Sustainable

Aquaculture Practices
Part D: Environmental and Social
Responsibility, Animal Welfare, Food Safety
and Traceability

Prepared by:
Cherry Pilapil Aňasco
Institute of Aquaculture
College of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences
University of the Philippines Visayas
Outline
1. Environmental and Social Responsibility
2. Animal Welfare
3. Food Safety
4. Traceability
 Environmental and
Social Responsibility
 Definitions in the context of aquaculture.

Environmentally responsibility
• A rational use of natural resources and taking steps to prevent pollution from the different
processes involved in aquaculture. It is inclusive of ecological, genetic, and biodiversity
effects on all living natural ecosystem components and their independent and interactive
processes as well as effects on nonliving ecosystem components.

Social responsibility
• An ethical theory in which aquaculture practices are accountable for the impacts to
benefit the whole of society. In this way, there must be a balance between economic
growth and the welfare of society and the environment.
 Definitions in the context of aquaculture.

• The products and practices of aquaculture clearly benefit humans and wild stocks.
• Aquaculture yields food for humans and other animals; fish and invertebrates for
supplementing depleted natural populations; and essential products for biotechnology,
medical needs, and luxury items.
• Aquaculture has been providing food and income for people in developing countries.
• Aquaculture has been contributing significantly to reduce fishing pressure on wild stocks.
• Aquaculture has been contributing to maintain sufficient numbers of fish to sustain
commercial, recreational, and subsistence fisheries.
• The role of all stakeholders (shown in the figure at the right) is crucial for an environmentally
and socially responsible aquaculture.
 Stakeholders in Aquaculture

The aquaculture industry Leadership entities Scientific institutions

Workers/ Traders/ Government Aquaculture

Academe Research
Farmers Exporters agencies Organizations

Institutions Buyers (e.g.

Nongovernment
Restaurants,
Organizations
Supermarkets)/ Consumers
 Definitions in the context of aquaculture.

• Considerable progress toward conducting environmentally responsible aquaculture has

already been made in a number of ways and in many areas of the world.
• Industry participants and governmental, political, conservation, and scientific leaders have
specific responsibilities associated with advancing the practice of environmentally responsible
aquaculture.
• Because the practice of aquaculture is intimately linked to, and dependent upon, the
environment, preserving the environment will ultimately preserve the ability to conduct
aquaculture on a sustainable basis.
• Social acceptance, reasonable economic gain, and adherence to relevant laws and
regulations are necessary for the success of any industry.
• Regulatory entities and other stakeholders, together with aquaculture-industry leaders, need
to continue their focus on expanding the industry in ways that are beneficial to people,
compatible with the environment, and supportive of laws and regulations designed to protect
biodiversity
 Responsibilities of the aquaculture industry include the following:

1. Develop affordable • Integrated, low-technology aquaculture systems are particularly

aquaculture practices and
systems that can be built
and run by local people in
areas with limited modern
technology
applicable
• This direction is essential for realizing the potential in food
production and poverty reduction that aquaculture has for poor
people; and it is consistent with a stated goal of the World
Aquaculture Society (http://www.was.org)

• Aquaculture expansion may have adverse social effects as well as

2. Expand the industry adverse environmental effects or it may bring only short-lived
using the ecosystems benefits.
approach (see Part E of • More comprehensive approaches that consider both environmental
this Module). issues and socioeconomic needs proved to be more resilient and
beneficial for industry expansion in the long term.

Bert, 2007
 Responsibilities of the aquaculture industry include the following:
3. Campaign for research
on expanding aquaculture
of native species
Bert, 2007
• Attaining capacity for aquaculture of all life stages of more native species could
solve two problems:
• First, the collection of immature life stages of native species individuals
harvested from the wild for grow-out in aquaculture facilities could be reduced. If
immature wild individuals must be used for aquaculture, their harvest should be
regulated.
• Second, aquaculture of alien species could be reduced
• Although culturing alien species for which aquaculture techniques have been
established is expedient, these species should not be aquacultured unless
identified, potentially harmful consequences can be justified by the guarantee of
equivalent, sustainable benefits
• If alien species must be used for aquaculture, their introduction should be limited,
well regulated, and well monitored
• More species diversity in aquaculture is widely needed.
 Responsibilities of the aquaculture industry include the following:

• Enhance the target stock only as long as needed, using hatchery

populations that will not significantly harm wild populations.
4. Conduct stock • Use adaptive management (i.e. monitoring activities and changing them
enhancement and sea when necessary) for stock enhancement, with defined benefits to the
fishery being enhanced.
ranching in ways that do not
• Avoid damage to the health of the recipient wild stock.
harm the stocked • Ensure that the hatchery broods used have genetic diversity compatible
population, other species in with that of the wild stock to be augmented.
the community, and local • Adjust the contribution of hatchery fish so that they do not genetically
ecosystem processes. overwhelm the wild stocks they are supposed to supplement.
• Monitor populations supplemented by hatchery fish and their associated
ecological communities for maintenance of genetic diversity and health.

