and structured
setting. It takes place in public settings such as auditoriums, classrooms
and boardrooms. It is planned in advance and individual are given a
specific action to perform.
❖ Organizational communication: which takes place vertically and
horizontally through an organization, is concerned with the flow of
messages within a network of interdependent relationships. It holds the
organizational structure together by providing a basis for coordinating the
relationships between individuals and reaching the organization’s ultimate
objectives.
❖ Mass communication: Takes place through the mass media such as
newspaper, magazines, radio, film and television. Generally, a number of
people of people are involved in the production of message. Because there
is no direct communication, a delayed feedback may occur.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MASS COMMUNICATION
➢ Its audience is relatively large, diverse and anonymous to the source.
➢ It is indirect because of the diverse nature of the receivers/recipients.
➢ Communication is unilateral, as the roles of communicator and the receiver
are not interchangeable.
➢ It can be described as public
➢ It is fleeting.
COMPONEMTS OF COMMUNICATION PROCESS
1. People- communicator and receiver
2. Message – ideas, thoughts and feelings, nonverbal signs and verbal signs
3. Codes- encoding and decoding
4. Meaning- content information and relational information
5. Interpretation –social and personal shared meanings
6. Medium and channel
 7. Feedback-positive or negative from people.
BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION

The process of communication can be hindered in three principal ways:

Namely.

The main barriers to perception

• His or her attitude
• Certain needs and expectations of the listener
• Certain environmental stimuli
The main barriers to understanding:
• The sender’s choice of language
• The ability of the listener to concentrate completely on receiving the
message
• Prejudice, the degree of the open mindedness.
• The length of the communication process
• The existing knowledge of the listener.
The main barriers to acceptance
• The attitudes and values of the listener
• Prejudices
• Any status clash between the sender and the listener
• Interpersonal emotional conflicts.
GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
1. Credibility: refers essentially to the individual or organization sending the
message
2. Context: focuses on the communication programme and the supportive
social environment in which it operates.
3. Content: stress meaning and relevance to the receive which in turn
determine the audience.
4. Clarity: requires that both sender and receiver understand the words that
are being spoken.
5. Continuity and Consistency: are essentials for success
6. Channels of Communication: should also be used that are both understood
and respected.
7. Capability of the Audience: must be taken into account.
PROMOTING EFFECTIVE INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
Different people are involved in the communication process irrespective of the
context.
Diversity and different opinion play an important role in communication and
cannot be ignored. A good communicator will ensure that he or she understands
their own perceptions about other people and their cultures. He or she will
actively promote understanding between different cultures though dialogue and
persuade people to work together to achieve various objectives. Intercultural
communication can be promoted through understanding and tolerance. People
representing different cultures may find easier to understand each other`s
differences, engage with one another, reflect critically on their own behavior and
build alliances.

THE IMPORTANCE OF LANGUAGE

With business becoming increasingly global, the role of language is becoming
more important. Advertising campaigns, product marking and labelling,
brochures, price lists and business cards should be translated into the language of
each foreign market

NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
If language is important for sending and receiving messages, so is non-verbal
communication
The significant of non-verbal communication in a multi- culture environment are
now discussed

BODY POSTURE
In a cross-culture environment, the various postures assumed and the meanings
they convey can differ widely. for example, western societies stand up to show
respect, whereas in certain Polynesian and African cultures, people sit down. A
lack of knowledge of these customs can lead considerable misunderstand
HAND GESTURES
The use of fingers, hands and arms for the purpose of communicating varies
considerably from one culture to another

FACIAL EXPRESSION
Although certain facial expression occurs throughout the world, specific cultural
norms may influence how, when and why they are used. The face has the greatest
potential of all parts of the body to communicate an emotional

EYE CONTACT
All cultures use eye contact as a very important mechanism for communicating
non-verbally people often use a direct gaze to attract another person`s attention
in situations where noise or gesticulations are inappropriate
In many parts of sub-Saharan Africa, direct eye contact must be avoided when
addressing person of higher status
PERSONAL SPACE
How people use personal space in their interaction with others is another ‘silent
language’ that must be understood if clear communication is to be achieved in an
international business setting. What is an appropriate distance for one culture
group might appear to be ‘crowding’ to another ‘stand –offish’ to a third. For
example, North Americans choose a distance of approximately 50 cm for normal
communication, with minor variation depending on gender and level of intimacy.

INFLUENCE OF CULTURE IN COMMUNICATION

To promote effective intercultural communication a PRP needs to:

• Understand and prepare for diversity
• Understand own perceptive
 • Promote understanding between cultures through dialogue and by
persuading people to work together
• Intercultural communication can be promoted through understanding and
tolerance

Chapter 4
Stakeholder and reputation management

• Be informed about the stakeholders of an organisation, what they think of

the organisation, how they are involved and plan to stay involved with an
organisation is the key focus of the public relations professional
• Knowledge of stakeholders should inform strategies of reputation building
• A good reputation is the result of transparent, trusted and proactive
communication.

