Kinlan FinalReport

Structural Comparison of a Composite and Steel Truss Bridge
by
Jeffrey Kinlan
An Engineering Research Project Submitted to the Graduate
Faculty of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF ENGINEERING IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Approved:
_________________________________________
Professor Ernesto Gutierrez-Miravete, Engineering Project Adviser
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute

Hartford, Connecticut
April, 2012
© Copyright 2012
by
Jeffrey Kinlan
All Rights Reserved
ii
CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................ vi
LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................ viii
LIST OF EQUATIONS .................................................................................................... ix
LIST OF SYMBOLS ........................................................................................................ xi
GLOSSARY ................................................................................................................... xiv
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................... xv
1. Introduction/Background ............................................................................................. 1
1.1 Truss Geometry .................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Truss Member Geometry ................................................................................... 2
1.3 Truss Gusset Plate Geometry ............................................................................. 3
2. Materials ...................................................................................................................... 5
2.1 Steel Material Selection ..................................................................................... 5
2.2 Composite Material Selection ............................................................................ 6
3. Composite Laminate Theory ....................................................................................... 9
3.1 CLT Assumptions .............................................................................................. 9
3.2 The ABD Matrix .............................................................................................. 10
3.3 Laminate Stress and Strain ............................................................................... 11
3.4 Laminate Failure Criterion ............................................................................... 12
3.5 Laminate Material Properties ........................................................................... 13
3.6 Member Laminate Layup ................................................................................. 14
4. Truss Loads ................................................................................................................ 16
4.1 Dead Load ........................................................................................................ 16
4.2 Live Load ......................................................................................................... 18
4.3 Dynamic Load .................................................................................................. 19
4.4 Truss Free Body Diagram ................................................................................ 19
5. Analysis Methodology ............................................................................................... 22
iii
5.1 2D ANSYS Finite Element Model................................................................... 22
5.1.1 Model Geometry, Element Type, and Mesh ........................................ 22
5.1.2 Material Properties, Loads, and Boundary Conditions ........................ 24
5.2 Method of Joints............................................................................................... 25
5.2.1 Naming Convention ............................................................................. 25
5.2.2 Nodal Free Body Diagrams .................................................................. 26
5.2.3 Matrix Equation ................................................................................... 26
5.3 3D ANSYS Finite Element Model................................................................... 27
5.3.1 Model Geometry and Mesh.................................................................. 28
5.3.2 Material Properties, Loads, and Boundary Conditions ........................ 29
6. Results........................................................................................................................ 30
6.1 2D ANSYS Finite Element Model Results ...................................................... 30
6.2 Method of Joints Results .................................................................................. 33
6.3 3D ANSYS Finite Element Model Results ...................................................... 34
7. Margin of Safety Calculation..................................................................................... 41
7.1 Steel Truss Margin of Safety............................................................................ 41
7.1.1 Axial Margin of Safety......................................................................... 41
7.1.2 Transverse Margin of Safety ................................................................ 42
7.1.3 Buckling Margin of Safety ................................................................... 43
7.2 Composite Truss Margin of Safety .................................................................. 45
7.2.1 Axial Margin of Safety......................................................................... 49
7.2.2 Transverse Margin of Safety ................................................................ 54
7.2.3 Buckling Margin of Safety ................................................................... 58
8. Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 62
9. References.................................................................................................................. 65
10. Appendix.................................................................................................................... 66
10.1 Appendix A – ANSYS Input File Code ........................................................... 66
iv
10.2 Appendix B – MATLAB Composite Laminate Stiffness Calculator .............. 70
10.3 Appendix C – MATLAB Composite Laminate Global Failure Calculator ..... 76
v
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1 - Truss Dimensions ............................................................................................ 2
Table 1.2 - Member Cross Section Dimensions ................................................................ 3
Table 2.1 - Steel Alloys [6]................................................................................................ 6
Table 2.2 - 5Cr-Mo-V Steel Properties [6] ........................................................................ 6
Table 2.3 - Composite Materials with Epoxy Resin System [3] ....................................... 7
Table 2.4 - 8552 IM7 Material Properties [3].................................................................... 8
Table 3.1 - Laminate Material Properties ........................................................................ 14
Table 3.2 - Candidate Composite Laminates ................................................................... 15
Table 4.1 - Member Weight Variables ............................................................................ 16
Table 4.2 - Gusset Plate Weight Variables ...................................................................... 17
Table 4.3 - Road Deck Weight Variables ........................................................................ 17
Table 4.4 - Vehicle Weight Variables ............................................................................. 18
Table 4.5 - Snow Load Variables .................................................................................... 19
Table 4.6 - Truss Loads ................................................................................................... 21
Table 6.1 - 2D FEM Member Axial Stresses .................................................................. 31
Table 6.2 - 2D FEM Member Axial Forces ..................................................................... 32
Table 6.3 - Method of Joints Forces ................................................................................ 33
Table 6.4 - Method of Joints Axial Member Stresses ..................................................... 34
Table 6.5 - Truss Group 1 3D FEM Transverse Member Stresses .................................. 35
Table 6.9 - Truss Group 1 3D FEM Transverse Member Forces .................................... 38
Table 6.10 - Truss Group 2 3D FEM Transverse Member Forces .................................. 38
Table 7.1 - Steel Material Allowable ............................................................................... 41
Table 7.2 - Steel Truss Axial M.S. .................................................................................. 42
Table 7.3 - Steel Truss Transverse M.S. .......................................................................... 43
Table 7.4 - Steel Truss Buckling M.S.............................................................................. 44
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Table 7.5 - Composite Material Allowable ..................................................................... 45
Table 7.6 - Global Axial Ply Failure Load ...................................................................... 47
Table 7.7 - Global Transverse Ply Failure Load .............................................................. 48
Table 7.8 - Composite Laminate Group 1 Axial M.S...................................................... 50
Table 7.9 - Composite Laminate Group 2 Axial M.S...................................................... 51
Table 7.10 - Composite Laminate Group 3 Axial M.S.................................................... 52
Table 7.11 - Composite Laminate Group 4 Axial M.S.................................................... 53
Table 7.12 - Composite Laminate Minimum Axial M.S. ................................................ 54
Table 7.13 - Composite Laminate Group 1 Transverse M.S. .......................................... 55
Table 7.17 - Composite Laminate Minimum Transverse M.S. ....................................... 58
Table 7.18 - Composite Laminate Critical Buckling Loads ............................................ 59
Table 7.19 - Composite Composite Laminate Buckling M.S. ......................................... 60
Table 7.20 - Composite Laminate Minimum Buckling M.S. .......................................... 61
Table 8.1 - Steel vs. Composite Weight Comparison ...................................................... 64
vii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 - Warren Truss .................................................................................................. 1
Figure 1.2 - Truss Wireframe Schematic ........................................................................... 2
Figure 1.3 - Truss Member Cross Section ......................................................................... 2
Figure 1.4 - Node Gusset Plate Type ................................................................................. 3
Figure 1.5 - Gusset Plate Type a ........................................................................................ 4
Figure 1.6 - Gusset Plate Type b ....................................................................................... 4
Figure 1.7 - Gusset Plate Type c ........................................................................................ 4
Figure 3.1 - Composite Ply ................................................................................................ 9
Figure 3.2 - Through Thickness Coordinate System [4] ................................................. 10
Figure 3.3 - Tsai Wu Failure Criterion Ellipsoid [4] ....................................................... 13
Figure 4.1 - Dead and Live Truss Load FBD .................................................................. 20
Figure 4.2 - Dynamic Truss Load FBD ........................................................................... 20
Figure 5.1 - 2D ANSYS FEM Geometry ........................................................................ 23
Figure 5.2 - BEAM188 Element [5] ................................................................................ 23
Figure 5.3 - 2D ANSYS FEM Mesh ............................................................................... 24
Figure 5.4 - Member and Node Designation ................................................................... 25
Figure 5.5 - Edge, Top Side, and Internal Node Free Body Diagrams ............................ 26
Figure 5.6 - 3D CATIA Truss Model .............................................................................. 28
Figure 5.7 - 3D ANSYS FEM Mesh ............................................................................... 29
Figure 6.1 - Steel 2D ANSYS FEM Axial Stress Result ................................................. 30
Figure 6.2 - Tension Compression Members .................................................................. 34
Figure 8.1 - Axial M.S. Comparison ............................................................................... 62
Figure 8.2 - Transverse M.S. Comparison ....................................................................... 63
Figure 8.3 - Buckling M.S. Comparison.......................................................................... 63
viii
LIST OF EQUATIONS
Equation 3.1 - Q Matrix ................................................................................................... 10
Equation 3.2 - Through Thickness Vector ....................................................................... 10
Equation 3.3 - Transformation Matrix ............................................................................. 11
Equation 3.4 - Matrix .................................................................................................. 11
Equation 3.5 - [A] Matrix ................................................................................................ 11
Equation 3.6 - [B] Matrix ................................................................................................ 11
Equation 3.7 - [D] Matrix ................................................................................................ 11
Equation 3.8 - [ABD] Matrix........................................................................................... 11
Equation 3.9 - Laminate Mid-plane Strains ..................................................................... 12
Equation 3.10 - Global Ply Strains .................................................................................. 12
Equation 3.11 - Global Ply Stresses ................................................................................ 12
Equation 3.12 - Local Ply Strains .................................................................................... 12
Equation 3.13 - Local Ply Stresses .................................................................................. 12
Equation 3.14 - Tsai-Wu Failure Criterion ...................................................................... 13
Equation 3.15 - Tsai-Wu Failure Criterion Constants ..................................................... 13
Equation 3.16 - Laminate 0º Tensile Modulus ................................................................ 14
Equation 3.17 - Laminate 90º Tensile Modulus .............................................................. 14
Equation 3.18 - Laminate Through Thickness Tensile Modulus .................................... 14
Equation 3.19 - Laminate In-plane Poisson’s Ratio ........................................................ 14
Equation 3.20 - Laminate xz Poisson’s Ratio.................................................................. 14
Equation 3.21 - Laminate yz Poisson’s Ratio .................................................................. 14
Equation 3.22 - Laminate In-plane Shear modulus ......................................................... 14
Equation 3.23 - Laminate xz Shear Modulus .................................................................. 14
Equation 3.24 - Laminate yz Shear Modulus .................................................................. 14
Equation 4.1 - Member Weight ....................................................................................... 16
Equation 4.2 - Gusset Plate Weight ................................................................................. 16
Equation 4.3 - Road Deck Weight ................................................................................... 17
Equation 4.4 - Vehicle Weight ........................................................................................ 18
Equation 4.5 - Snow Weight ............................................................................................ 18
Equation 4.6 - Wind Drag Force...................................................................................... 19
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Equation 5.1 - Beam Slenderness Ratio .......................................................................... 23
Equation 5.2 - Nodal Load to Force Relation .................................................................. 26
Equation 5.3 - Coefficient Matrix .................................................................................... 27
Equation 5.4 - Force Vector............................................................................................. 27
Equation 5.5 - Load Vector ............................................................................................. 27
Equation 6.1 - Member Force .......................................................................................... 31
Equation 7.1 - Margin of Safety ...................................................................................... 41
Equation 7.2 - Critical Buckling Load ............................................................................. 44
Equation 7.3 - Tsai-Wu Failure Criterion ........................................................................ 46
x
LIST OF SYMBOLS
LB – Truss Span [ft]
Lm – Truss Member Span [in]
LT – Truck Length [ft]
Lm – Truss Member Length [in]
wB – Truss Width [in]
tr – Truss Road Deck Thickness [in]
tg – Truss Gusset Plate Thickness [in]
tk – kth Ply thickness [in]
tp – Ply Thickness [in]
A – Cross Sectional Area [in2]
Am – Truss Member Cross Sectional Area [in2]
Ag – Truss Gusset Plate Cross Sectional Area [in2]
g – Weight of Gusset Plate [lb]
m – Weight of Truss Member [lb]
r – Weight of Road Deck [lb]
v – Weight of Vehicles on Bridge [lb]
WT – Weight of Heavy Truck [lb]
s – Weight of Snow on Bridge [lb]
Ps – Snow Design Load [lb/ft2]
P – Weight of Vehicle Load, Snow Load, and Road Deck [lb]
CD – Coefficient of Drag
Fm – Member Force [lb]
Pcr – Critical Buckling Load [lb]
R – Reaction Force [lb]
Fi – Force in Member i [lb]
FD –Drag Force [lb]
FDm – Truss Member Drag Force [lb]
V – Wind Velocity (MPH)
[C] – Coefficient Matrix
{F} – Force Vector [lb]
xi
{P} – Load Vector [lb]
[S] – Stiffness Matrix [1/psi]
[Q] – Reduced Stiffness Matrix [psi]
– Transformed Reduced Stiffness Matrix [psi]
[T] – Transformation Matrix
[ABD] – Laminate Stiffness Matrix
[A] – Top Left 3x3 Section of [ABD] Matrix [lb/in]
[B] – Bottom Left and Top Right 3x3 Sections of [ABD] Matrix [lb]
[D] – Bottom Right 3x3 Section of [ABD] Matrix [lb-in]
[abd] – Inverse of Laminate Stiffness Matrix
[a] – Top Left 3x3 Section of [abd] Matrix [in/lb]
[b] – Bottom Left and Top Right 3x3 Sections of [abd] Matrix [1/lb]
[d] – Bottom Right 3x3 Section of [abd] Matrix [1/lb-in]
σ – Stress [psi]
σm – Member Stress [psi]
ε – Strain [in/in]
τ – Shear Stress [psi]
γ – Shear Strain [in/in]
κ – Curvature [1/in]
N – Force per unit length of laminate [lb/in]
M – Moment per unit length of laminate [in-lb/in]
 – Poisson’s Ratio
E – Elastic Modulus [psi]
G – Shear Modulus [psi]
I – Moment of inertia [in4]
ρ – Density [lb/in3]
{z} – Through Thickness Laminate Coordinate Vector [in]
H – Total Laminate Thickness [in]
M.S. – Margin of Safety
θ – Ply Orientation angle [radians]
k – Laminate Ply Index
xii
t – Tensile
c – Compressive
u – Ultimate
y – Yield
f – Failure
1 – Local Axial Direction
2 – Local Transverse Direction
3 – Local Through Thickness Direction
x – Global Axial Direction
y – Global Transverse Direction
z – Global Through Thickness Direction
i – Matrix Row Index
j – Matrix Column Index
0 – Indicates mid-plane when used as superscript
s – Steel
cm – Composite Material
F1 – Tsai-Wu Failure Constant
xiii
GLOSSARY
CAD – Computer Aided Design
ANSYS Workbench and APDL – Finite element program used for structural analysis
CATIA – Computer Aided Three-Dimensional Interactive Application
FEM – Finite Element Model
CLT – Composite Laminate Theory
Composite Laminate – Two or more plies stacked in a sequence
Symmetric Laminate – A laminate of plies that are symmetric about the mid plane
Balanced Laminate – A laminate for which each positive orientation ply has a
corresponding negative orientation ply of the same thickness and material.
Ply – A single layer of composite material
MATLAB – A programming language for technical computing from The MathWorks
Cross Ply – A ply with an orientation between 0 and 90 degrees
Unidirectional Ply – A ply with fibers running in only one direction
2D – Two Dimensional
3D – Three Dimensional
xiv
ABSTRACT
The main purpose of this project is to design and analyze a truss structure bridge using
composite materials that is stronger and lighter than an identical steel bridge. The
geometry and loading conditions of the bridge are sized to mimic a real world
environment. Every attempt was made to adhere to both state and federal regulations.
The layup of the composite material bridge members was optimized to find the laminate
that outperforms to the steel material the most. The analysis was performed using the
method of joints and an ANSYS finite element model. Mesh studies were performed on
all ANSYS finite element models to ensure solution convergence. An identical analysis
was completed for the steel truss bridge. A comparison of the strength was made by
evaluating the minimum margin of safety in all truss bridge members. To make a fair
evaluation both composite material and steel truss bridges have identical geometries.
The intent is to compare which material is more efficient when constructing a truss
bridge.
xv
1. Introduction/Background
A bridge is the solution to a puzzle. It solves the common problem of how to span an
obstacle through the use of basic engineering principles. This solution comes in many
forms and the best is the most efficient, elegant, and safest. One of the more basic types
of bridge is a truss structure. This is comprised of a collection of straight members
organized in such a way that any load is transferred into the surrounding structure. The
members of a truss bridge are connected at gusset plates. Numerous different geometries
are possible in a truss bridge but the one to be analyzed in this report is the Warren truss,
shown in Figure 1.1. This bridge design was first created by James Warren and
Willoughby Monzoni in 1848 and is characterized by alternating equilateral triangles.
Figure 1.1 - Warren Truss
1.1 Truss Geometry