Bert, 2007
 Responsibilities of the aquaculture industry include the following:

5. Follow published codes • Numerous codes and guidelines exist. A number of these were
constructed through the cooperative efforts of aquaculture managers
of practice for all and industry leaders.
aquaculture activities. • Many are reasonably applicable to most types and levels of aquaculture.

6. Be proactive in • By positively and aggressively dealing with negative environmental effects

evaluating the
environmental effects of all
aquaculture activities and in
taking actions to mitigate
the effects when necessary.
Bert, 2007
• Aquaculture organizations need to cooperate with each other in dealing with
environmental issues because many of the issues crosscut multiple types of
aquaculture.
• Aquaculture organizations also need to become involved with environmental
management groups and regulatory agencies to assist the agencies with
identifying and managing environmental effects.
 Responsibilities of the aquaculture industry include the following:

7. Widely publicize all

efforts to conduct • Public perception of the aquaculture industry as an
environmentally aware entity enhance acceptance of
sustainable, biologically new or expanding aquaculture activities in
and environmentally neighborhoods.
responsible aquaculture.

8. Promote the
development of closed-
• These are widely accepted as less environmentally
system aquaculture, damaging than other types of aquaculture.
polyculture, and
integrated aquaculture.
Bert, 2007
Animal Welfare
 Definition

Animal welfare pertains to the state of the animal as

regards its attempts to cope with its environment. It
includes maintaining appropriate standards of
accommodation, feeding and general care, the
prevention and treatment of disease and the assurance
of freedom from distress, unnecessary discomfort and
pain, and allowing animals to express normal behavior
(RA 10631, Segner et al., 2019) .

Photo: https://thefishsite.com
 The scientific knowledge on the fish welfare is still limited
but it is increasingly recognized as a necessary,
consumer-requested, and component of sustainable
aquaculture.

Welfare of fish is an intrinsic part of fish production.

The increasing importance of fish welfare in aquaculture

comes from ethical considerations as well as from the
perspective of improving standards and quality of fish
production technologies and aquaculture products.

The welfare status of the fish has direct implications for

their production and for the sustainability of the industry
as a whole.
Photo: https://thefishsite.com
Fish kept under good welfare conditions are less
stressed and less susceptible to diseases and therefore
they require less medication and treatment, show better
growth rates and food conversion and ultimately provide
a better-quality product.

However, with the vast majority of current efforts at fish

welfare focused on Europe, virtually no attention has
been given to fish welfare and its benefits in lower- and
middle-income countries throughout the world, despite
the massive and growing scale of aquaculture in these
countries.

Photo: https://thefishsite.com
At the current state of scientific knowledge, welfare issues can be integrated into the
practice of fish culture.

Rapid change regarding knowledge on the cognitive abilities of fish, moving from seeing
fish as “pea brains” to recognizing fish as organisms with complex behavioral and social
abilities and needs is observed in recent years.

There is also growing evidence that fish are sentient organisms (i.e. has the capacity to
feel, perceive or experience subjectively), possessing, for instance, the ability to perceive
pain.

However, there still exist important gaps in the knowledge of the biological and
environmental needs of many – if not most – cultured fish species, and there is little
agreement on what “good welfare” of cultured fish actually means.

This is reflected by the facts that the issue of fish sentience is still controversially
discussed and that the available portfolio of operational welfare indicators is still very
limited Photos: Wagas et al., 2020
 Processes and Factors in Aquaculture Critical for Fish Welfare

Husbandry
techniques Disease
Staff prevention and
Fish (species, • Water quality
(education, (physical, chemical Handling and prophylaxis
life stage, Slaughter
training, parameters) transport (preventive
domestication)
responsibility) • Stocking density measure such
• Rearing as vaccination)
environment

Segner et al., 2019

The decision tree outlines the processes and factors that can be critical for fish welfare on
an aquaculture farm.

At each process and factor in which welfare might be compromised (left thread), a number
of measures for troubleshooting are specified (right thread).