Stakeholder management

• Relationships with stakeholders must be seen as interrelated and

interdependent
• Stakeholders are part of an interdependent web of relationships called
constituencies
• Stakeholders are often heavily connected within these constituencies
(Coombs & Holladay, 2010)
• Freedman (2007) speaks of primary and secondary stakeholders.
• Companies should identify material stakeholders and assess related risks
and opportunities
 • Develop and implement stakeholder strategies and policies
• Develop mechanisms for constructive stakeholder engagement
• Adopt various communication guidelines which cover the content of
reports, policies and interaction

Techniques of stakeholder management

Activities planned and implemented must form part of effective and successful
stakeholder strategy. They include:
• Identify stakeholders through research
• Determine the individual and group’s perception of the organisation
• Develop generic and specific strategies for various groups
• Assist organisation to become socially accepted by the environment and to
work together towards social and economic change.

Reputation

Reputation is seen as the impression stakeholders hold of an organization.

Reputation must be earned over time.
Reputation is fluid and dynamic.

Why a positive reputation?

• It attracts talented staff
• It retains the loyalty of customers
• Impresses investors
• Enjoys community support
• High regard may afford opportunity to charge premium amounts for goods
• Good reputation opens doors more easily
• Good reputation assists during crisis situations.
Reputation management

• Role of public relations practitioners (PRPs) is to educate managers of the

value of good, strong and consistent identity and how it influences
reputation
• Davis (2007) identifies credibility, reliability, responsibility and
trustworthiness to manage reputation
• Formbrun (2006) states that reputation is influenced on a macro, meso and
micro level.
Key elements of reputation management

Consideration by PRP and management should include:

• Corporate governance which includes issues of accountability and
openness
• Corporate Social Responsibility/ responsiveness to include corporate
action and performance and not only community support
• Cause-related branding joins promotional strategy with sales.

ONLINE REPUTATION
• The Internet is often used to interact with organisations
• Social media offers a platform for stakeholders to comment on level of
service and products
• Consumers also engage via their own blogs, own websites and other online
platforms
• Critical questions about online position and search phrases need to be
answered.
Importance of trust

• Trust is at the heart of managing reputation

• Diermeier (2011) identifies four factors for building and maintaining trust:
1. Transparency
2. Expertise
3. Commitment
4. Empathy.

Resources and further reading

• Skinner, Mersham, Benecke, 2016: Chapter 4
• King reports on http://www.iodsa.co.za
• Various reputation management case studies can be found on
www.somesso.com/list/reputation-management
• Comair’s Integrated Annual Report 2015.
https://www.comair.co.za/Media/Comair/files/2015/Annual-Report-
2015.pdf
(31 May 2016).
Chapter 5 Public relations and marketing
INTRODUCTION
Public relations and marketing has lots in common – they both deal with the core
function of organisations, namely, to be a successful business
The two functions are separated by mission or goal, namely, PR needs to attain
and maintain good relationships with stakeholders while marketing must attract
and satisfy customers for ongoing economic objectives.

As communicators, marketers and public relations practitioners have a lot in

common. Both deals with organizational relationships and employ similar
processes, techniques and strategies. However, the two functions have to be
separated by mission or goal.

Public relations has the goal of attaining and maintaining accord with social
groups on whom the organization depends in order to achieve its mission.
Marketing has a goal of attracting and satisfying the customers on sustained basis
in order to achieve an organization’s economic objectives. Every organization
therefore needs both marketing and public relations function. They are equally
essential to organizational survival and success.
In practice, marketing consists of a coordinated program of research, product
design, packaging, promotion and distribution. The goal of the marketing is to
attract and satisfy customers (or clients) on long term basis in order to achieve an
organization’s economic objectives.

Its fundamental responsibility is to build and maintain a market for an

organization’s product and services. Traditionally, marketing uses the ‘marketing
mix or so called four P’S the product, its price, how is promoted and how is it
distributed (place).
While marketing still focuses mainly on the process of attracting new customers
through product development and increasing market share, there is a shift in
thinking. The traditional marketing paradigm is being replaces by two trends;
relationship marketing and integrated marketing communication. Both have a
close relationship with public relations and recognize the importance of retaining
customers, the economy of markets and customer’s relationships.

Brand can be built by applying the following principles.