Dimensions of the Warren truss analyzed in this project were sized per the design
standards of the United States Department of Transportation Federal Highway
Administration [10]. This designates the minimum clearance of the bridge be no less
than 16 feet. To meet this requirement and the requirement that the triangles in the
bridge be equilateral the bridge members need to be 18.5 feet long. The design standard
[10] also requires an absolute minimum lane width of 11 feet and strongly recommends
wider. To be conservative and increase the safety of the bridge the lane width was set at
15 feet. The bridge design is for a two lane roadway which results in a total bridge width
of 30 ft. To ensure that a bridge node coincided with the center of the span the number of
triangles in the bridge was set to seven. This results in a bridge span of 74 feet. These
dimensions are summarized in Table 1.1.
1
Dimension Length (ft)
Span 74
Lane Width 15
Bridge Width 30
Member Length 18.5
Clearance Height 16
Table 1.1 - Truss Dimensions
A wireframe schematic of these dimensions can be seen in Figure 1.2.
Figure 1.2 - Truss Wireframe Schematic
1.2 Truss Member Geometry

All members of the truss were modeled as long axial tension and compression beams
with a hollow square cross section. This cross section type is shown in Figure 1.3.
Figure 1.3 - Truss Member Cross Section
The wall thickness and side length of the members was chosen to uphold the loads
detailed in later chapters. The area and moment of inertia of these members are detailed
in Table 1.2.
2
Dimension Magnitude
Wall Thickness (in) 2
Side (in) 10
Area (in2) 64
Izz (in4) 725
Table 1.2 - Member Cross Section Dimensions
1.3 Truss Gusset Plate Geometry

The truss members are connected at the nodes by gusset plates. These gusset plates
transfer the truss loads between the truss members. Each member is sandwiched between
two gusset plates. The assembly of two gusset plates and a member is then fastened with
by a bolted connection. In the truss there are three different gusset plate geometries.
These are labeled gusset plate a, gusset plate b, and gusset plate c. The type of gusset
plate at each node is shown in Figure 1.4.
b c c b
a c c c a
Figure 1.4 - Node Gusset Plate Type
There are two instances of gusset plate a in the truss. Used only at the very
bottom edges, gusset plate a is a connection between only three members. This type of
gusset plate can be seen in Figure 1.5.
3
Figure 1.5 - Gusset Plate Type a
There are also only two instances of gusset plate b in the truss. This type is used
at the top left and right of the truss. Gusset plate b connects four members of the truss.
This type of gusset plate can be seen in Figure 1.6.
Figure 1.6 - Gusset Plate Type b
There are five instances of gusset plate c in the truss. This type is used on the
interior nodes of the truss. Gusset plate c connects five members of the truss. This type
of gusset plate can be seen in Figure 1.7.
Figure 1.7 - Gusset Plate Type c
4
2. Materials
Most truss bridges are constructed out of structural steel but wooden truss bridges are
not uncommon if the loading is minimal. In bridge designs that utilize these materials the
stresses are computed and then compared with a material allowable. If the stress is too
high a designer has only two choices. One is to increase cross sectional area and the
other is to redesign the geometry of the truss to more evenly distribute load. Each of
these choices has unfortunate tradeoffs. Increasing cross sectional area increases weight
which adds additional loading the truss has to carry. It can also cause other geometric
problems which may violate the design parameters of the bridge. Redesigning the truss
geometry adds to the number of connections needed in the truss and possible points of
failure. When these two options are not available the designer has no choice but to
change material which can lead to the need for larger or smaller cross sectional area. To
avoid this problem the designer can choose the only kind of material that gives full
customization ability of stiffness and strength without having to change geometry. These
materials are composite materials.
Composite materials are known for their ability to be tailored to any situation. A
composite layup can have almost any strength and/or stiffness in any direction. In
addition they often have better strength, stiffness, and corrosion properties as well as
lower weight then standard metallic materials. These properties make composite
materials ideal to use when designing truss bridge members. The layup of each member
can be customized to meet the demands of each individual part without significantly
increasing weight or cross sectional area.
2.1 Steel Material Selection

Multiple types of steel were considered for the truss members. These included low,
intermediate, and high alloy steels that are heat treated and otherwise processed into
many different strength levels. These heat treatments and processing methods affect the
alloy microstructure and thus the material properties. The material properties most
important to the steel selected for the member are the tensile strength, stiffness, and
density. These are important for the following reasons. A high tensile strength is
important as it determines how much load the members can withstand before breaking.
5
Having a lower stiffness is important in reducing the buckling load of members and
improving the ductility of the truss. Low density is important to reduce the overall
weight of the truss which is a major factor affecting how much dead load the bridge
must hold up. Table 2.1 is a list of all the candidate steel alloys. They are ranked on a
ratio of ultimate tensile strength, σtu, to density, ρ. Since a high tensile strength and low
density is desired the alloy with the highest ratio of these two properties was selected.
The alloy with the highest ratio is 5Cr-Mo-V which is classified as an intermediate steel
alloy. This means the amount of alloy elements in the steel are above those classified as
low alloy steels but below those in stainless steels.
σtu ρ Et Ec
Alloy Type Alloy Name
(ksi) (lb/in3) (Msi) (Msi)
Intermediate Alloy 5Cr-Mo-V 280 0.281 30 30 996
Low Alloy 0.42C 300M 280 0.283 29 29 989
High Alloy 280 Maraging 280 0.286 26.5 28.6 979
High Alloy Ferrium S53 280 0.288 29.6 30.7 972
High Alloy AerMet100 275 0.285 28 28.1 965
High Alloy 280 Maraging 275 0.286 26.5 28.6 962
Low Alloy 0.40C 300M 270 0.283 29 29 954
Intermediate Alloy 5Cr-Mo-V 260 0.281 30 30 925
High Alloy AerMet100 262 0.285 28 28.1 919
Low Alloy AISI 4340 260 0.283 29 29 919
Table 2.1 - Steel Alloys [6]
The full material properties of 5Cr-Mo-V are shown in Table 2.2.