When a statement in the left thread is not accurate, the corresponding measure in the right
thread might be considered.

If a statement in the left thread is accurate, the process moves to the next consideration
below.

The decision tree might help farmers in setting up a welfare monitoring system, and it might
also be used for regular welfare inspection and auditing

Segner et al., 2019

Decision tree in considering the welfare of farmed fish (FAO, 2019)
The key challenge in developing recommendations and regulations on the welfare of farmed fish is that
both scientific knowledge and practical experience in this area are still limited:
• It is not well-understood to what extent welfare concepts and definitions as they have been developed
for common warm-blooded farm animal species can be applied to fish. As stated by the European Food
Safety Authority (2009): “The concept of welfare is the same for all farm animals, i.e. mammals, birds
and fish, used for human food and given protection under the Treaty of Amsterdam. Fish welfare,
however, has not been studied to the same extent as terrestrial farm mammals and birds, neither
welfare concepts nor welfare needs have been clearly understood for the various species of farmed
fish.”
• Fish culture involves a huge number of species, with each species and its respective life stages having
different welfare requirements. Ideally, welfare measures are based on the understanding of the needs
of the various species, but the understanding of their welfare-relevant biology is indeed very limited.
• As a consequence of the limited knowledge of and the diversity of cultured species, relatively few
operational welfare indicators (OWI) for farmed fish have been validated to date.

Segner et al., 2019

• Only when the basic biological requirements of the fish (water quality, feed and others) are adequately
fulfilled will food utilization, growth, physical integrity and health of farmed fish be optimal and the fish
can be reared and produced in a manner that is both ethically defendable and economically sustainable.
• Fish under suboptimal welfare conditions will perform poorly; for instance, they may show slow growth
and increased susceptibility to disease. This negatively affects fish production and compromises the
image of the industry.
• Therefore, it is in the self-interest of the aquaculture industry to optimize culture conditions in order to
support and promote fish welfare.
• Fish welfare in culture also extends to the practices associated with harvesting and killing (harvest,
stunning, killing, exsanguination and evisceration), aiming at reducing stress to the animal and therefore
also optimizing the quality of the product.
• Finally, the economic benefits are obvious. In addition, consumers care about welfare issues potentially
associated with intensive production practices, and they expect from the fish farmers that the welfare of
farmed fish is addressed.

Segner et al., 2019

Food Safety
 Definition

Food safety refers to the assurance

that food will not cause harm to the
consumer when it is prepared and/or
eaten according to its intended use
(Codex Alimentarius General Principles
of Food Hygiene ; RA 10611).
 Basis for Food Safety Regulations
International
• The Codex Alimentarius is a collection of
international food safety standards, codes of
practice, guidelines and other
recommendations developed under the
guidance of the Codex Alimentarius
Commission, an intergovernmental body
created in 1963 by Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO) of the United Nations and
the World Health Organization (WHO) to
protect consumers' health, ensure fair-trade
practices in the food trade and promote
coordination of all food standards.
National
• In the Philippines, the Food Safety Act (RA
10611) was enacted in 2013 to strengthen the
food safety regulatory system with the following
specific objectives:
• (a) Protect the public from food-borne and
water-borne illnesses and unsanitary,
unwholesome, misbranded or adulterated
foods;
• (b) Enhance industry and consumer confidence
in the food regulatory system; and
• (c) Achieve economic growth and development
by promoting fair trade practices and sound
regulatory foundation for domestic and
international trade.
• The Philippine National Standards for different
aquaculture products have been created through
the Bureau of Agriculture and Fisheries Standards
(BAFS).
• The Philippine National Standard (PNS) for Organic
Aquaculture establishes the guidelines for the operation
of organic aquaculture in different aquatic environments
(fresh, brackish and marine) and the production of
quality fishery products that are safeguarded from
contamination of harmful and toxic chemical substances
and use of artificial ingredients, from pre-production to
marketing to enhance food safety for human
consumption and to provide options to
consumers/markets (PNS, 2016).

• To ensure an appropriate level of food safety for

consumers, food producers, processors and others in
the food chain, potential food safety hazards that might
be present in their ingredients or finished products and
use practices that control these potential hazards must
be identified and described (APEC, 2013).
 Food Safety Hazard

A food safety hazard refers to a biological, chemical or physical agent in, or condition of, food with the
potential to cause an adverse health effect (Codex Alimentarius, RA 10611).