Position as the member one brand in a category
Create customers recall of the brand because of its consequences
Constantly create new opportunities for publicity
Link the brand memorable and ‘happy’ times
Create a personality through integrated communication

Prime facets of marketing

Research
This vitally important ingredient is applied in both public relations and marketing
The Market. What is the size of the market? What proportion is held? What
is the projected size at selected points in the future? what share of this future
market is aimed for? What is the competition like and what are they doing?
The customer. Whom is the organization trying to sell?
The product. How does this product or service compare with the opposition,
and does it need to improve? If so, how and where is this improvement needed?
The attitude. How the target market perceives this product/organization?
Merchandising
A short but reasonably accurate and definition of merchandising is the
presentation of the product to the best advantage’.
By using combinations of light, sound, pricing, effective packaging, design, color
and selection of good brand name, a product can be made to stand out from the
competition.
Advertising
From a sale perspective, a good advertisement, whether it be on the radio,
television, print or online should always seek to:
Attract attention
 Arouse curiosity
Convey a message
Instill in the target’s mind a wish to own or use the product
Encourage the targets buying reaction by convincing him or her that the
commodity is good value for money.

Sales promotion
Promotion usually involves short-term projects designed to push or give impetus
to the product or service for a planned period by generating interest or excitement.
Examples are product launches, fashion shows, special deals, special dates
( mother’s day, Christmas day and so on ). Or attract buyers. Public relations
can play a supportive role if carefully used in this area. Selling is what is really
all about though.
Selling: Selling can be assumed up as the activity that brings to a culmination of
all the other efforts already covered. By handling affairs in such a way that effect
transfer of ownership, the sales force clinches the deal.

Public relations in the marketing mix

Where should public relation be positioned in corporate structure? This is an
important question because it intimately concerns the marketing and public
relations relationship.
Simply stated, public relations is a management function and not a mere tool-
today’s complex society and the level of skills and creativity required, elevate it
above that.
The general rule is that when engaged with corporate work, the public relations
specialists should answer directly to the top person in the organization and enjoy
a lateral working relationship with other managers in, for example, marketing,
human resource, finance and production. However, when involved purely
marketing projects, he or she must become part of the team headed by the market
executive.
The role of the public relations
Marketing and public relations are the major exterior functions of a company.
Both functions start their analysis and planning from point of views of satisfying
one or more of the stake holders already identified.
Market attitude and product publicity This is probably one of the most noticeable
areas where public relations can make a worthwhile and tangible contribution to
overall marketing effort. By using planned, professional public relations activity
as part of an integrated approach, formulated after accurate research, any
marketing plan will be massively strengthened. The are number of instances
where advertising did not even enter into the picture until a very late stage, as we
shall see our study of the no advertised position. ‘whatever the circumstances,
public relations have sufficient latitude and scope to supply effective results if
skillfully used.
Marketing communication is an area that causing increasing concern to marketing
people who, more than anyone else, are conscious of the annual escalation in
advertising cost. This is certainly the case as far as traditional media is concerned,
but organizations are now prepared to experiment with new media.
Customer education
Customer education by way of public relations programme can do more that
encourage correct use. It can also increase it. With certain commodities, the role
of education is very important, so that the customer is aware of the dangers of the
public as well as the uses.

The non-advertised position

There are some areas where public relations can at least initially carry the entire
marketing load and where it makes the good strategic sense for it to do so. This
is particularly true in the case of new product where the budget is limited and
advertising on a scale will have wait for the initial acceptances of a product or
services following a test market.

Relationship between dealers and distributors Relationship between dealers and

distributions can frequently be enhanced by the use of public relations, and in
many organizations this is recognized as an important public relations function.
Consumer complaints.
Consumer complaints represent one of the reactive, as opposed to innovative,
aspect of public relations activity. Elsewhere we discuss the creation,
maintenance and influence of consumer attitudes as unfortunately there comes a
time for a virtually every company when something goes wrong and complaints
is made. If it is fortunate, management can handle the issue and sort it out
amicably before bursts into print.

Integrated marketing communication The practice of integrated marketing

communication is now of the most valuable tools companies can use to gain
competitive advantage. Advertising also, sales promotion, direct marketing and
public relations practitioners are finding common ground to meet the future
challenge of selling to individual customers rather than markets.

A successful integrated marketing communication model require

Building a database of information on both customers and prospects. What are

their demographics, psychographic and purchase history with you? Are they loyal
users of your brand?
Formulating a contact management policy: This will determine what will be
communicated about the product or service and the conditions under which the
communication will be delivered.
Developing a communications strategy: this involves deciding how the
message will be delivered, given the text content (contact management) in which
it will appear.
Setting marketing objectives: these vary between brand-loyal customers and
competitive users, but each can be measured and quantified.
Selecting the various techniques to achieve the established marketing and
communication objectives: these includes direct marketing, advertising, sales
promotion, public relations and sponsorships.
Resources and additional reading

• Skinner, Mersham, Benecke, 2016: chapter 5

• Seitel, 2011
• http://www.holmesreport.com/events-awards/agencies-of-the-
year/2015/emea/consumer-consultancies-of-the-year.
PR CHAPTER 6 (SIX) : PUBLIC RELATIONS & ADVERTISING
PR and advertising are two different disciplines but work together to promote the
organisation and its products

Public relations and advertising are often confused in the public’s mind, but they
are essentially different disciplines. Public relations establish mutual
relationships with all stakeholders of the organisation and is aimed at the long
term involvement and support.
Advertising in its broadest sense, concentrates on one of the organisation’s
stakeholders, such as consumers and is aimed at making them aware of its
products and services, and at persuading them to buy them to buy these products
and services.
Advertising creates awareness through buying media space in a newspaper, on
Television or on the internet to communicate a brand or organizational message.
To be effective, good advertising has to meet certain basic requirements. It has to
be developed according to clear objectives and with a precise strategy statement.
It should also address itself to a well-defined group of potential users of a product
or service in a language and style that they understand. Above all the message
must be clear and concise.