Property Value
E (Msi) 30
 0.36
G (Msi) 11
σtu (ksi) 280
σty (ksi) 240
σcy (ksi) -260
ρ (lb/in2) 0.281
Table 2.2 - 5Cr-Mo-V Steel Properties [6]
2.2 Composite Material Selection

Many materials fit the description of a composite material. Examples include concrete,
wood, reinforced plastics, and many other materials. The definition of a composite
6
material is the combination of two different substances into one. The generic names for
these substances are the fiber and the matrix. The fibers are a very long and thin material
that is very strong and stiff in one direction while weak in the others. The matrix is an
isotropic glue material that holds the fibers together. In order to achieve the highest and
stiffest material properties all the fibers in a composite material are aligned in one
direction. This direction is often times the direction of the highest load on the part. As a
result composite materials lend themselves well to axially loaded materials. In this
regard they make a very good material for truss members.
As with other materials strength is the most important property of a composite
material for structural applications. Other key properties of the material are density and
stiffness. Low density helps alleviate the weight the truss must sustain and low stiffness
helps members withstand possible buckling. Hexcel Corporation offers a wide selection
of composite material prepreg and specifies their properties on its website [3]. Each uses
a different resin system and fiber type. The resins available from Hexcel are Epoxy, BMI
(Bismaleimide), Cyanate, and Phenolic. The one most appropriate for use in the
composite truss is the Epoxy resin. This is because this type has the highest tensile
strength and lowest density. Further selection of a type of Epoxy prepreg is achieved by
looking at the individual properties of the materials. Table 2.3 is a list of possible
candidate epoxy prepregs offered by Hexcel. This table is ordered by the ratio of tensile
strength to density.
HexPly Fiber σ1t ρ
Et (Msi)
Brand Type (ksi) (lb/in3)
8552 IM7 395 23.8 0.0470 8404
M73 IM7 364 23.5 0.0466 7812
EH04 M35J 377 26.5 0.0484 7789
F515 IM6 243 21.7 0.0433 5606
F593 T2G145 220 18.3 0.0441 4992
M76 M46J 315 39.6 0.0470 6708
M74 M55J 319 52.8 0.0470 6794
F155 T2C145 266 18.3 0.0482 5516
F263 T3T145 198 19.2 0.0458 4316
F161 Glass Fabric 66 3.1 0.0449 1470
F185 Kevlar 74 3.5 0.0465 1584
Table 2.3 - Composite Materials with Epoxy Resin System [3]
7
The HexPly brand chosen from Table 2.3 for the truss was 8552 IM7 prepreg. This has a
very high tensile strength and low density as well as a high stiffness. The full material
properties of 8557 IM7 are shown in Table 2.4.
Property Value
E1 (Msi) 23.8
E2 (Msi) 1.7
E3 (Msi) 1.7
 0.32
 0.32
 0.0229
G12 (Msi) 0.75
G13 (Msi) 0.75
G23 (Msi) 0.831
σ1t (ksi) 395
σ1c (ksi) -245
σ2t (ksi) 16.1
σ2c (ksi) -32.3
τ12f (ksi) 17.4
ρ (lb/in2) 0.047
tp (in) 0.006
Table 2.4 - 8552 IM7 Material Properties [3]
8
3. Composite Laminate Theory
A composite laminate is made up of two or more plies of composite material. Plies are a
combination of fibers and matrix in a very thin sheet of material. In a unidirectional ply
of material the fibers all align in the same direction. The angle these fibers make with the
longitudinal direction of the entire laminate is referred to as the orientation of a ply. The
matrix is a substance that holds the fibers together. The fibers and matrix of a single ply
are depicted in Figure 3.1
Matrix
Figure 3.1 - Composite Ply

Combining plies of varying material, thickness, and orientation can create a laminate
with any type of material properties the designer requires. The method to calculate the
stress and strain in a laminate and in each individual ply when subject to a load is called
Composite Laminate Theory or CLT [4].
3.1 CLT Assumptions

CLT assumes that each ply in a laminate is flawlessly bonded to any adjacent ones. This
prevents any layers from slipping relative to each other and allows the laminate to act as
a single layer of material when stressed and strained. Many of the assumptions of plate
theory are also relevant in CLT. This includes the supposition that plane sections of the
laminate remain plane under deformation; meaning lines perpendicular to the mid-plane
remain so under deformation. This leads the second assumption that the shear strain
perpendicular to the mid-surface, γxz and γyz, is zero. In addition, the stress through the
thickness is assumed to be zero. These assumptions are in line with a plane stress
condition. The third assumption is that the out of plane strain, εz, is also zero. One of the
results of this assumption is that CLT is invalid at edges of laminates. In these regions
the inter-laminar stresses are high and CLT becomes less accurate.
9
3.2 The ABD Matrix
Before the stress and strain in a laminate can be calculated the material properties of
each individual ply must be compiled into the Laminate Stiffness Matrix or [ABD]
matrix. The first step in calculating this matrix is to calculate the [Q] matrix for each ply.
This is done using equation [3.1].
Equation 3.1 - Q Matrix [3.1]
The [Q] matrix is also called the reduced stiffness matrix because it is the result of
applying a plane stress condition, σ3 = 0, to the full stiffness matrix, [S].
The second step is to create a coordinate system through the thickness of the
laminate. This coordinate system is input into the {zk} vector. In this vector z is the
distance through the thickness of the kth ply. This can be seen in Figure 3.2.
Figure 3.2 - Through Thickness Coordinate System [4]
The equation used for each value of {zk} is shown in equation [3.2].
Equation 3.2 - Through
Thickness Vector
[3.2]
The third step is the transform the [Q] matrix into the matrix. This is done
with the transformation matrix [T]. The transformation matrix is computed for each ply
10
and is determined by a plies orientation angle θ. Equation [3.3] shows how to compute
the transformation matrix.
Equation 3.3 -
Transformation Matrix
[3.3]
The matrix can then be computed using equation [3.4].
Equation 3.4 - Matrix [3.4]
Finally the fourth step is the computation of the [A], [B], and [D] matrix and
compilation of them into the [ABD] matrix. The equations for these matrices can be seen
in equation [3.5], [3.6], and [3.7]. These matrices are a compilation of each plies [Q]
matrix and position in the laminate.
Equation 3.5 - [A] Matrix [3.5]
Equation 3.6 - [B] Matrix [3.6]
Equation 3.7 - [D] Matrix [3.7]
The [A], [B], and [D] matrix are combined into the 6x6 [ABD] in the following
manner. The upper left 3x3 section of the [ABD] matrix is made up of the [A] matrix,
the lower 3x3 section is made up of the [D] matrix, and the upper right and lower left
3x3 sections are made up by the [B] matrix. This can be seen in equation [3.8].
Equation 3.8 - [ABD]
Matrix
[3.8]
3.3 Laminate Stress and Strain

Using the laminate stiffness matrix the stresses and strains in the laminate can be
calculated. The other pieces of information needed to compute these values are the
forces and moments acting on the laminate. The laminate stiffness matrix and force
moment vector can be combined to find the mid-plane strains of the laminate as shown
in equation [3.9].
11
Equation 3.9 - Laminate
Mid-plane Strains
[3.9]
From the mid-plane strains the global strain at the top of each ply in the laminate
coordinate system can be calculated using equation [3.10].
Equation 3.10 - Global Ply

Strains
[3.10]
Then, using Hooke’s Law the global stress at the top of each ply in the laminate
coordinate system can be calculated using equation [3.11].
Equation 3.11 - Global Ply

Stresses
[3.11]
To calculate the global stress and strain at the bottom of each ply zk in equation [3.10]
should be replaced with zk+1.
To calculate the local stress and strain in the ply coordinate system the global
stresses and strains are transformed using their transformation matrix. This is shown in
equation [3.12] and [3.13].
Equation 3.12 - Local Ply

Strains
[3.12]
Equation 3.13 - Local Ply

Stresses
[3.13]
3.4 Laminate Failure Criterion

Failure in composite materials is unique in that each ply of the laminate fails under a
different load. This is due to the varying material properties and orientation of each
layer. As a result each individual ply must be checked. This is done by using the Tsai-
Wu failure criterion [4]. The equation for this criterion is shown in equation [3.14].
12
Equation
3.14 - Tsai-
Wu Failure
[3.14]
Criterion
The constants in equation [3.14] and are calculated using equation [3.15]. In this
equation , , , , and are properties of the material.
Equation 3.15 - Tsai-Wu

Failure Criterion Constants
[3.15]
The Tsai-Wu failure criterion for orthotropic materials is similar to the von Mises failure
criterion for isotropic materials. They both can be visualized in 3D space. Since
unidirectional composite materials are very stiff in the longitudinal direction and weak in
the transverse and through thickness direction the Tsai-Wu criterion takes the shape of
an ellipsoid. This ellipsoid is shown in Figure 3.3. The stiff longitudinal direction is the
1 direction whereas the weaker transverse and through thickness directions are 2 and 3
respectively.
Figure 3.3 - Tsai Wu Failure Criterion Ellipsoid [4]
Inside the ellipsoid the ply will not fail but outside the boundary the ply will breakdown.
3.5 Laminate Material Properties

The overall material properties of the laminate can be calculated using values from the
laminate stiffness matrix, [ABD] matrix. These properties are useful to get a sense of
how the laminate as a whole will respond to various forces and moments. The equations
for these properties can be seen in Table 3.1 [4].
13
Laminate Property Variable Equation
Equation 3.16 - Laminate 0º Tensile Modulus Ex
Equation 3.17 - Laminate 90º Tensile Modulus Ey
Equation 3.18 - Laminate Through Thickness Tensile Ez

Modulus
Equation 3.19 - Laminate In-plane Poisson’s Ratio xy
Equation 3.20 - Laminate xz Poisson’s Ratio xz
Equation 3.21 - Laminate yz Poisson’s Ratio yz
Equation 3.22 - Laminate In-plane Shear modulus Gxy
Equation 3.23 - Laminate xz Shear Modulus Gxz
Equation 3.24 - Laminate yz Shear Modulus Gyz
Table 3.1 - Laminate Material Properties
3.6 Member Laminate Layup

The composite material layup of the members must be optimized to fit the loading
conditions on the truss. This is done by varying the number of plies and their orientation
to the longitudinal direction of the member. As will be described in the truss loads
chapter of this report, each member must be strong enough to withstand all axial and
transverse forces. Table 3.2 is a list of the laminates considered for the truss members in
this project. This list contains laminates that have varying amounts of cross plies or non-
zero orientation. They are broken down into four families. The first is laminates
containing 45 and 0 degree plies, the second containing 30 and 0 degree plies, the third
containing 90 and 0 degree plies, and the fourth containing a combination of
orientations. Indicated next to each laminate is the percent of plies that are considered
cross plies. The name of each laminate corresponds to its makeup. For example the [0340]
14
laminate contains 340 zero degree plies and the [3017/-3017/0136]S laminate contains
seventeen 30 degree plies, followed by seventeen -30 degree plies, followed by 136 zero
degree plies and then the mirrored about the mid-plane. The S denotes it is symmetric
about the mid-plane.
Table 3.2 - Candidate Composite Laminates
It should be noted that the list of laminates includes only balanced and symmetric
laminates. This is to avoid any unnecessary bending, twisting, stretching, or shearing
that can be caused by having an anti-symmetric or unbalanced laminate layup. Included
in the table of candidate layups is the material properties of the entire laminate
calculated using the equations in Table 3.1. An analysis of each individual layup will be
performed in later sections to determine which one is best.
15
4. Truss Loads
There are three types of loads all bridges must withstand. These are a dead load, a live
load, and a dynamic load. These three types are treated individually in the following
sections.
4.1 Dead Load

The dead load on a bridge is weight due to its structure. This is made up of the weight of
the truss members, gusset plates, and road deck. These loads never change during the life
of the bridge.
The weight of one truss member was calculated using equation [4.1].
Equation
4.1 -
Member
[4.1]
Weight
There are 15 members per side of the bridge and 9 cross members in the truss for a total
of 39 members. The weight from all members in the truss was calculated using the
values shown in Table 4.1.
Member Variable Magnitude
ρs (lb/in3) 0.281
ρcm (lb/in3) 0.047
Am (in2) 64
Lm (in) 222
# Members 15
# Cross Members 9
Table 4.1 - Member Weight Variables
Using equation [4.1] and the values of Table 4.1 the weight of each steel member equals
3,992 lbs while the weight of each composite member equals 668 lbs. All 39 members in
the truss add up to a total member weight of 155,705 lbs for the steel truss and 26,043
lbs for the composite truss.
The weight of each gusset plate was calculated using equation [4.2].
Equation
4.2 - Gusset
Plate
[4.2]
Weight
Each node of the truss contains 2 gusset plates. Since there are 9 nodes per side of the
truss there are 18 gusset plates per side. This means the entire truss has a total of 36
16
gusset plates. Of the 18 gusset plates per side 4 of them are type a, 4 are type b, and 10
are type c. The weight due to all of these gusset plates was calculated with the values
shown in Table 4.2.
Gusset Plate Variable Magnitude
ρs (lb/in3) 0.281
ρcm (lb/in3) 0.047
tg (in) 1
Ag Type a (in2) 500
Ag Type b (in2) 824
Ag Type c (in2) 1097
# of Type a Plates 8
# of Type b Plates 8
# of Type c Plates 20
Table 4.2 - Gusset Plate Weight Variables
Using equation [4.2] and the values in Table 4.2 the weight of steel gusset plates a, b,
and c equal 140 lbs, 231 lbs, and 308 lbs. The weight of the corresponding composite
gusset plates equal 23 lbs, 39 lbs, and 52 lbs. All 18 gusset plates in the steel truss weigh
a total of 9,140 lbs and all gusset plates in the composite truss weigh 1,529 lbs.
The weight of the road deck was calculated using the density of asphalt and the
volume of the road as shown in equation [4.3]. The volume of the road deck was
calculated using the length and width of the bridge in combination with the thickness of
the road deck.
Equation
4.3 - Road
Deck
[4.3]
Weight
The values used to calculate the weight of the road deck are shown in Table 4.3.
Road Deck Variable Magnitude
ρasphalt (lb/ft3) 45 [7]
LB (ft) 74
wB (ft) 30
tr (ft) 1
Table 4.3 - Road Deck Weight Variables
Using equation [4.3] and the values in Table 4.3 the weight of the road deck equals
99,900 lbs.
17
4.2 Live Load
The live load on a bridge is weight due to items traveling over the bridge or weights that
may temporarily put load on the bridge. This is a combination of the weight of the
vehicles using the bridge and the snow that can accumulate on the road deck. These
loads change and get redistributed over the life of the bridge.
The vehicle weight on the bridge was calculated by assuming each lane of the
bridge is packed end to end with the heaviest allowed vehicles. According to the
department of transportation the heaviest truck allowed on a highway weighs 80,000 lbs
and measures 51 feet in length [11]. The weight from these vehicles is calculated using
equation [4.4].
Equation
4.4 -
Vehicle
[4.4]
Weight
The values used to calculate the weight of the vehicles are shown in Table 4.4.
Vehicle Weight Variable Magnitude
LB (ft) 74
LT (ft) 51
WT (lb) 80,000
Table 4.4 - Vehicle Weight Variables
Using equation [4.4] and the values in Table 4.4 the weight of the vehicles equals
232,157 lbs.
A snow load must be accounted for in case the bridge is covered with snow. This
is not an insignificant amount and should not be overlooked when calculating bridge
loads. The State of Connecticut building code specifies a minimum snow load all
structures must meet. In Connecticut the most stringent snow load is 40 lb/ft2 as found in
the Connecticut Building Code [8]. Using this design parameter the snow load on the
bridge is calculated using equation [4.5].
Equation
4.5 - Snow [4.5]
Weight
The values used to calculate the weight of the snow are shown in Table 4.5.
18
Snow Load Variable Magnitude
PS (lb/ft2) 40
LB (ft) 74
wB (ft) 30
Table 4.5 - Snow Load Variables
Using equation [4.5] and the values in Table 4.5 the weight of the snow equals 88,800
lbs.
4.3 Dynamic Load