Examples of compounds that could be food safety hazards include the following:
Biological Hazards Chemical Hazards Physical Hazards
Bacterial Pathogens (Bacteria are Natural Toxins Metal
single-celled organisms that live (e.g. shellfish toxins, Glass
independently.) mushroom toxins)
(e.g. pathogenic Escherichia coli Bone (when not expected)
strains, Salmonella, Listeria)
Allergens
Hard or sharp foreign objects
Parasites - intestinal worms or protozoa Heavy Metals
that live in a host animal or human. (e.g. Mercury, Cadmium)
(e.g. parasitic worms, protozoan Veterinary Drugs
parasites) (e.g. used in aquaculture)
Viruses – small particles that live and Pesticides, Insecticides,
replicate in a host. Fungicides
(e.g. Norovirus, Hepatitis A virus) APEC, 2013
 Food Safety:
Biological Hazards
 Bacterial Pathogens in Aquaculture
• The level of contamination in fish at the time of capture will
depend on the environment and the bacteriological quality of the
water in which fish are harvested.

• The edible muscle tissue of finfish is normally sterile at the time

of capture and bacteria are usually present on the skin, gills and
in the intestinal tract.

• Hazards from these pathogens can be controlled by: •

heating seafood sufficiently to kill the bacteria • holding fish at
chilled temperatures • avoiding post-process cross-
contamination.
Photo Credit: FAO

APEC, 2013
 Many factors influence the microflora of
finfish. The following are some of the most
important factors:

farming methods
proximity of
quantity and origin (e.g. density of
harvesting areas method of
water temperature salt content of food consumed fish, animal health
to human harvesting
by fish management,
habitations
biosecurity)

APEC, 2013
 Food Safety:
Chemical Hazards
Chemical Hazards in Aquaculture

In the case of aquaculture, the primary

potential chemical hazards of concern
include intentionally added chemicals
such as veterinary drugs used in aquaculture
production and unintentional contaminants
such as persistent environmental
contaminants that might be present in the
production areas.

Chemical hazards can include:

• Naturally-occurring chemicals
• Intentionally-added chemicals
• Unintentional or incidental chemical
Photo Credit: FAO
additives
APEC, 2013
 The following are examples of intentionally-added
chemicals that could be potential hazards.

Veterinary drug Residues of

Food additives
residues approved pesticides

• Some chemicals are intentionally used in aquaculture production or in packing and

processing of fishery products. When used, these compounds must be approved for the
particular use and proper instructions for use (including any applicable withdrawal times
in the case of veterinary drugs) must be followed.
• In the global aquaculture industry, use of unapproved antibiotics and other
chemotherapeutics in production are the leading cause of chemical contamination and
subsequent rejection of products. Unapproved use of compounds such as malachite
green, chloramphenicol, and nitrofurans has been particularly widespread in the industry
and has led to hundreds of detentions and border rejections.
APEC, 2013
• Inappropriate use of veterinary drugs in aquaculture is particularly concerning. In addition for the
potential of veterinary drug residues to cause adverse health effects in consumers of aquaculture
products, there also is concern that inappropriate use of veterinary drugs such as antibiotics could
lead to antimicrobial resistance by pathogens. For this reason, therapeutic antimicrobial drugs must
be used judiciously. A key objective when using these drugs is to maximize therapeutic efficacy and
minimize the potential for selection of resistant microorganisms.
• It also is extremely important to note that the list of drugs approved or authorized for use in
aquaculture differs from country to country (e.g. the US and EU have different lists of authorized
drugs). This requires producers to be vigilant and comply with importing country requirements.
• Use of food additives such as sodium nitrite, preservatives, or nutritional additives should always
comply with applicable laws and regulations in the country of production (or destination country for
exported products) and be included in any product formulations at concentrations that are not
hazardous. Establishing and strictly following formulation specifications and standard operating
procedures for product preparation are important controls for these additives.

APEC, 2013
Chemical Hazards Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs) and Tolerance Levels
• Many potential chemical hazards do not cause acute toxicity, but rather may cause increased risk of
cancer or other adverse effects through chronic exposures.
• For certain potentially hazardous chemicals, particularly those that can not be completely avoided in
the food, maximum residue limits or tolerance levels have been established by the competent food
safety authorities in each country.
• Recommended MRLs or tolerance levels for many potential chemical hazards also have been
developed by the Codex. These MRLs are useful guidelines in cases where MRLs have not been
established by food laws and regulations in the country of production or importing country.
• The MRLs and/or tolerance levels for the majority of chemical compounds and animal drug residues
are not harmonized and therefore might vary from country to country. To illustrate this point, the
Codex has only established three MRLs for drug residues in fish: oxytetracycline (all fish),
flumequine (trout) and deltamethrin (salmon).