The Advertising Process

Effective advertising starts with proper strategy, well formulated objectives

aimed at a well-defined group of potential users of products or services
Koekemoer (2014) identifies the advertiser’s field of expertise to include the
advertiser, who represents the organisation, message which is prepared by an
agency, distributed by various media to the audience. The specific audience’s
field of expertise include decoding and adoption of messages based on
perception.

Advertiser…..A manufacturer, retailer, service organisation

Message
Prepared by advertising agency using copy, artwork, typography, music and
sound effects

Media
Newspapers, magazines, radio, television, cinema and direct mail

Perception
Decodingand adopting the message depending on attitudes, values and
experience.

Audience Specific market audiences with geographic, demographic and

psychographic characteristics.

Advertising works:

through exposure of the target audience to the advertising message

to grab the attention of the audience by choosing something unique or different
from the norm - by being obviously different
to ensure comprehension on the part of the target audience - they need to clearly
understand the message
through the target audience accepting the message because it is seen to be credible
and conforms to their existing beliefs and attitudes
the message is retained through reminder advertising so that the competitive urge
for a product can be entrenched
through action because advertising has not succeeded until the target audience
actually takes some action by, for example, buying the product.

THE AGENCY
An advertising agency has various specialist departments. They include the
following department:
❖ Account management: responsibility for providing the appropriate
service to a client is the responsibility of the account management team.
❖ Creative department: The creative department contains the ideas people
who are able to express in words and pictures the essence of the benefits
that have to communicated to customers. They work to a brief from the
account management staff. They usually work side by side and the basic
idea of the advertisement comes from either both of them.
❖ Media department: media executive analyse readership and viewing
figures, compare costs of space and time and recommend which media
should be used for a particular advertising task. The job of these specialists
is twofold: media planning and media buying. Once the plan is agreed,
space and time must be bought and media schedules are drawn up for
everyone to work to.
❖ Production department: it is the task of the creative department to
supervise the development and ensure that the final results is what was
intended. Planning and logistics are the responsibility of the production
department. They order material, plan dates, chase suppliers and generally
ensure that jobs are completed in time to meet copy dates.

Principles of good brand advertising

➢ It is consumer orientated: The benefits answer the needs of the consumer
and the language of the advertising makes it easy for the consumer to see
this. It is their language; it puts the case as the consumer sees it, not as a
manufacturer or distributor sees it.
➢ It concentrates on one selling idea: it does not scatter its efforts or diffuse
its impact. It establishes a penetrating, memorable reason for trial.
➢ It concentrates on the most important and persuasive idea available:
it must be the true key to consumer’s mind. Research must establish
whether the advertisement has this all-important quality.
 ➢ It represents a unique and competitive idea: it contains the promise of a
unique benefit, of a unique quantity or quality of the benefit at least.
➢ It involves the consumer: it gets attention and maintains it.it is personal.
It appeals to the consumer’s self-interest. It involves the consumer’s
problem.
➢ It is credible and sincere: it is true. And it rings true. Consumers feel that
the advertiser is honest and knows what is being talked about.
➢ It is simple, clear and complete: there is no possibility of
misunderstanding.
➢ It clearly associates the selling idea with the brand name: it clearly
registers the brand name with and link it with the selling idea.
➢ It takes the advantage of the medium: certain selling ideas are better
suited to one medium than another. Effective advertising uses the right
mrdium for its purpose, and takes full advantage of its physical
characteristics and the mood to which it predisposes consumers.
➢ It makes sales: it establishes a strong wish to buy- so strong that a gentle
reminder from displayed stock in the shop will clinch the sale.

Sources & Furher readings

Skinner, Mersham, Benecke, 2017: chapter 6
http://www.mediatrips.com/mass-media-functioning/media-buyer-and-media-
buying-process.html
South Africa: Financial Mail and Finweek newspapers publish annual advertising
surveys
South African Audience Research foundation
can be accessed on www.saarf.co.za/SAARF/freesaarfdata.asp.
PUBLIC RELATIONS CHAPTER 8
PUBLIC RELATIONS & RESEARCH
Introduction
Research is key to design and execution of successful public relations plan
PRPs need to be able to gather information which can be used as research data
Research should be conducted at the initial stages of a strategy/plan, throughout
the implementation of and used to evaluate the effect of the public relations
efforts.