The dynamic load on a bridge is due to temporary loads on a bridge that might perturb
the structure momentarily. The most common type of dynamic load is wind load which
acts in possibly any direction but most often as against the side faces of the truss. This is
generated in the form of a drag force on the truss. The equation to calculate the drag
force is equation [4.6].
Equation
4.6 - Wind [4.6]
Drag Force
In this equation V is the wind speed. The United States Department of Transportation
designates that all structures be able to withstand a 110 MPH wind in the county of
Hartford, Connecticut [9]. The A is the area of the item withstanding the wind load. The
area of the gusset plates can be found in Table 4.2 and the area of the members is 185
in2. CD is the coefficient of drag [1]. For the gusset plates this is assumed to be a flat
plate which has a CD of 2.0 and the members are assumed to be a cylinder with a CD of
1.2. The result of inputting these values into equation [4.6] was that members are subject
to a drag force of 48 lb and gusset plates are subject to a drag force of 215 lb, 354 lb, and
472 lb respectively for gusset plate type a, b, and c.
4.4 Truss Free Body Diagram

The loads calculated in the previous sections are applied to the truss in the following
manner. The dead and live load are distributed evenly over each side of the truss while
the dynamic load acts only on only one face of the truss. All loads are assumed to be
reacted by the nodes of the truss. Half the weight of each member is distributed between
its connecting nodes. The weight of one member is denoted by the variable m. The
19
weight of each gusset plate is reacted at the node to which it is attached and denoted by
the variable g. The subscript letter for each g denotes the type of gusset plate weight.
The road deck, vehicle, and snow load are denoted by the variable P. P is assumed to be
reacted by the lower three middle nodes. The wind drag force on the gusset plates are
reacted at each node and denoted by the variable FDa, FDb, and FDc. The wind drag force
on each member is distributed evenly between the two nodes it is connected to and
denoted by the variable FDm. Finally, the truss itself is assumed to be simply supported.
The free body diagram of these dead and live bridge loads on the each half of the truss is
shown in Figure 4.1.
2m 2.5m 2.5m 2m
Ray 2gb 2gc 2gc 2gb Ri
Rax
1.5m 2.5m 2.5m 2.5m 1.5m
2ga 2gc 2gc 2gc 2gc

P/3 P/3 P/3
Figure 4.1 - Dead and Live Truss Load FBD
The free body diagram of the dynamic loads on the front of the bridge can be seen in
Figure 4.2.
FDb FDc FDc FDb
1.5FDm 2FDm 2FDm 1.5FDm
FDa
FDc FDc FDc FDa
FDm 2FDm 2FDm 2FDm FDm
Figure 4.2 - Dynamic Truss Load FBD
The values of all the loads on the steel and composite truss in Figure 4.1 and Figure 4.2
are summarized in Table 4.6.
20
Steel Truss Composite Truss
Load
Weight (lb) Weight (lb)
P 210,428
m 3,992 668
ga 140 23
gb 231 39
gc 308 52
FDa 215
FDb 354
FDc 472
FDm 48
Table 4.6 - Truss Loads
21
5. Analysis Methodology
Application of the dead, live, and dynamic loads on the truss structure will generate
stress and strain in the members. These stresses are distributed throughout the geometry
based on the axial and transverse forces that develop. The calculation of member stresses
and forces was performed using three methods. The first method was a 2D ANSYS finite
element model, the second was by using the method of joints [2] and third was a 3D
ANSYS finite element method. Computation of the stresses and forces using these three
methods are described in this section. The 2D ANSYS FEM and method of joints were
used to calculate the axial stresses in the members under the dead and live load while the
3D ANSYS FEM calculates the transverse member stresses.
5.1 2D ANSYS Finite Element Model

As previously described a 2D ANSYS FEM was used to calculate the axial stresses in
each truss member. This method breaks down a CAD model of the truss geometry into
discrete elements and nodes. The stresses inside these elements are then calculated based
on the specific loads and boundary conditions on each individual node. Plotting the
stress in all the elements of a FEM gives an overall picture of how the load is distributed
throughout the geometry. In this analysis the finite element software that was utilized
was ANSYS APDL. The results were axial stresses in each member. To convert the
axial stresses into axial member forces the axial stresses are multiplied by the cross
sectional area of each member. In the case of the composite truss members the resulting
axial forces were input into CLT as global axial forces on the laminate to compute local
ply stresses.
5.1.1 Model Geometry, Element Type, and Mesh
The CAD model of the truss was generated using lines in ANSYS. The members were
modeled as lines and the nodes were modeled as key points. Figure 5.1 shows this CAD
model.
22
Figure 5.1 - 2D ANSYS FEM Geometry
Once the CAD model was created an element type was selected. BEAM188 was chosen
as the most appropriate element for this analysis. Figure 5.2 shows a BEAM188 element.
Figure 5.2 - BEAM188 Element [5]
BEAM188 elements are used for slender to moderately thick beam structures. This type
of element is based on Timoshenko beam theory and is an ideal type of element for
bridge truss geometry. The members fit the definition of slender beam structures very
well. ANSYS recommends the slenderness ratio, defined in equation [5.1], must be
greater than 30 for beams to be adequately modeled using a BEAM188 element type.
Equation 5.1 - Beam 2
GAL
Slenderness Ratio
Slenderness Ratio  [5.1]
EI
The slenderness ratio of each steel truss member is 1594 while each composite truss
member is 137. These slenderness ratios are significantly above the recommended
minimum. In Timoshenko beam theory the higher the slenderness ratio of a beam, the
more accurate the results of the structural analysis.
BEAM188 element type also allows the definition of beam cross sectional shape.
Possible shapes include quadrilaterals, circles, rings, c-channels, I beams, z shapes, L
brackets, T brackets, box shapes, and many others. Since the beams have a hollow
rectangular cross section the box shape was chosen.
23
The 2D FEM was meshed using quadrilateral mapped meshing. This resulted in a
very nice mesh. The mesh density was refined until it could be shown that adding more
elements to the model did not change the resulting solution. This convergence point was
reached on all 2D finite element models before results were trusted. Figure 5.3 is a view
of the converged mesh. Note the model looks to be 3D because the BEAM188 elements
have the graphical ability to show a cross sectional view of the members but in reality
acts only in two dimensional space.
Figure 5.3 - 2D ANSYS FEM Mesh
5.1.2 Material Properties, Loads, and Boundary Conditions
The steel truss material was defined as linear isotropic and the composite truss material
was defined as linear orthotropic. The inputs for the isotropic material are elastic
modulus and Poisson ratio while the orthotropic material requires elastic modulus,
Poisson ratio, and shear modulus in each of the three material directions.
Loads were applied to the truss per the free body diagram in the previous chapter.
The application point of these loads was at the nodes connecting the beams of the truss.
Dead and live loads were applied in the vertical y direction. The result is stress in the
axial x direction.
The boundary conditions were set such that the truss is simply supported. This
means that node A is fixed in space and node I is set as a pinned support. This translates
to restraining node A from movement in the x, y, and z direction as well as a rotationally
constraining it around the x and y axis. It also sets node I as restrained from movement
in the y and z directions and the rotationally restrained are around the x and y axis.
24
5.2 Method of Joints
The second method of calculating the axial forces due to the dead and live loads on the
truss is the method of joints. Calculating forces and stresses in this manner is a good
check that the FEM is performing as it should. In this method a free body diagram is
drawn at each joint or node. Each side of the Warren truss in this analysis has a total of
nine nodes and fifteen members. Since the truss is simply supported this results in 15
unknown member forces and 3 unknown reaction forces. A sum of forces in the x and y
direction at each of the nine nodes results in a total of eighteen equations. The system of
eighteen unknowns and eighteen equations can be solved using matrix algebra. The
results were axial forces in each member. To convert the axial forces into axial member
stresses the axial forces are divided by the cross sectional area of each member. In the
case of the composite truss members the resulting axial forces were input into CLT as
global axial forces on the laminate to compute local ply stresses.
5.2.1 Naming Convention
In order to draw all nine nodal free body diagrams the naming convention, shown in
Figure 5.4, was created. All members are assigned a number and all nodes a letter.
B D F H
4 8 12
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
2 6 10 14
A C E G I
Figure 5.4 - Member and Node Designation
The convention employed in depicting the free body diagrams at each node was that
each member force is drawn positive in tension. Designating this convention is important
when interpreting the results. Free body diagrams at nodes also include reactions forces
which at node A is a fixed support and at node I is a roller support.
25
5.2.2 Nodal Free Body Diagrams
There are three types of connection nodes in a Warren truss. They include edge nodes,
upper side nodes, and internal nodes shown in Figure 5.5. Nodes A and I are edge nodes,
nodes B and H are top side nodes, and nodes C, D, E, F, and G are internal nodes. The
difference between the three types is the amount members connected at each node. Edge
nodes connect two axial members, upper side nodes connect three, and internal nodes
connect five. A sample of the free body diagram for each type of node is shown in
Figure 5.5. Note that the internal node can be flipped about the y axis to represent nodes
on the lower side of the truss.
y Fii y y
Fi Fi Fi
x x Fiv x
Fiii Fii Fiii Fii

P P P
Figure 5.5 - Edge, Top Side, and Internal Node Free Body Diagrams
5.2.3 Matrix Equation
After all free body diagrams have been drawn, equilibrium equations for the sum of the
forces in the x and y directions can be written. This results in a total of 18 equations
which can then be combined into matrix form as seen in equation [5.2].
Equation 5.2 - Nodal Load
to Force Relation
C F   P  [5.2]
In this equation [C] is the coefficient matrix, {F} is the vector of member forces, and
{P} is the vector of nodal loads. The coefficient matrix, force vector, and load vector are
shown in equations [5.3], [5.4], and [5.5]. Matrix equation [5.2] was solved using
Microsoft Excel.
26
cos(60 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -1 0
sin(60) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -1 0 0
-cos(60) 0 cos(60 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
-sin(60) 0 -sin(60) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 -1 -cos(60) 0 cos(60 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 sin(60) 0 sin(60) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 -1 -cos(60) 0 cos(60 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 -sin(60) 0 -sin(60) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
[C] =
Equation
5.3 -
Coefficient 0 0 0 0 0 -1 -cos(60) 0 cos(60 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Matrix
0 0 0 0 0 0 sin(60) 0 sin(60) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 [5.3]