APEC, 2013
APEC, 2013
Controls for Chemical Hazards

The following are examples of

potential measures that can be used
to control chemical hazards during
production, harvest, packing and
processing of fishery and aquaculture
products

APEC, 2013
 Food Safety:
Physical Hazards
 Physical Hazards

• Physical hazards include any potentially harmful extraneous matter not normally found in food.
• The following are some examples of common physical hazards encountered in the food industry:

✔ Metal fragments
✔ Glass particles
✔ Wood splinters
✔ Stones or rock fragments
✔ Brittle plastic
✔ Bones, shells, or their fragments (when not expected)

• These physical hazards generally cause problems for relatively few consumers per incident, and
typically result in personal injuries that are not life-threatening.

✔ Broken tooth, cut mouth,

✔ Some physical hazards can be a potential choking hazard
 Controls for physical hazards can include the following practices among others.

• Education on appropriate physical hazard prevention and controls

Proper employee • “No metal above the waist” is a common company policy to control
practices potential for physical hazards to fall into food.
• Personal jewelry typically is limited to a single plain wedding band.

Equipment Preventative • Routine inspection and maintenance of equipment is an important

Maintenance Programs component of a physical hazard prevention program.

• Detection equipment such as metal detectors and X-ray machines

Detection and • Separation equipment such as magnets, screens, filters, aspirators,
Segregation Equipment riffle boards, and mechanical separators may be implemented if the
product and process is amenable to this.
 Food Safety issues in Aquaculture

• Fish and crustaceans are generally regarded as safe and nutritious foods, but products from
aquaculture have sometimes been associated with certain food safety issues, as the risk of
contamination of products by chemical and biological agents is greater in freshwater and coastal
ecosystems than in the open seas.
• Food safety issues associated with aquaculture products will differ from region to region and from
habitat to habitat and will vary according to the method of production, management practices and
environmental conditions.
• Foodborne parasitic infections, foodborne disease associated with pathogenic bacteria, residues of
agro-chemicals, veterinary drugs and heavy metal contamination have all been identified as hazards
of aquaculture products
• The origins of such food safety concerns are diverse, ranging from inappropriate aquacultural
practices, environmental pollution and cultural habits of food preparation and consumption.
• Thus, as aquaculture makes its transition to a major food producing sector, particularly as products
are traded internationally, proper assessment and control of any food safety concerns are becoming
increasingly important.

Reilly & Käferstein, 1998

Food Safety: Microbiological
Hazards and Risks
 • Microbiological Hazards and Risks

• Inherent in all human activities, including activities related to food production, there are hazards and
risks which may adversely affect human health and aquaculture is no exception.
• The risks of foodborne disease associated with products from aquaculture are related to inland and
coastal ecosystems, where the potential of environmental contamination is greater when compared
to capture fisheries.
• Risks to consumer health from products from the unpolluted marine environment are low; however,
good post-harvest handling practices are essential to assure that products are safe to eat.
• Risks of foodborne parasitic or bacterial disease are highest in those parts of the world where fish
are consumed either raw, partially cooked or lightly processed.
• Most of the food safety hazards associated with products from aquaculture can be controlled by
good fish farm management practices, in addition to appropriate consumer education regarding the
consumption of raw products that may contain the infective stages of parasites or pathogenic
bacteria.
Reilly & Käferstein, 1998
 Food Safety:
Bacteriological Hazard
• The microflora of fish at the time of capture will depend on the environment and the microbiological
quality of the water from which fish are harvested.
• Many factors will influence the microflora, the more important being the aquaculture production
system, water temperature, salt content, proximity of harvesting areas to human habitations,
quantity and origin of food consumed by fish, and the method of harvesting.
• The edible muscle tissue of healthy finfish and crustaceans is normally sterile at the time of capture
and bacteria are usually present on the skin, gills and in the intestinal tract.
• The hazards associated with human pathogenic bacteria in finfish and crustaceans produced in
aquaculture can be divided into two groups: bacteria naturally present in the aquatic environment,
referred to as indigenous bacteria, and those present as a result of contamination with human or
animal faeces or otherwise introduced to the aquatic environment.