Research is the process of asking the questions and finding answers in a

systematic way in order to gather information and knowledge and understanding
in a specific area.
Research is key to the design and execution of a successful public relations plan.
It is important that the public relations practitioner has the skills to gather
information and data.
PR research assist the PR Practitioner to identify and define stakeholder groups,
develop messages to target audience, define objectives, design plans, implement
tactics, measure effectiveness and ultimately assist management in realizing the
organization.

ASPECTS OF PR PROCEDURE/ AREAS OF RESEARCH IN PR

1. Client or organization requiring the research:
Background about the client or organization is an essential starting point for any
public relations programme.
ORGANISATIONAL RESEARCH INVOLVES THE FF
CHARACTERISTICS
• Being familiar with the nature of client’s business, whether for profit or
nonprofit.
• Knowing the mission of the organization, its management goals, priorities
and problems.
• Having a good working knowledge of the organization’s personnel
 • Having insight into the financial status of the organization
• Understanding the importance of corporate image and its impact on the
organization.

2. Opportunity or problem research: This type of research helps to

determine why the organisation should conduct a particular public
relations programme at a particular time. PR programme that arise
out of opportunities are called proactive programmes. In the long run
these are less expensive than reactive programmes.

3. Stakeholder or audience research: This involves investigating the

target audiences or publics of the PR programme. This includes
identifying particular groups that should be targeted, determine
appropriate research data that will be useful in communicating with
these groups, and compiling and processing the data by using
appropriate research procedure.

TYPES OF RESEARCH
Quantitative research: aims to describe and explains situations, and uses various
methods to collect numerical data and analyse this data with statistical analysis.
This research is suitable counting and measuring aspects of the research questions
and objectives.

Qualitative research: the objectives of this research are to explore areas where
limited or no prior information exists. It can be used to describe the behavior,
themes, trends, attitudes, needs or relations that are applicable to the questions
being asked.

Using research for planning, monitoring and evaluation

Planning: the main stages of the planning phase of research are: issues
forecasting, learning about stakeholders, planning media use and considering the
possible outcomes.
Planning involves prioritizing stakeholders by issues or situation. Interpreting the
behavior of stakeholders.
Monitoring: it is important to arrange for feedback after a plan has been set in
operation. Careful planning may have preceded a public relations programme, but
that does not ensure success.
Final evaluation: monitoring a public relations operation involves specific check
on results, as opposed to general monitoring of public opinion, which goes on in
issues management.
The purpose of the final evaluation is to look at each objective to see whether and
by how much it was achieved. The public relations practitioner should check the
effects of public relations on each public if possible.

Research methods available to PRP

Surveys: these maybe in the form of a questionnaire that can be accessed
via the internet or can be used during the interview.
Communication audits: these are used to evaluate the level of perceived
communication and the actual level of communication between
management and employees in the organisation.
Content analysis: this is widely used to determine the meaning of various
messages published by, or on behalf of an orghanisation.

Research focus
Reasons for research may range from answering to a clients’ need to develop a
new market or to develop the reputation of an organization
It is always based on finding answers to questions (may they be opportunities or
problems)
Always starts with planning the research, defining the problem and research
question/s, develop a research design, collect the data, interpretation of the data
and reporting on the findings.
Research for planning, monitoring and evaluation

During planning, research can be used in issue forecasting, learning about

stakeholders, planning media use and considering possible outcomes
In monitoring, constant and on-going review during the implementation of a
public relations plan
Evaluation involves a special check on results and may include the interpretation
of results in relation to organization’s overall objectives, evaluating the actions
of stakeholders or measuring the programme in line with financial investment,
ethics and social responsibility.
Research methods
A wide variety of research methods are
available to PRPs:
Surveys
Communication audits
Content analysis
Various types of questionnaires
Informal discussions
Observations
Focus groups
In-depth interviews.

Research process (cont.)

Planning to conduct research requires from the researcher to plan the process,
acquire permission and estimate costs and time it will take to obtain answers
The research process always includes: A proposal explaining the reasons for the
research, the way in which the answers will be acquired, who will be involved
and what current sources say about the topic
Research objectives explain the researchers’ motivation for the study and will
guide inquiry.
Research design include population description, sampling size and methods

Resources and further reading

• Skinner, Mersham, Benecke. 2016
(Chapter 8)
• PRISA website to view various case studies rewarded by PRISA PRISM
AWARDS, www.prisa.co.za
CHAPTER 10: INTERNAL COMMUNICATION

Management cannot afford to ignore the aspirations and preferences expressed

by its employees. Organizations have much to gain from a satisfied labour force,
working at jobs to which they are best suited. The most successful organisation
recognises that it has social as well as an economic, function to perform. An
organisation’s total public relations is a product of the people who work for it.
A reputation of a good employer has to be earned, like goodwill towards the
organisation itself. The company is rewarded through having good internal public
relations because employees are encouraged to make contribution to the
productivity and prosperity of the company.