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -1 -cos(60) 0 cos(60 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -sin(60) 0 -sin(60) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -1 -cos(60) 0 cos(60 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 sin(60) 0 sin(60) 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -1 -cos(60) 0 cos(60 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -sin(60) 0 -sin(60) 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -1 -cos(60) 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 sin(60) 0 0 -1
F1
F2
F3
F4
F5
F6
F7
Equation 5.4 - Force F8
Vector
{F} = F9
F10
[5.4]
F11
F12
F13
F14
F15
Ra1
Ra2
Ri
0
1.5m + 2g a
0
2m + 2g b
0
2.5m + 2g + + P/3
0
Equation 5.5 - Load 2.5m + 2g c
Vector
{P} = 0
2.5m + 2g + + P/3
[5.5]
0
2.5m + 2g c
0
2.5m + 2g + + P/3
0
2m + 2g b
0
1.5m + 2g a
5.3 3D ANSYS Finite Element Model

The method of joints and BEAM188 element used in the 2D FEM cannot calculate
transverse forces and stresses. In order to calculate these values a 3D FEM was needed.
This method expands upon the previous 2D FEM geometry. In the 2D FEM the CAD
model was made up of lines and beam elements. In the 3D FEM this was expanded to
rectangular members and solid elements. In this analysis the finite element software used
was ANSYS workbench. The results were transverse stresses in each member. To
27
convert the transverse stresses into transverse member forces the transverse stresses are
multiplied by the cross sectional area of each member. In the case of the composite truss
members the resulting transverse forces were input into CLT as global transverse forces
on the laminate to compute local ply stresses.
5.3.1 Model Geometry and Mesh
The geometry for this model is more complex than it is for the 2D model so it was
created using CATIA V5. In this model the full cross section of each of the members is
reproduced. Figure 5.6 shows the CAD geometry of this model. This model is comprised
of members and connection solids at the interfaces of the members.
Figure 5.6 - 3D CATIA Truss Model
The 3D FEM was meshed using bricks elements that resulted in a very fine mesh.
Just like in the 2D model the mesh density was refined until it could be shown that
adding more elements to the model did not change the resulting solution. This
convergence point was reached before results were trusted. Figure 5.7 is a view of the
converged mesh.
28
Figure 5.7 - 3D ANSYS FEM Mesh
5.3.2 Material Properties, Loads, and Boundary Conditions
The material property inputs for the 3D ANSYS FEM are identical to those of the 2D
ANSYS FEM. Steel was defined as a linear isotropic material and the composite
material was defined as a linear orthotropic material.
The vertical loads on the truss have an effect on the transverse stresses. To
account for this effect both vertical and transverse forces were applied to the 3D FEM.
Vertical loads were applied to the each side of the truss per the vertical free body
diagram in the previous chapter. Transverse loads were applied to only the front of the
truss as shown in the transverse free body diagram in the previous chapter. The
application point of these loads was at the connection plates of the members of the truss.
To get results from this FEM stresses were plotted in the transverse z direction.
The boundary conditions were set so the truss is simply supported. In the 3D
ANSYS model this meant applying a fixed constraint to the left side of the truss and a
zero displacement constraint in the y and z direction to the right side.
29
6. Results
The results of applying the analysis methodologies detailed in the previous chapter are
presented in the following sections. Results of the steel material truss are presented
along with those from each candidate member laminate layup. The results of this study
will help choose the ideal laminate layup to most efficiently endure the loading on the
truss.
6.1 2D ANSYS Finite Element Model Results

The results of the 2D FEM are stresses in each member in the axial direction. The
distribution of stresses throughout this model did not vary significantly between the steel
and composite models. Members in compression in the steel model were also in
compression in the composite models. This was also true for members in tension. The
only difference was the magnitude of the stresses in each truss. A color plot of the 2D
finite element model axial stress results for the steel truss is shown in Figure 6.1.
Figure 6.1 - Steel 2D ANSYS FEM Axial Stress Result
The difference in stress magnitude between the models can be seen in the summary of
results shown in Table 6.1. ANSYS outputs a minimum and maximum stress for each
member. To be conservative the maximum tensile stress of the members in tension and
the minimum compressive stress of the members in compression are reported in this
table.
30
Table 6.1 - 2D FEM Member Axial Stresses
To convert axial member stresses into axial member forces equation [6.1] was used.
Equation 6.1 - Member
Force
[6.1]
This results in the axial member forces shown in Table 6.2.
31
Table 6.2 - 2D FEM Member Axial Forces
32
6.2 Method of Joints Results
The outputs from the method of joints are an axial force in each truss members. The
inputs are the boundary conditions and loading conditions detailed in previous chapters.
The difference between the steel and composite truss member forces are the result of the
decreased weight of the composite truss. The loading on the composite truss is lower so
the axial force in each member is as well. The results for each material are shown in
Table 6.3. Included in this table are the reaction forces at node A and I.
Force
Axial Force (lb) Axial Force (lb)
F1 -161,838 -128,239
F2 80,919 64,120
F3 152,084 126,608
F4 -156,961 -127,424
F5 -58,853 -43,567
F6 186,387 149,207
F7 46,616 41,520
F8 -209,695 -169,967
F9 46,616 41,520
F10 186,387 149,207
F11 -58,853 -43,567
F12 -156,961 -127,424
F13 152,084 126,608
F14 80,919 64,120
F15 -161,838 -128,239
Ry -146,426 -112,107
Rx 0 0
Ri -146,426 -112,107
Table 6.3 - Method of Joints Forces
As can be seen in Table 6.3 all the composite laminates have identical axial forces. This
is because the only properties that affect the outcome are material density and geometric
shape. These properties are equal in all of the laminates.
The results show that eight of the members are in tension and seven are in
compression. This is visualized in Figure 6.2 where red members are in tension and blue
members are in compression.
33
4 8 12
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
2 6 10 14
Figure 6.2 - Tension Compression Members
To convert the axial member forces into axial member stresses equation [6.1] was used.
This results in the axial member stresses in Table 6.4.
Member
Axial Stress (psi) Axial Stress (psi)
1 -2,529 -2,004
2 1,264 1,002
3 2,376 1,978
4 -2,453 -1,991
5 -920 -681
6 2,912 2,331
7 728 649
8 -3,276 -2,656
9 728 649
10 2,912 2,331
11 -920 -681
12 -2,453 -1,991
13 2,376 1,978
14 1,264 1,002
15 -2,529 -2,004
Table 6.4 - Method of Joints Axial Member Stresses
6.3 3D ANSYS Finite Element Model Results

The results of the 3D ANSYS FEM are stresses in each member in the transverse
direction. Each member was investigated to find the maximum tensile and minimum
compressive transverse stress. The results of all 19 truss models are split up into multiple
tables based on model groupings. The first grouping contains the steel, single, and
combined ply orientations laminate models is shown in Table 6.5. The second grouping,
containing the +/-45 degree cross ply laminates, is shown in Table 6.6. The third
grouping, containing the +/-30 degree cross ply laminates, is shown in Table 6.7.
34
Finally, the fourth grouping, containing the 90 degree cross ply laminates, is shown in
Table 6.8.
Member Transverse Stress (psi)
Member Steel [0340] [3042/-3042/9042/042]S [4542/-4542/9042/042]S
Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max
1 -2,081 360 -405 403 -893 296 -408 339
2 -859 1,535 -418 366 -598 705 -432 415
3 -318 1,875 -241 235 -163 810 -198 311
4 -1,397 269 -123 140 -579 181 -191 119
5 -1,230 316 -107 244 -457 291 -144 192
6 -405 1,248 -254 159 -298 550 -274 244
7 -491 988 -185 134 -204 146 -150 138
8 -1,333 320 -120 125 -522 230 -206 146
9 -488 982 -184 133 -204 414 -150 140
10 -405 1,248 -255 159 -298 550 -274 244
11 -1,169 310 -103 246 -434 290 -145 194
12 -1,373 239 -123 142 -566 180 -184 119
13 -318 1,878 -243 242 -163 812 -199 310
14 -879 1,739 -927 895 -636 863 -685 799
15 -2,028 354 -433 673 -872 294 -428 337
Table 6.5 - Truss Group 1 3D FEM Transverse Member Stresses
35
Member [4517/-4517/0136]S [4534/-4534/0102]S [4543/-4543/084]S [4551/-4551/068]S
1 -551 341 -740 257 -876 202 -1,033 241
2 -466 656 -536 962 -553 1,172 -622 1,404
3 -191 374 -136 732 -181 997 -238 1,311
4 -208 113 -482 126 -685 159 -917 209
5 -174 217 -430 186 -628 201 -869 232
6 -243 273 -274 452 -303 609 -328 793
7 -151 168 -165 308 -226 415 -293 546
8 181 116 -436 169 -636 200 -873 228
9 -152 170 -165 308 -225 415 -292 544
10 -243 273 -274 453 -303 610 -329 793
11 -167 219 -415 187 -605 212 -837 240
12 -203 114 -474 126 -675 150 -906 181
13 -193 382 -134 733 -178 998 -234 1,311
14 -783 992 -640 1,137 -647 1,257 -738 1,395
15 -540 482 -755 256 -899 210 -1,070 254

Member [3017/-3017/0136]S [3034/-3034/0102]S [3043/-3043/084]S [3051/-3051/068]S [3068/-3068/034]S
Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max
1 -496 350 -602 303 -669 257 -738 195 -1,057 369
2 -540 659 -626 954 -693 1,134 -746 1,316 -834 180
3 -194 307 -155 524 -158 673 -199 830 -341 1,293
4 -175 111 -346 113 -455 130 -558 149 -808 201
5 -127 199 -284 186 -389 216 -503 250 -846 369
6 -241 244 -237 363 -252 443 -267 527 -302 764
7 -143 162 -110 201 -140 250 -171 305 -250 485
8 -142 94 -291 123 -390 139 -494 153 -806 192
9 -144 162 -111 200 -140 250 -171 302 -250 478
10 -241 244 -237 364 -252 445 -267 529 -303 769
11 -123 202 -274 189 -376 221 -486 258 -814 383
12 -169 112 -342 113 -450 130 -552 148 -808 199
13 -196 311 -156 524 -156 673 -196 830 -333 1,292
14 -923 1,091 -891 1,288 -860 1,414 -823 1,550 -797 1,959
15 -550 658 -667 576 -743 513 -824 441 -1,064 356
36
Member [9017/0153]S [9034/0136]S [9043/0127]S [9051/0119]S [9068/0102]S [9085/085]S
Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max
1 -520 452 -618 476 -660 486 -694 494 -754 575 -797 698
2 -498 380 -488 420 -474 437 -460 452 -429 502 -401 543
3 -258 241 -263 297 -266 324 -270 347 -280 293 -321 437
4 -218 173 -279 232 -303 260 -321 284 -249 333 -367 384
5 -115 302 -127 335 -133 349 -138 360 -145 380 -161 398
6 -293 186 -314 211 -321 231 -325 262 -340 331 -392 411
7 -244 182 -277 235 -291 259 -301 279 -319 316 -333 349
8 -182 215 -211 283 -232 315 -264 343 -337 403 -421 466
9 -244 182 -278 235 -290 259 -300 279 -317 317 -330 350
10 -293 185 -314 210 -321 230 -325 261 -339 330 -393 409
11 -109 304 -127 338 -133 352 -138 363 -146 383 -163 400
12 -218 172 -280 232 -304 259 -322 283 -349 333 -367 384
13 -257 245 -261 303 -263 332 -266 356 -284 404 -325 451
14 -621 665 -479 590 -478 563 -493 543 -546 570 -627 670
15 -374 450 -356 475 -352 485 -353 493 -405 537 -474 579
To convert transverse member stresses into transverse member forces equation [6.1] was
used. This results in the transverse member forces shown in Table 6.9, Table 6.10, Table
6.11, and Table 6.12.
37
Member Transverse Force (lb)
Member Steel [0340] [3042/-3042/9042/042]S [4542/-4542/9042/042]S
1 -133,171 23,035 -25,951 25,814 -57,156 18,938 -26,112 21,696
2 -55,000 98,214 -26,778 23,425 -38,301 45,130 -27,648 26,560
3 -20,323 120,013 -15,407 15,021 -10,425 51,812 -12,672 19,904
4 -89,402 17,205 -7,867 8,943 -37,052 11,590 -12,224 7,616
5 -78,720 20,226 -6,826 15,604 -29,235 18,653 -9,216 12,288
6 -25,912 79,885 -16,265 10,195 -19,057 35,226 -17,536 15,616
7 -31,453 63,210 -11,823 8,545 -13,067 9,322 -9,600 8,832
8 -85,338 20,454 -7,700 7,983 -33,385 14,739 -13,184 9,344
9 -31,215 62,860 -11,773 8,533 -13,025 26,500 -9,600 8,960
10 -25,890 79,866 -16,292 10,147 -19,047 35,216 -17,536 15,616
11 -74,784 19,839 -6,618 15,767 -27,798 18,552 -9,280 12,416
12 -87,866 15,265 -7,844 9,085 -36,253 11,540 -11,776 7,616
13 -20,377 120,186 -15,583 15,508 -10,445 51,962 -12,736 19,840
14 -56,244 111,277 -59,349 57,281 -40,730 55,263 -43,840 51,136
15 -129,792 22,685 -27,724 43,053 -55,832 18,796 -27,392 21,568
Table 6.9 - Truss Group 1 3D FEM Transverse Member Forces
Member Transverse Force (lb)