Reilly & Käferstein, 1998

• Hazards may also occur through the introduction of bacteria during post-harvest handling and
processing.
• Indigenous pathogenic bacteria, when present in fresh cultured products are usually found at fairly
low levels, and where these products are adequately cooked, food safety hazards are insignificant.
• During storage, indigenous spoilage bacteria will outgrow the indigenous pathogenic bacteria, thus
fish will spoil before becoming toxic and will be rejected by consumers.
• Pathogenic species of bacteria can be introduced into aquaculture ponds by animal (including birds)
manure, and human wastes.
• However, there is evidence of rapid die-off of enteric organisms and viruses in well-managed fish
ponds.
• Despite this, significant numbers of organisms can be found on products harvested from wastefed
systems, which pose a potential health risk

Reilly & Käferstein, 1998

 Salmonella

• Salmonella are among the most important causes of

human gastrointestinal disease worldwide and many
seafood-importing countries will restrict access of raw
products containing these pathogens.

• Fish cultured in coastal and brackishwater

environments can be exposed to contamination by
bacteria of faecal origin resulting from disposal of
sewage and land runoff.
Reilly & Käferstein, 1998
Photo: Byron Brehm-Stecher
 Food Safety:
From Fish Farm to Table
• The role of the fish farmer is changing from merely raising fish to being an indispensable part of the
food production chain, supplying raw material which is the basis for the delivery of safe, high quality
products to the consumer.
• Hazards can be introduced into the food chain at the production stages on the farm and these can be
spread during fish processing and preparation.
• Intervention strategies for assuring food safety are difficult to determine when microbial hazards
cause human diseases but no diseases in fish, as in the case of naturally occurring pathogenic Vihrio
spp. or unavoidable contamination of fish ponds by Salmonella spp.
• Quantitative risk assessment is thought to be the most effective method of identifying contamination
by microbial pathogens and this data could be used in making risk management decisions.
• Although this is an emerging discipline, data generated by microbial risk assessment can be used in
the application of food safety assurance programmes based on the Hazards Analysis and Critical
Control Point (HACCP) system.
Reilly & Käferstein, 1998
• While the implementation of HACCP-based safety assurance programmes are well advanced in the
fish processing sector, the application of such programmes at the fish farm, to enhance food safety,
is in its infancy.
• The fish farming sector is not unique in this respect as there are few examples of the application of
HACCP principles in animal husbandry because of the lack of scientific data regarding the
appropriateness of on-farm control for pathogenic micro-organisms.
• There is an international movement towards the adoption of the HACCP system in the seafood
sector, with such major markets as the European Union and North America introducing mandatory
requirements for HACCP implementation during fish processing.
• Such requirements will impact on the aquaculture sector with respect to raw material standards and
products moving in international trade.
• The introduction of HACCP-based food safety assurance programmes at fish farm level poses a
major challenge to the aquaculture sector.
• With the current state of knowledge, the introduction is practical in intensive aquaculture systems
but not possible in small scale fish farming that rely on animal manures for fertilization of fish ponds.
Reilly & Käferstein, 1998
• The fisheries sector is undergoing the same transition as the food animal production sector in that
man no longer hunts for meat: in future years we will rely to a far greater extent on farmed fish as a
source of protein foods of high nutritional value.
• At international level, the Codex Committee on Fish and Fishery Products is currently revising all
fish and fishery product Codes of Practice to include the principles of HACCP.
• The revised draft Code of Hygienic Practice for Products from Aquaculture gives special attention
to biological hazards that may contaminate the aquaculture environment.
• There are however, no controls that can be implemented on-farm to eliminate such hazards,
where these may be present as a result of unavoidable contamination or because of their
ubiquitous presence in the aquatic environment.

Reilly & Käferstein, 1998

Traceability
Example of a Traceability System
(Winkelhuijzen & Van Burik, 2016)
Definition
Traceability refers to the ability to follow
the movement of a food through specified
stages of production, processing and
distribution.
In aquaculture, traceability is the ability to
trace the origin of a product at any step of
the supply chain, in order to ensure food
safety, support sustainable fish farms and
fisheries and to fight illegal activities and
fraud
• In our globalized world, food supply chains have
become complex
• To track and trace the food along every step of this
chain can be difficult or even impossible
• Food safety crises and sustainability concerns
have led to an emerging interest in traceability
• Traceability does not confirm food safety but
strengthens food safety management through
increased pressure on the supply chain
• As a result of the complex, globalized supply chains
and the many different species in aquaculture, it
becomes increasingly difficult to ensure traceability

Winkelhuijzen & Van Burik, 2016)

 Benefits of High Traceability

Food
Transparency Sustainability
Safety
 Food
Safety

• Need to identify responsibilities as well as to make sure that the source of, for
example contamination, is identified and removed as prescribed by FAO.
• Traceability does not confirm food safety but strengthens food safety
management through increased pressure on the supply chain.