Objectives of employee communication

✓ To help employees understand their job and their company.
✓ To help employees realise that their personal success is inseparable from
the company’s success.
✓ To help employees realise that their job is worth doing because their
company’s products are essential to society.
✓ In Africa, to help employees see the bigger picture, the company has to
make a contribution to key challenges such as poverty eradication and
economic development.
Listening to customer needs, treating employees well, placing customers ahead
of profits and having ethical business practices were all considered to be more
important than delivering consistent financial returns.

Principles of internal communication

• Communication is the fundamental component of management.
• It should be viewed as a contributing partner with other key staff functions
in influencing employee understanding of both business goals and public
relations issues.
• Commitment by top management is essential, as it is their participation in
and support of the communication process at all levels of the organisation.
 • An overall company policy on organisational communication and
definitive guidelines for managers and supervisors are also absolutely
essential.
• Top management must be committed to open, honest two-way
communication.
• A communication strategy is essential.
• Communication must be a planned process, a strategy involving both
communication professionals and key management people.
• Development of strategic plan, including a short and long term goals is
necessary to put the management communication function professionally
on par with other management functions.
• Communication mediums and messages must take cognisance of literacy
levels, cultural, geographical and language diversity.
• Training and reward for good communication performance.
• Communication must be prompt and efficient.
• Priority issues should form the content.
• Regular evaluation will ensure effectiveness.
Employee communication needs and expectations
General trends
❖ The majority of the workforce is concerned about a lack of information
about the employing organisations, including where the company is
headed, and the reasoning behind decisions.
❖ There is a generally a failure to encourage a free exchange of information
among employees and departments.
❖ There is a little participatory management taking place within a
organisations.
❖ The grapevine remains the single most influential tool in disseminating
both personal information and company news of a sensitive nature.
With regards to the communication needs and expectations of employees,
the survey reveals:
• There is a preference for one on one communication in all key areas.
• Employees preferred sources of organisational information are firstly their
intermediate supervisor, secondly small group meetings and thirdly, senior
executives.
• The forms of communication that needs most improvement have been
identified as those to and from top executives, those emanating from
immediate supervisors and orientation programmes.
 • The information that is of particular interest to employees has been
identified and organisational plans for the future, productivity
improvements and personnel policies and practices.
STEPS
1. Get the support of the chief executive officer or other senior decision
makers an enlist help of the senior managers.
2. Invite participants from all levels and local locations within the
organization. Employees at different locations( with different working
cultures) may have a novel view of the topic.
3. Develop a series of tools, such as invitations letters, a discussion guides
and feedback forms. Send them to local communicators, line managers, or
other colleagues who are helping you with the logistics.
4. Help the facilitators by giving the training ahead of time as well as
providing them with tools( overheads, discussion guides, and so on). If an
external facilitator is used, brief them on the issues, possible points of
dissension and the organizational history and culture, ask them to warm up
the group by beginning with a topic and then move on to more difficult
subjects.
5. Conduct the first two or three forums as pilots and use them to iron out any
kinks in the program. Try to use senior managers who are known as good
communicators, opinion leaders, or are trusted among employees.
6. Compile results. Ask facilitators or local communicators to collect notes,
transcripts and flip charts points developed in the forums, as well as
feedback forms and send them back to you. Established the key findings,
trends and recommendations of the group. Make recommendations for
change, based on the forum findings. In order for the forums to be
successful, some actions has to be taken.
7. Communicate throughout the process. Use your other communications
vehicles ( such as newsletters and intranet ) to communicate about the
forums are finished, be sure to communicate the results and tell employees
what steps will be taken. Whilst forums may not be the answer to every
communication challenge, they are a powerful way to make complicated
or emotional subjects more understandable, meaningful and easier for
employees to accept. The bottom line is that employees will feel more
valued if they are involved and if you can demonstrate to them that their
opinion matters.
Printed and graphic communication
1. Documents that can be revised and updated, for example policies,
procedures, guidelines
2. Records that cannot be revised or updated once published, for example,
investigation reports, minutes of meetings, survey reports and newsletters.
3. Employee publications should have three definite charactoristics namely
that they have informative, educational, entertaining.
Whether the publication belongs to a large or small organization, or just one of
the branches in group, the objectives for communicating with staff should be the
following
a) To foster a feeling of unity
b) To keep employees informed about company activities
c) To enhance employees understanding of company operations,
departments, and divisions
d) To discuss major policy changes, compensations policies, management
policies, new activities, new products and company benefits
e) To show the company’s involvement in community affairs
f) To offer useful information, such as tax tips, presentative health measures
and financial advice
g) To improve productivity and instil a strong awareness and understanding
of the importance of quality in all elements of the production process. This
can be achieved by educating each employee about what productivity is
and motivating employees by showing ‘what is in it’ for each one. After
all, productivity and quality are the keys to job security, improved income
and expanded fringe benefits.