Member [4517/-4517/0136]S [4534/-4534/0102]S [4543/-4543/084]S [4551/-4551/068]S
1 -35,291 21,819 -47,363 16,472 -56,090 12,907 -66,131 15,393
2 -29,801 41,965 -34,319 61,558 -35,363 74,995 -39,820 89,824
3 -12,208 23,927 -8,735 46,846 -11,599 63,800 -15,244 83,878
4 -13,328 7,261 -30,872 8,070 -43,815 10,177 -58,671 13,395
5 -11,148 13,888 -27,542 11,935 -40,195 12,845 -55,590 14,852
6 -15,556 17,453 -17,557 28,899 -19,370 38,999 -21,014 50,723
7 -9,672 10,777 -10,547 19,690 -14,442 26,567 -18,745 34,913
8 11,597 7,397 -27,919 10,823 -40,703 12,822 -55,864 14,597
9 -9,734 10,859 -10,534 19,734 -14,391 26,586 -18,659 34,806
10 -15,544 17,484 -17,556 28,981 -19,377 39,031 -21,025 50,734
11 -10,687 14,022 -26,533 11,985 -38,750 13,578 -53,554 15,355
12 -12,974 7,316 -30,349 8,049 -43,206 9,594 -57,983 11,575
13 -12,337 24,431 -8,596 46,901 -11,414 63,853 -14,964 83,904
14 -50,115 63,460 -40,984 72,762 -41,421 80,429 -47,204 89,254
15 -34,591 30,829 -48,351 16,355 -57,553 13,430 -68,474 16,261
38
39
40
7. Margin of Safety Calculation
The ultimate goal of using composite materials in place of steel for the construction of a
truss bridge is achieving a lower weight structure that has higher strength. Strength can
be quantified by calculating a margin of safety in each truss member. Margin of safety is
defined as in equation [7.1].
Equation 7.1 - Margin of

Safety
[7.1]
When the M.S. reaches a value less than or equal to zero the structure will fail. An
alternate definition is that it is equal to the factor of safety minus one. This factor is used
to compare the steel and composite material trusses. This is done by computing the M.S
in every member of every truss model for both the axial and transverse directions. Then
a comparison between the lowest axial and transverse M.S. in each truss is made. The
truss with the highest M.S. is deemed the strongest and the one with the lowest is ranked
as the weakest. This results in a simple quantitative parameter to compare between each
truss model.
7.1 Steel Truss Margin of Safety

The intermediate alloy 5Cr-Mo-V steel is an isotropic material. This means it has the
same strength in every direction. The material allowable for this strength only varies
with the type of stress applied. Table 7.1 details the material allowable for 5Cr-Mo-V
steel in compression and tension.
5Cr-Mo-V Allowable (ksi)
σty 240
σcy -260
Table 7.1 - Steel Material Allowable
It should be noted that this material is stronger in compression then it is in tension.
7.1.1 Axial Margin of Safety
The axial M.S. of the steel truss was calculated using the results of the 2D ANSYS finite
element model and method of joints. The maximum axial stress in each member as
computed by these methods was compared to the appropriate tension or compression
41
material allowable. The member stresses used in this calculation can found in the
previous chapter. The resulting axial M.S. for each method is shown in Table 7.2.
MOJ 2D ANSYS
Member
Axial M.S.
1 102 93
2 189 138
3 100 96
4 105 88
5 282 215
6 81 74
7 329 275
8 78 73
9 329 275
10 81 74
11 282 215
12 105 88
13 100 96
14 189 138
15 102 93
Table 7.2 - Steel Truss Axial M.S.
An example of the M.S. as calculated for member 1 from the method of joints result is
shown below. As can be seen in this example calculation since the stress is compressive
the compressive material allowable is used.
Table 7.2 shows that the lowest M.S. occurs in member 8. In the method of joints this
M.S. is 78 and is 73 in the 2D ANSYS finite element model. Member 8 is the top center
member of the truss.
7.1.2 Transverse Margin of Safety
The transverse M.S. of the steel truss is calculated using the results of the 3D ANSYS
finite element model. These results are in the form of a maximum and minimum
transverse stress in each member. Since the maximum stress is always a tensile stress
and the minimum stress is always a compressive stress the maximum stress is compared
to the tensile material allowable and the minimum stress is compared to the compressive
material allowable. This results in a M.S. for both tension and compression. The lower
42
of these two results is treated as the M.S. for the member. The member stresses used in
this calculation can found in the previous chapter. The minimum transverse M.S. in each
member is presented in Table 7.3.
Transverse
Member
M.S.
1 124
2 155
3 127
4 185
5 210
6 191
7 242
8 194
9 243
10 191
11 222
12 188
13 127
14 137
15 127
Table 7.3 - Steel Truss Transverse M.S.
An example of the M.S. as calculated for member 1 from the 3D FEM results is shown
below.
Since the compressive M.S. is much lower than the tensile this is the minimum M.S. of
the member. Table 7.3 shows that the lowest margin is 124 in the first member of the
truss which is the left most diagonal member.
7.1.3 Buckling Margin of Safety
A potential failure mode of the truss members in addition to yielding is axial buckling of
the members in compression. To check members for buckling the axial force in each is
43
compared with the critical buckling load. The equation for the critical buckling load is
shown in equation [7.2].
Equation 7.2 - Critical
Buckling Load
[7.2]
This is the buckling load for a pinned-pinned connection of an axially loaded

compression member. If the force in any compression member exceeds this value the
member will buckle. The buckling load of each steel member is 4.36 million pounds
because each member has the same length, stiffness, and moment of inertia. The forces
calculated in the method of joints are used as the actual strength in the M.S. calculation
for buckling. The buckling M.S. for each member is shown in Table 7.4. Members in
tension are N/A since they are not subject to buckling.
Member Buckling M.S.
1 26
2 N/A
3 N/A
4 27
5 73
6 N/A
7 N/A
8 20
9 N/A
10 N/A
11 73
12 27
13 N/A
14 N/A
15 26
Table 7.4 - Steel Truss Buckling M.S.
An example of the buckling M.S. as calculated for member 1 from the method of joints
results is shown below.
Table 7.4 shows that the lowest buckling M.S. is 20 in member 8 which is the top center
member of the truss.
44
7.2 Composite Truss Margin of Safety
The carbon fiber epoxy IM7/8552 composite material is an orthotropic material. This
means it has a different strength in each material direction. This is because all the fibers
are aligned in one direction which results in a high strength in the fiber direction and a
very weak strength in the transverse matrix direction. This can be seen in the material
allowable for the IM7/8552 carbon fiber epoxy shown in Table 7.5.
8552/IM7 Carbon
Allowable (ksi)
Fiber Epoxy
σ1t 395
σ1c -245
σ2t 16.1
σ2c -32.3
Table 7.5 - Composite Material Allowable
The difference in strength between the axial and transverse direction of this material is
the reason plies are stacked up in a laminate at varying orientations. Varying the
orientation of some of the plies in a laminate is a way to strengthen the laminate in the
desired orientation angle direction. This allows for the ability to customize the strength
of a laminate in any direction.
Determining failure in a composite material laminate requires checking every ply
for failure. This is done by employing classical laminate theory and Tsai-Wu failure
criterion. The process is to first find the global axial and global transverse force that will
cause failure in each ply of the laminate. This is done by separately applying an axial
and transverse unit force per length of laminate to the laminate. The length of laminate
used is measured as the length of the laminate in the direction perpendicular to the force.
In the case of the axial direction this is the circumference of the box member which is
equal to 40 inches. In the case of the transverse direction this is equal to 222 inches
which is the length of each member. The resulting local stresses, from the unit forces, in
each ply are calculated using CLT. These local stresses are inserted into the Tsai-Wu
failure criterion equation along with the Tsai-Wu constants. The Tsai-Wu failure
criterion equation and the Tsai-Wu criterion constants can be found in the CLT chapter.
The equation is repeated here in equation [7.3].
45
Equation
7.3 - Tsai-
Wu Failure
[7.3]
Criterion
To find the force to cause failure in each ply the unit force on the laminate is increased
until the term on the left hand side of the Tsai-Wu equation is equal to 1. When this
occurs the failure load has been found. Due to the quadratic nature of the Tsai-Wu
failure criterion there is both a tensile and compressive unit force which will cause
failure. The process is repeated until the tensile and compressive failure load has been
found in each ply of the laminate for both the axial and transverse directions. This
procedure was followed for each of the candidate laminates considered in this project.
The resulting axial failure loads are shown in Table 7.6 and the resulting transverse
failure loads are shown in Table 7.7 for each ply of each laminate.
46
Axial
Ply Tension Failure Compression Failure
Laminate
Orientation Load (lb) Load (lb)
[0340] 0 32,232,000 -19,992,000
45 21,776,300 -24,045,000
[4517/-4517/0136]S -45 21,776,300 -24,045,000
0 24,602,600 -13,953,500
45 16,594,100 -17,819,700
[4534/-4534/0102]S -45 16,594,100 -17,819,700
0 18,504,400 -10,216,600
45 14,026,000 -14,931,600
[4543/-4543/084]S -45 14,026,000 -14,931,600
0 15,579,100 -8,536,100
45 11,807,300 -12,496,100
[4551/-4551/068]S -45 11,807,300 -12,496,100
0 13,080,400 -7,131,400
30 25,843,600 -18,785,300
[3017/-3017/0136]S -30 25,843,600 -18,785,300
0 25,205,800 -13,923,900
30 19,909,100 -13,647,700
[3034/-3034/0102]S -30 19,909,100 -13,647,700
0 19,135,900 -10,094,400
30 17,154,900 -11,544,100
[3043/-3043/084]S -30 17,154,900 -11,544,100
0 16,427,100 -8,549,100
30 14,912,100 -9,911,700
[3051/-3051/068]S -30 14,912,100 -9,911,700
0 14,248,600 -7,351,000
30 10,657,100 -6,955,000
[3068/-3068/034]S -30 10,657,100 -6,955,000
0 10,156,800 -5,175,500
90 16,208,400 -32,862,100
[9017/0153]S
0 30,165,900 -20,559,200
90 14,782,300 -29,862,000
[9034/0136]S
0 27,126,400 -19,068,100
90 13,949,700 -28,144,000
[9043/0127]S
0 25,485,600 -18,079,300
90 13,189,200 -26,585,800
[9051/0119]S
0 24,024,300 -17,146,100
90 11,536,800 -23,222,200
[9068/0102]S
0 20,919,200 -15,065,200
90 9,856,600 -19,820,700
[9085/085]S
0 17,818,000 -12,908,600
30 16,894,600 -13,938,400
-30 16,894,600 -13,938,400
[3042/-3042/9042/042]S
90 8,887,400 -18,071,700
0 17,103,000 -10,607,900
45 10,421,300 -12,353,000
-45 10,421,300 -12,353,000
[4542/-4542/9042/042]S
90 6,332,600 -12,876,800
0 12,186,500 -7,558,500
Table 7.6 - Global Axial Ply Failure Load
47
Transverse
Ply Tension Failure Compression Failure
Laminate
Orientation Load (lb) Load (lb)
[0340] 0 7,291,400 -14,628,000
45 17,564,200 -22,289,600
[4517/-4517/0136]S -45 17,564,200 -22,289,600
0 11,538,700 -23,288,600
45 23,172,800 -28,796,300
[4534/-4534/0102]S -45 23,172,800 -28,796,300
0 14,798,300 -30,030,600
45 25,390,700 -31,073,600
[4543/-4543/084]S -45 25,390,700 -31,073,600
0 15,925,200 -32,382,100
45 26,676,100 -32,091,800
[4551/-4551/068]S -45 26,676,100 -32,091,800
0 16,434,200 -33,438,200
30 10,163,600 -16,949,000
[3017/-3017/0136]S -30 10,163,600 -16,949,000
0 8,203,400 -16,529,500
30 10,928,000 -18,206,700
[3034/-3034/0102]S -30 10,928,000 -18,206,700
0 8,740,600 -17,683,800
30 11,110,000 -18,491,000
[3043/-3043/084]S -30 11,110,000 -18,491,000
0 8,839,100 -17,917,500
30 11,115,500 -18,475,500
[3051/-3051/068]S -30 11,115,500 -18,475,500
0 8,799,200 -17,863,100
30 10,529,700 -17,420,600
[3068/-3068/034]S -30 10,529,700 -17,420,600
0 8,238,900 -16,760,100
90 30,225,800 -22,158,000
[9017/0153]S
0 16,824,400 -33,763,000
90 47,372,000 -34,659,600
[9034/0136]S
0 26,341,000 -52,879,200
90 56,453,700 -41,253,500
[9043/0127]S
0 31,370,400 -62,989,400
90 64,529,200 -47,096,800
[9051/0119]S
0 35,834,600 -71,968,700
90 81,700,400 -59,440,900
[9068/0102]S
0 45,295,000 -91,018,500
90 98,889,800 -71,642,700
[9085/085]S
0 54,704,300 -110,005,100
30 38,684,200 -64,201,500
-30 38,684,200 -64,201,500
[3042/-3042/9042/042]S
90 57,414,600 -38,022,600
0 30,486,700 -61,953,800
45 57,838,000 -68,558,900
-45 57,838,000 -68,558,900
[4542/-4542/9042/042]S
90 67,635,100 -41,949,800
0 35,145,900 -71,466,100
Table 7.7 - Global Transverse Ply Failure Load
48
The failure loads were calculated using the MATLAB code in appendix C. It should be
noted that plies with equivalent orientation, material, and thickness in different laminates
will have different failure loads. This is because the failure load of a ply is more
determined by its place in the laminate and by the material properties of the surrounding
plies. This is because the stiffness of each laminate is different resulting in the load on
the laminate flowing through it in a different fashion.
7.2.1 Axial Margin of Safety
Using the failure loads in Table 7.6 as the material allowable for each ply and the forces
calculated using the 2D ANSY FEM, in the previous chapter, an axial M.S. can be
calculated. The following tables present the minimum M.S. each ply of each member.
The results of all 18 laminates are split up into multiple tables based on model
groupings. The first grouping contains the single and +/-45 degree cross ply laminates.
The results of which are shown in Table 7.8. The second grouping contains the +/-30
degree cross ply laminates and the results are shown in Table 7.9. The third grouping
contains the 90 degree cross ply laminates and the results are shown in Table 7.10.
Finally, the forth grouping contains the combined orientation laminates and the results
are shown in Table 7.11.
49
[4517/-4517/0136]S
[4534/-4534/0102]S
[4543/-4543/084]S
[4551/-4551/068]S
[0340]
Member
0 45 -45 0 45 -45 0 45 -45 0 45 -45 0