Winkelhuijzen & Van Burik, 2016)

 Transparency

• Increasing concern of consumers on where their food is coming from.

• Food chains need to be traceable from farm to fork .
• The EU and the USA introduced regulation that ensures that consumer
and buyers can trace seafood along the supply chain.
• Without the transparency, seafood cannot be exported to the EU.
• Transparency benefits the entire supply chain.

Winkelhuijzen & Van Burik, 2016)

 Sustainability

• Consumers are increasingly aware of sustainability issues in the sourcing or

production of food.
• Sustainability in seafood can stem from social, economic or environmental
aspects.

Winkelhuijzen & Van Burik, 2016)

 Problems with Traceability

Illegal Consumer
Mislabeling
Practices Trust
 Mislabeling

• Mislabeling is a global problem related to voluntary and involuntary misconduct when labeling fish
according to origin and species.
• The mislabeling of fish can occur at any stage in the supply chain, from the producer to the retailer
• 30% of the global seafood market is mislabeled.
• In restaurants and specialized fish stores the percentage mislabeled products is higher than in
supermarkets.
• Many species are similar in taste and texture, so restaurants and other retailers can substitute a high-
value species with a cheaper variant, and making economic profit.

Winkelhuijzen & Van Burik, 2016)

 Illegal
Practices

• Aquaculture consumes about one quarter of the global fisheries production as

fish feed, straining fish populations.
• This has been difficult to control until now, since in more than 80% of global
fishmeal there is low traceability and the species composition is not clear.

Winkelhuijzen & Van Burik, 2016)

 Consumer
Trust

• Mislabeling misleads the consumer and has a negative impact on consumer trust and the
industry.
• Farmed fish already has a more negative consumers’ perception than wild fish.
• It is seen as less healthy, less natural, less fresh and containing more antibiotics.
• Food safety scandals also lead to lower consumer trust.
• Transparency in the entire supply chain can enhance the consumer perception of food safety
and food quality.

Winkelhuijzen & Van Burik, 2016)

 Traceability
Problems with Low Sustainability
Mislabeling
• Mislabeling is a global problem related to voluntary and involuntary misconduct when labeling fish according to
origin and species
• The mislabeling of fish can occur at any stage in the supply chain, from the producer to the retailer
• 30% of the global seafood market is mislabeled
• In restaurants and specialized fish stores the percentage mislabeled products is higher than in supermarkets
• Many species are similar in taste and texture, so restaurants and other retailers can substitute a high-value
species with a cheaper variant, and making economic profit
Illegal practices and fraud
• Aquaculture consumes about one quarter of the global fisheries production as fish feed, straining fish populations
• This has been difficult to control until now, since in more than 80% of global fishmeal there is low traceability and
the species composition is not clear
Lower consumer trust
• Mislabeling misleads the consumer and has a negative impact on consumer trust and the industry
• Farmed fish already has a more negative consumers’ perception than wild fish
• It is seen as less healthy, less natural, less fresh and containing more antibiotics
• Food safety scandals also lead to lower consumer trust
• Transparency in the entire supply chain can enhance the consumer perception of food safety and food quality
Winkelhuijzen & Van Burik, 2016)
Three possibilities for improving

coherence and governance by aligning

standards through knowledge exchange;
traceability

Certification as they tend to improve

traceability; and

control via new technologies and traceability

systems.
 Standards

• Legal and market requirements for traceability have increased over the past few years and continue to rise
• Examples of national legal requirements include the implementation of the new “E.U. food law” (E.U.
178/2002)and Section 306 of the U.S. Bioterrorism Act in 2005. Both require that all links in the food and
feed supply chain have “one step forward – one step backward” traceability, keeping “trace and track”
records of their immediate suppliers and customers. Canada, Australia, Japan, and other countries are
currently working on similar regulations.

• The global food market has also called for increased traceability in addition to implementation of Radio
Frequency Identification (RFID) on shipped products. This is especially true for larger retailers like Wal-
Mart, Albertsons, and Target in the United States; Tesco and Marks & Spencer in the United Kingdom;
Carrefour in France; and Metro in Germany; which are at the forefront of this development.