House journals or staff publications

The term covers not only all types of internal magazines, newsletters,
newspapers, bulletins and news sheet for employees, but also external periodicals
that are published primarily for shareholder’s, agents, dealers, distributors,
retailers or customers in the interest or prestige public relations and sales
promotion purposes.
There are essentially three types of publications.
• Internal publication
• External publication
• Combination of internal and external.
Employee relations programme
• Open days for employees and their families
• Visit by senior executives to departments
• Departmental or intercompany relations
• Meetings of management and employees
• Service awards

Trends identified through local and international research

There are concerns about the lack of information about future direction
General failure to encourage a free exchange if information between employees
and departments.
Little participatory management
Preponderance of top-down instead of bottom – up communication
Grapevine remains the single most influential tool to disseminate personal
information.
Sources and further reading
Skinner, Mersham, Benecke. 2017. Chapter 10
Chapter 11
Planning a public relations programme

Introduction

Smith (2009) states that planning is a key function – a knowledge of how and
why things are done is essential to success in public relations
Various approaches to planning found in all public relations text include an
understanding of the context, the individuals (stakeholders) involved, the
message and activities, resources to implement plans and evaluation of
activities.

Four main reasons for planning

• To set targets for public relations operations against which results can be
assessed
• To estimate the working hours and other
costs involved
• To select priorities that will control the number and the timing of
different operations in the programme
• To decide on the feasibility of carrying out the declared objectives
according to the availability of an adequate budget.
Other reasons for planning
• Proactive not reactive
• Various events and changes lead to many PR problems – forces PRPs to
only 'kill fires'
• Can only be proactive if we do 'fact-finding' research
• Set targets for PR operations against which results can be assessed
• Estimate working hours and other costs involved
• Select priorities which will control the number and timing of different
operations
Decide on the feasibility of caring out the various objectives.
PRISA’s 7 step approach
1. Define the situation
2. Setting objectives
3. Determine the target audience
4. Develop the message
5. Define the activities
6. Establish the budget
7. Review and evaluate.

1. Defining the situation

• Why do we need to address an issue?
• What are some of the PR issues we need to
address?
• Three different reasons or typical PR
problems:
1. Negative perception
2. Conducting a specific once-off project
3. Developing or expanding a program.

2. Setting the objectives

Objectives can be two fold:
1. Motivational
2. Informative objectives
Objectives must formulated according to following criteria in order to evaluate
effect:
• Specific
• Measurable
 • Achievable
• Time bound.
4. Determining the stakeholders’/ target audience
Those individuals who are directly affected by decisions an organisation
takes
Specific levels of stakeholders
Different profiles
Different approaches.

4. Messages

• Each target audience must have specific message

• Know their profile and what they use to get their messages
• Motivational skills
• Different slogans.
5. Activities
• Different types of activities: individual or mass media
• Oral, written and visual activities
• Must be in support of the problem and objective
• Credibility and reputation of communicators are important.
6. Budget

• Must be done for all activities

• How will the activities be funded?
• Difference between cost and forum
• Basic accounting skills is essential

7. Review and evaluation

Based on objectives
 Research methods can be used such as media publicity figures, broadcast
returns, online returns and sales results, etc.
External environment.

Resources and further reading

• IQ Business SROI report https://www.theceosleepoutza.co.za/2015.cfm

• Skinner, Mersham, Benecke. 2017. Chapter 11
• Seitel, 2011
• Smith, 2009.
 Chapter 16
Effective listening

Listening is an essential management and leadership skill.

Tom Peters (1982)

Introduction

• Effective listening has become an essential skill in the two-way

symmetrical approach to public relations
• The art of listening is central to speaking, reading and writing.
Listening can be defined as a selective process of attending to, hearing,
understanding and remembering aural symbols (Tubbs et al, 2012)
Attitude towards listening, contexts and participants are important aspects
which will influence effectiveness of the message.

Learning to listen
• Speed of thinking vs. speaking
• Training our minds to actively concentrate on the message
• One such methods is programmed instruction
• Active listening also involves listening with understanding
• It is important to remember that communication does not take place by
merely speaking a few words.

Guides to effective listening

• Use empathy (the ability to see something through another’s eyes)

• Recognise your prejudices
• Keep your mind open
• Look out for words that can trigger your emotions
• Find a mutual area of interest
Resist distractions
• Learn to concentrate and prevent attention robbers such as fatigue, lack of
incentive, insufficient practice
• Be a critical listener
• Hold your fire
• Listen for ideas
• Ask questions
• Make sure you understand
Be flexible
Exercise your mind
Capitalise on through speed
Develop a pattern of ‘thought to follow’ which should include:
Anticipate the next sentence or topic of someone
Mentally summarise what the person has been saying
Mentally questions the speakers evidence
Listen between the lines.