1 233 172 172 100 127 127 72 106 106 60 89 89 50
2 379 252 252 284 191 191 213 161 161 179 135 135 150
3 249 168 168 190 127 127 142 108 108 120 90 90 100
4 135 161 161 93 119 119 68 99 99 56 83 83 47
5 354 418 418 242 308 308 176 257 257 147 215 215 122
6 198 133 133 151 101 101 113 85 85 95 72 72 80
7 679 456 456 516 347 347 387 293 293 326 247 247 273
8 111 134 134 77 99 99 56 83 83 47 69 69 39
9 679 456 456 516 347 347 387 293 293 326 247 247 273
10 198 133 133 151 101 101 113 85 85 95 72 72 80
11 354 418 418 242 308 308 176 257 257 147 215 215 122
12 135 161 161 93 119 119 68 99 99 56 83 83 47
13 249 168 168 190 127 127 142 108 108 120 90 90 100
14 379 252 252 284 191 191 213 161 161 179 135 135 150
15 233 172 172 100 127 127 72 106 106 60 89 89 50
Table 7.8 - Composite Laminate Group 1 Axial M.S.
50
[3017/-3017/0136]S
[3034/-3034/0102]S
[3043/-3043/084]S
[3051/-3051/068]S
[3068/-3068/034]S
Member
30 -30 0 30 -30 0 30 -30 0 30 -30 0 30 -30 0