Petersen & Green, 2006

 Certification
Examples:
• Certification is a tool to stimulate the Aquaculture
aquaculture sector in becoming more Stewardship Council
sustainable (ASC)
https://www.asc-aqua.org/
• Certified products tend to improve
traceability as well
• Certification is mostly carried out by
private actors, but public bodies also
play a role
Best Aquaculture
• Private actors generally aim for the most Practices (BAP)
sustainable 15-30% of the sector – https://bapcertification.org/blog
/hong-hu-bap/
rewarding the best farmers
• These schemes aim at the international
trade market.
 Control via new technologies and traceability systems

• The concept of traceability systems is relatively new

• Internal traceability systems are simpler and cheaper to implement as they focus on a specific part of the
supply chain.
• External systems are more extensive but allow tracing along the whole supply chain.
• New technologies allow for increased efficiency
• One important trend in the food sector is the use electronic traceability and monitoring using Radio
Frequency Identification (RFID) and Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN)
• RFID and WSN technologies are in use in all stages, starting from fish farms up to the delivery to the
retail.
• RFID in traceability systems improves management by tracking quality problems, improving
management recalls, improving visibility of products and processes, automate scanning, reduce labor,
enhance stock management and reduce operational costs
Winkelhuijzen & Van Burik, 2016
 Traceability in aquaculture by Global
Aquaculture Advocate

RFID Bar codes

Images source:
https://www.aquacultureal
liance.org/advocate/trace
ability-in-aquaculture/
 •systems can be anything from paper-
based records kept in ring binders at the
office to advanced computer systems that
Internal provide information in a few key strokes
Traceability
System help food manufacturers or fish farmers
track what came into their companies and
how it was transformed before it left

Traceability •require some cooperation and

development of standards among the links
in the food supply chain

External •The questions that are now being debated

in the industry: What must be registered?
Traceability How should this information be kept and
System distributed in the supply chain?

•Several traceability systems and

standards already exist on the market.
Internal and external traceability in an aquaculture production chain
https://www.aquaculturealliance.org/advocate/traceability-in-aquaculture/
 Example of traceability system
for aqua-products

https://www.seachoice.org/
 • One essential element is to determine how small a batch
buyers should be able to trace.
Batch Size

• Choosing identifiers, carriers, and readers to transfer

product data depends on what is most practical under
Data the given circumstances.
Transfer

• Bar code technology has been widely used since the

1970s. RFID, also an older technology, is becoming
Bar Codes more widespread in the food industry. RFID has become
vs RFID a cheaper technology.
Technology
 Batch size
One essential element is to determine how small a batch buyers should be able to trace. Should the system
trace back to individual fish, fish from one “harvest,” fish grown in one pond per raceway per tank, or maybe
fish harvested during one year at the same fish farm?

Answering this question involves what is practical at each farm and the potential return on investment (ROI).
While determining the ROI, a risk analysis should be made on what it costs to recall a given batch from the
market versus what can be saved by having larger batches.

To define individual fish as one unique batch is expensive and can only be justified for a low-volume, high-
price species like tuna. On the other hand, if the batch is too large, a substantial amount of fish must be
recalled from the market if there is a food safety incident.
 Data Transfer

Choosing identifiers, carriers, and readers to transfer product data depends on what is most practical
under the given circumstances. Identifiers refer to the code systems or “languages” used in the supply chain
to register data. Carriers are the physical product tags that carry the code. Readers are the devices used to
retrieve the coded data from the carriers. They can be divided into categories of hand-held or stationary
readers, and bar code or RFID readers.
Several identifiers are used in today’s food industry, but the most widespread and generally recognized are
GS1 for bar codes (formerly UCC and EAN) and EPCGlobal for RFID.
 Bar codes vs. RFID Technology
Bar code technology has been widely used since
Pros and cons of bar codes and radio frequency identification (RFID)
the 1970s. RFID, also an older technology, is
becoming more widespread in the food industry. Bar Codes RFID
RFID has become a cheaper technology. Bar Low price Efficiency
codes, however, cost fractions of a cent. Advantage Withstands harsher
100% read rate
RFID technology uses tags that transmit their environments
code by radio waves and do not have to be in Require scanner line
Higher price
the line of sight of a scanner. In addition to of sight
Disadvantage
allowing a whole pallet of goods to be “scanned” Typical material has
Not 100% read rate
at once, RFID’s other advantages include limited durability
holding more information per tag than bar codes,
and the ability to withstand harsher, moister
environments than regular bar codes
You just reached the end of Part D Lecture notes.

Move on to Part E to learn the last topic of

Module 4, the Resource and
Environmental Management in the context
of Sustainable Aquaculture.