Resources and further reading

Skinner, Mersham, Benecke, 2017: chapter 16

Tubbs, Moss, Papastefanou, 2012
Melbourne Mandate 2012 www.globalalliancepr.org
 Chapter 28

Corporate image and corporate identity

Corporate image: is the impression created by how you look, what you
say and what you do.
It is the result of all communications whether deliberate or not.

Corporate identity: Corporate identity an organisation’s image – its

reputation.
It is one of the most valuable corporate resources.

Why is corporate image so important?

A company with a good corporate image is

more likely to: Win the support of its customers
Develop a link with superior products and services
Provide good investment opportunities.

Factors that could affect the corporate

image of a company

• Size of business
• Overall standing of company
• Actions of overseas parent and home country
• Nature of business
• Labour relations
• Corporate logo and advertising.

Factors that could affect the corporate

image of a company (cont.)

• Management style, competence and professionalism

• Return on investment – share price, dividends
• Pricing and value for money
• Performance of the company – its products and services
• Conduct of employees
• Management style, competence and
professionalism
• Appearance of operations – professional look about premises / offices
• Projection of company through its PR, marketing, advertising, and sales
efforts
• Service levels
• Competitive comparisons.

References and further reading

• Skinner, Mersham, Benecke, 2016:

Chapter 28
• http://www.brandsandbranding.co.za/
From Groot Constantia to Google: 1865 to 2010 - a colourful history of
brands & branding in South Africa. Affinity Advertising & Publishing
 Chapter 29 Corporate social investment (CSI)

Introduction

• Need for social upliftment is as serious as always

• Efforts of the non-profit organisations (NPOs) working to achieve this are
as serious and difficult as always
• Difficulty in raising sustainable funding, obtaining support from
communities and volunteers, lobbying for policy change are some of the
challenges NPOs and organisational CSI programmes need to address.

Background and need

• CSI followed on corporate social responsibility (CSR). Contemporary

terms include responsiveness
• Is defined as an area of management action that has developed in
response to the changes and demands of society at large
• Areas such as socio-economic, ethical, legal compliance, BBBEE
scorecard (in SA), employees, environment, responsible management of
business activities form part of CSI initiatives.

Corporate citizenship
• New universal model is emerging which introduces the value system that
brings together self-interest of business and its stakeholders with interests
of society
• Realisation amongst stakeholders that company values are deep-seated
and relevant
• The need to align SA business practice with international moves to
establish CSI as a cornerstone to business structures.
• CSI should ensure that: Companies produce safe products
• Companies are sensitive to socio-economic needs and responsive to
community demands
• Manage itself responsibly and to the advantage of employees and society
• Companies produce safe products
• Companies are sensitive to socio-economic needs and responsive to
community demands
• Manage itself responsibly and to the advantage of employees and society
 Resources and further reading
• Skinner, Mersham, Benecke, 2017: chapter 29
• CEO Sleepout
• Nelson Mandela Children’s Hospital.

Chapter 30
Public relations, issues and crisis management
Importance of issues management

• It is an ‘early warning’ process

• Challenge is to try and identify future issues and respond with timely
strategies and programs
• Demonstrate to stakeholders that the organisation understands its impact
on society
• Become active in external affairs and shape political developments
• Anticipate legislative and regulatory issues based upon emerging and
future policies.
Issues management process
Seven key issues are at stake:
• Monitor the business environment
• Identify important issues
• Prioritise key issues
• Select and analyse key issues
• Ask management to decide on strategy
• Implement the programme
• Evaluate success and failure.

Types of crisis

• Immediate: happens suddenly and unexpectedly

• Emerging: may erupt after brewing for some time
• Sustained: persists for months or even years, despite the best efforts of
management.
 Crisis management plan

Effective crisis management depends on four key elements:

• Clear definition of the organisation’s policy and Train these personnel to
do their allotted responsibility
• Establish a communications system and preparing appropriate facilities
and equipment.
• procedures for handling crisis
• Assign responsibility to key personnel

Planning for a crisis

Some key pointers:
• Faced with a disaster, assume the worst possible scenarios - and act
accordingly
• Have a crisis management plan prepared
• Be prepared to express and demonstrate human concern for what has
happened
• In communication terms: be prepared to seize early initiatives by rapidly
establishing the company as the single authoritative source of information
never lose this initiative.
• has happened
• In communication terms: be prepared to seize early initiatives by rapidly
establishing the company as the single authoritative source of information
never lose this initiative.

• Win your opponents over to your side by getting them involved in

resolving the problem
• Add credibility to your cause by inviting objective, authoritative bodies to
help end the crisis
• When communicating to the public, show that you care about what has
happened and that you are trying to put matters right
When the crisis is over, evaluate the outcome to see where you can
improve on future contingency planning

Resources and further reading

• Skinner, Mersham, Benecke, 2017: Chapter 30
• Skinner & Mersham, 2016