1 135 135 99 97 97 72 82 82 60 70 70 52 49 49 36
2 299 299 292 229 229 220 197 197 189 171 171 163 102 102 97
3 199 199 194 153 153 147 132 132 126 114 114 109 81 81 78
4 126 126 93 91 91 67 77 77 56 66 66 48 46 46 34
5 327 327 242 236 236 174 199 199 147 171 171 126 119 119 88
6 158 158 154 122 122 117 105 105 100 91 91 87 65 65 62
7 542 542 529 417 417 401 359 359 344 312 312 298 222 222 212
8 104 104 77 75 75 56 64 64 47 54 54 40 38 38 28
9 542 542 529 417 417 401 359 359 344 312 312 298 222 222 212
10 158 158 154 122 122 117 105 105 100 91 91 87 65 65 62
11 327 327 242 236 236 174 199 199 147 171 171 126 119 119 88
12 126 126 93 91 91 67 77 77 56 66 66 48 46 46 34
13 199 199 194 153 153 147 132 132 126 114 114 109 81 81 78
14 299 299 292 229 229 220 197 197 189 171 171 163 102 102 97
15 135 135 99 97 97 72 82 82 60 70 70 52 49 49 36
51
[9017/0153]S
[9034/0136]S
[9043/0127]S
[9051/0119]S
[9068/0102]S
[9085/085]S
Member
90 0 90 0 90 0 90 0 90 0 90 0
1 238 148 216 137 203 130 192 123 167 108 142 91
2 190 354 173 317 163 298 153 280 134 243 114 203
3 125 233 114 210 107 197 101 185 89 161 75 136
4 222 139 202 129 190 122 179 115 156 101 133 85
5 582 364 527 336 496 318 468 301 407 264 347 221
6 99 185 90 166 85 156 80 147 70 128 60 108
7 341 635 311 571 293 536 277 505 242 439 206 369
8 183 114 166 106 157 100 148 95 129 83 110 71
9 341 635 311 571 293 536 277 505 242 439 206 369
10 99 185 90 166 85 156 80 147 70 128 60 108
11 582 364 527 336 496 318 468 301 407 264 347 221
12 222 139 202 129 190 122 179 115 156 101 133 85
13 125 233 114 210 107 197 101 185 89 161 75 136
14 190 354 173 317 163 298 153 280 134 243 114 203
15 238 148 216 137 203 130 192 123 167 108 142 91
52
[3042/-3042/9042/042]S [4542/-4542/9042/042]S
Member
30 -30 90 0 45 -45 90 0
1 98 98 128 75 87 87 91 53
2 192 192 101 195 118 118 71 138
3 129 129 67 130 79 79 48 92
4 92 92 119 70 81 81 85 49
5 238 238 309 181 211 211 220 128
6 102 102 53 103 63 63 38 73
7 350 350 184 355 216 216 131 252
8 76 76 99 58 68 68 70 41
9 350 350 184 355 216 216 131 252
10 102 102 53 103 63 63 38 73
11 238 238 309 181 211 211 220 128
12 92 92 119 70 81 81 85 49
13 129 129 67 130 79 79 48 92
14 192 192 101 195 118 118 71 138
15 98 98 128 75 87 87 91 53
An example calculation of the M.S. in the 0 degree ply of the first member in the [0 340]S
laminate model is shown below. In this example the load is tensile so the tension
allowable is used as the allowable strength.
The minimum M.S. in each laminate model is shown in Table 7.12. Included in this table
is the member and ply orientation type that results in the minimum M.S.
53
Minimum Ply Orientation Type Member # Containing
Laminate
M.S. Containing Minimum M.S. Minimum M.S.
[0340] 111 0 8
[4517/-4517/0136]S 77 0 8
[4534/-4534/0102]S 56 0 8
[4543/-4543/084]S 47 0 8
[4551/-4551/068]S 39 0 8
[3017/-3017/0136]S 77 0 8
[3034/-3034/0102]S 56 0 8
[3043/-3043/084]S 47 0 8
[3051/-3051/068]S 40 0 8
[3068/-3068/034]S 28 0 8
[9017/0153]S 99 90 6, 10
[9034/0136]S 90 90 6, 10
[9043/0127]S 85 90 6, 10
[9051/0119]S 80 90 6, 10
[9068/0102]S 70 90 6, 10
[9085/085]S 60 90 6, 10
[3042/-3042/9042/042]S 53 90 6, 10
[4542/-4542/9042/042]S 38 90 6, 10
Table 7.12 - Composite Laminate Minimum Axial M.S.
The results shown in Table 7.12 that for axial strength the [0340] laminate is the strongest
followed by the [9017/0153]S layup. This is because these laminates contain many plies
oriented in the direction of the axial load.
7.2.2 Transverse Margin of Safety
Using the failure loads in Table 7.7 as the material allowable for each ply and the forces
on each member, calculated using the 3D ANSYS FEM in the previous chapter, a
transverse M.S. can be calculated. This analysis method outputs a maximum tensile
force and a minimum compressive force. It was found that the minimum M.S. is
calculated when using the tensile force so the M.S. results use these forces. The results
of all 18 laminates are split up into multiple tables based on model groupings. The first
grouping contains the single and +/-45 degree cross ply laminates. The results of which
are shown in Table 7.13. The second grouping contains the +/-30 degree cross ply
laminates and the results are shown in Table 7.14. The third grouping contains the 90
54
degree cross ply laminates and the results are shown in Table 7.15. Finally, the forth
grouping contains the combined orientation laminates and the results are shown in Table
7.16. An example calculation of the M.S. in the 0 degree ply of the first member in the
[0340]S laminate model is shown below.
Table 7.13 - Composite Laminate Group 1 Transverse M.S.
55
56
[9017/0153]S [9034/0136]S [9043/0127]S [9051/0119]S [9068/0102]S [9085/085]S
Member
90 0 90 0 90 0 90 0 90 0 90 0
1 1,044 580 1,553 863 1,813 1,007 2,039 1,132 2,220 1,231 2,211 1,223
2 1,242 691 1,761 979 2,017 1,120 2,228 1,237 2,541 1,408 2,846 1,574
3 1,958 1,089 2,492 1,385 2,722 1,512 2,905 1,613 4,352 2,412 3,531 1,953
4 2,737 1,523 3,191 1,774 3,394 1,886 3,554 1,973 3,831 2,123 4,019 2,223
5 1,565 871 2,207 1,226 2,525 1,403 2,798 1,554 3,354 1,859 3,881 2,146
6 2,532 1,409 3,501 1,946 3,813 2,119 3,845 2,135 3,855 2,137 3,761 2,080
7 2,594 1,443 3,151 1,752 3,406 1,892 3,617 2,008 4,035 2,236 4,425 2,448
8 2,191 1,219 2,618 1,455 2,800 1,555 2,939 1,632 3,170 1,757 3,316 1,834
9 2,593 1,443 3,150 1,751 3,403 1,890 3,612 2,006 4,026 2,232 4,410 2,439
10 2,553 1,421 3,520 1,957 3,836 2,131 3,863 2,145 3,866 2,143 3,774 2,087
11 1,552 863 2,187 1,216 2,503 1,391 2,775 1,541 3,331 1,846 3,861 2,135
12 2,742 1,526 3,195 1,776 3,398 1,888 3,558 1,975 3,833 2,125 4,020 2,223
13 1,928 1,073 2,439 1,356 2,659 1,477 2,834 1,573 3,155 1,749 3,423 1,893
14 709 394 1,254 697 1,565 869 1,856 1,030 2,237 1,240 2,305 1,275
15 1,048 583 1,558 866 1,818 1,010 2,043 1,134 2,375 1,316 2,668 1,475
[3042/-3042/9042/042]S [4542/-4542/9042/042]S
Member
30 -30 90 0 45 -45 90 0
1 2,042 2,042 3,031 1,609 2,665 2,665 3,116 1,619
2 856 856 1,271 675 2,177 2,177 2,546 1,322
3 746 746 1,107 587 2,905 2,905 3,397 1,765
4 3,337 3,337 4,953 2,629 7,593 7,593 8,880 4,614
5 2,073 2,073 3,077 1,633 4,706 4,706 5,503 2,859
6 1,097 1,097 1,629 864 3,703 3,703 4,330 2,250
7 4,149 4,149 6,158 3,270 6,548 6,548 7,657 3,978
8 2,624 2,624 3,895 2,067 6,189 6,189 7,237 3,760
9 1,459 1,459 2,166 1,149 6,454 6,454 7,548 3,922
10 1,097 1,097 1,629 865 3,703 3,703 4,330 2,250
11 2,084 2,084 3,094 1,642 4,657 4,657 5,446 2,830
12 3,351 3,351 4,974 2,641 7,593 7,593 8,880 4,614
13 743 743 1,104 586 2,914 2,914 3,408 1,770
14 699 699 1,038 551 1,130 1,130 1,322 686
15 2,057 2,057 3,054 1,621 2,681 2,681 3,135 1,629
The minimum M.S. in each laminate model is shown in Table 7.17. Included in this table
is the member and ply orientation type that results in the minimum M.S.
57
Minimum Ply Orientation Type Member # Containing
Laminate
M.S. Containing Minimum M.S. Minimum M.S.
[0340] 126 0 14
[4517/-4517/0136]S 181 0 14
[4534/-4534/0102]S 202 0 14
[4543/-4543/084]S 197 0 14
[4551/-4551/068]S 182 0 2
[3017/-3017/0136]S 117 0 14
[3034/-3034/0102]S 105 0 14
[3043/-3043/084]S 97 0 14
[3051/-3051/068]S 88 0 14
[3068/-3068/034]S 65 0 14
[9017/0153]S 394 0 14
[9034/0136]S 697 0 14
[9043/0127]S 869 0 14
[9051/0119]S 1030 0 14
[9068/0102]S 1231 0 1
[9085/085]S 1223 0 1
[3042/-3042/9042/042]S 551 0 14
[4542/-4542/9042/042]S 686 0 14
Table 7.17 - Composite Laminate Minimum Transverse M.S.
The results shown in Table 7.17 show that for transverse strength the [9085/9085]S
laminate is the strongest followed by the [9068/90102]S layup. This is because these
laminates contain the most cross plies oriented in the direction of the transverse load.
7.2.3 Buckling Margin of Safety
Similar to the steel truss the members of the composite truss subject to compression
forces must be checked against their critical buckling load. Using equation [7.2] and the
global material properties of each laminate the critical buckling load was calculated and
is shown for each candidate laminate in Table 7.18.
58
Layup Pcr (lb)
[0340] 3,457,072
[4517/-4517/0136]S 2,867,772
[4534/-4534/0102]S 2,256,407
[4543/-4543/084]S 1,929,424
[4551/-4551/068]S 1,637,708
[3017/-3017/0136]S 3,070,417
[3034/-3034/0102]S 2,629,742
[3043/-3043/084]S 2,381,341
[3051/-3051/068]S 2,153,799
[3068/-3068/034]S 1,653,541
[9017/0153]S 3,148,085
[9034/0136]S 2,828,713
[9043/0127]S 2,658,648
[9051/0119]S 2,507,205
[9068/0102]S 2,184,913
[9085/085]S 1,862,258
[3042/-3042/9042/042]S 1,856,259
[4542/-4542/9042/042]S 1,323,274
Table 7.18 - Composite Laminate Critical Buckling Loads
This results in the buckling M.S. for each member of each truss shown in Table 7.19.
N/A indicates the member is in tension and is not subject to buckling. An example of the
M.S. as calculated for the first member of the [0340]S laminate is shown below.
59
Table 7.19 - Composite Composite Laminate Buckling M.S.
60
The minimum M.S. for member buckling in each laminate is shown in Table 7.20. As
can be seen in Table 7.19 this minimum always occurs in member number eight.
Minimum
Laminate
Buckling M.S.
[0340] 19
[4517/-4517/0136]S 16
[4534/-4534/0102]S 12
[4543/-4543/084]S 10
[4551/-4551/068]S 9
[3017/-3017/0136]S 17
[3034/-3034/0102]S 14
[3043/-3043/084]S 13
[3051/-3051/068]S 12
[3068/-3068/034]S 9
[9017/0153]S 18
[9034/0136]S 16
[9043/0127]S 15
[9051/0119]S 14
[9068/0102]S 12
[9085/085]S 10
[3042/-3042/9042/042]S 10
[4542/-4542/9042/042]S 7
Table 7.20 - Composite Laminate Minimum Buckling M.S.
The laminate that resists buckling the most is the [0340]S laminate. This is a result of this
laminate having the highest stiffness in the axial buckling direction.
61
8. Conclusion
The degree of success in using composite materials in the truss members of a bridge is
measured by the ability of the application to decrease weight and increase strength. The
strength change was found to be very dependent on the layup of the composite members.
Some laminates are stronger while others are weaker. Laminates that have shown
themselves to be stronger than the steel in one direction but are much weaker in another
were also among the candidates. What follows is a summary of all the truss models.
The minimum M.S. in the axial direction for each truss model is shown in Figure
8.1.
Minimum Axial M.S. of Truss Material/Layup
120
100
80
Axial M.S.
60
40
20
Truss Material/Layup
Figure 8.1 - Axial M.S. Comparison
As expected the [0340]S layup is the strongest because it has all its fibers aligned in the
axial direction.
A similar figure of the minimum M.S. in the transverse direction is shown in
Figure 8.2.
62
Minimum Transverse M.S. of Truss Material/Layup
1,400
1,200
1,000
Transverse M.S.
800
600
400
200
Figure 8.2 - Transverse M.S. Comparison
This shows that the layups with the 90 degree orientation plies are easily the strongest.
In particular are the [068/90102]S and the [085/9085]S truss laminates. This is because 90
cross plies have all there fibers aligned with the transverse direction.
Finally, a figure comparing the minimum buckling M.S. is shown in Figure 8.3.
Minimum Buckling M.S. of Truss Material/Layup
25
20
Buckling M.S.
15
10
Figure 8.3 - Buckling M.S. Comparison
63
This shows the only layup to compare to the steel is the [0340]S layup. The lower margins
across the board are because the axial modulus of elasticity of the composite material is
lower than steel. Since this variable is an important factor in determining buckling these
results are to be expected.
The final important comparison between a steel and composite truss is
calculating the reduction in weight for the composite material truss. Table 8.1 shows this
difference. The structure weight is the sum of the members, gusset plates, and road deck
weight.
Truss Structure
% Difference
Material/Layup Weight
Steel 264,746
Composite 127,472 -52%
Table 8.1 - Steel vs. Composite Weight Comparison
As can be seen there is over fifty percent in weight savings when switching to a carbon
fiber epoxy composite material in the overall truss. This is due to an 83% reduction in
density of composite material over the steel.
The results show that switching to IM7/8552 carbon fiber epoxy results in a
higher strength and lower weight truss bridge. The ideal layup is the [9043/0127]S
composite laminate. This layup has much higher axial strength than the steel and a much
improved transverse strength. It only takes a 26% decrease in buckling strength to
achieve these higher axial and transverse margins. It can therefore be concluded that the
switch to composite materials over traditional steel will overall be beneficial to the
construction of a Warren truss bridge structure.
64
9. References
[1] Array Solutions. Wind Loads. 23 March 2002. 31 March 2012
<http://www.arraysolutions.com/Products/windloads.htm>.
[2] Camp, Charles. Trusses - Method of Joints. Lecture. Memphis: The University of
Memphis, 2012.
[3] Hexcel Corporation. Prepreg Data Sheets. 31 March 2012

<http://www.hexcel.com/Resources/prepreg-data-sheets>.
[4] Hyer, Michael W. Stress Analysis of Fiber-Reinforced Composite Materials.

Lancaster: DEStech Publications, Inc., 2009.
[5] Kxcad.net. BEAM188 Element.

<http://www.kxcad.net/ansys/ANSYS/ansyshelp/Hlp_E_BEAM188.html>.
[6] Metallic Materials Properties Development and Standardization (MMPDS).

Washington: Federal Aviation Administration, 2010.
[7] Reade Advanced Materials. Weight Per Cubic Foot And Specific Gravity. 11
January 2006. 31 March 2012
<http://www.reade.com/Particle_Briefings/spec_gra2.html>.
[8] State of Connecticut. Connecticut Building Code. 2005. 31 March 2012

<http://www.archive.org/stream/gov.ct.building/ct_building_djvu.txt>.
[9] U.S. Department of Housing and Development. Wind Zone Comparisons.

Washington, 2006.
[10] U.S. Department of Transportation Federal Highway Administration. Application

of Design Standards, Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards, and Bridges. 15 4
2009. 31 March 2012 <http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/design/0625sup.cfm>.
[11] U.S. Department of Transportation Federal Highway Administration Freight

Management and Operations. Bridge Formula Weights Calculator. 27 February
2012. 31 March 2012
<http://www.ops.fhwa.dot.gov/freight/sw/brdgcalc/calc_page.htm>.
65
10.Appendix
10.1 Appendix A – ANSYS Input File Code

! Initialize the model
/FILENAME,file
/TITLE, 2D Steel Truss
/UNITS,BIN ! USCS system of units
! Define parameters for future use

Line_Div = 128 ! Line divisions for meshing
Length_T = 74*12 ! Sets length of truss
Side = 10 ! Sets cross section side length
t = 2.016 ! Sets cross section wall thickness
Member_Length = 18.5*12 ! Sets the length of each member
Truss_Height = ((Member_Length)**2-(Member_Length/2)**2)**(1/2) !Truss Height
m = 667.8 ! Weight of one member
ga = 23.5 ! Weight of gusset plate a
gb = 38.7 ! Weight of gusset plate b
gc = 51.6 ! Weight of gusset plate c
P = 210428.4 ! Weight of vehicles, road deck, and snow
! Model Preprocessor
/PREP7 ! Enters the general input data preprocessor
! Element Type
ET,1,BEAM188 ! 2D Beam Element
SECTYPE,1,BEAM,HREC ! Selects hollow rectangle as cross section
SECOFFSET,CENT ! Sets centroid
SECDATA,Side,Side,t,t,t,t ! Sets dimension of cross section
! Material properties
66
MP,EX,1,9.11E6 ! Elastic modulus x
MP,EY,1,9.11E6 ! Elastic modulus y
MP,EZ,1,9.11E6 ! Elastic modulus z
MP,PRXY,1,0.3201 ! Poisson's ratio xy
MP,PRXZ,1,0.3201 ! Poisson's ratio xz
MP,PRYZ,1,0.3201 ! Poisson's ratio yz
MP,GXY,1,3.45E6 ! Shear modulus xy
MP,GXZ,1,3.45E6 ! Shear modulus xz
MP,GYZ,1,3.45E6 ! Shear modulus yz
! Geometry
! Creates keypoints at nodes for truss
K,1,0,0,0
K,2,Member_Length*1/2,Truss_Height,0
K,3,Member_Length,0,0
K,5,Member_Length*2,0,0
! Creates lines for truss members
L,1,2
L,1,3
L,2,3
L,2,4
L,3,4
L,3,5
L,4,5
L,4,6
L,5,6
67
L,5,7
L,6,7
L,6,8
L,7,8
L,7,9
L,8,9
! Meshing
LESIZE, all,,,Line_Div ! Sets divisons of lines to variable Line_Size
MAT,1 ! Selects Material 1 to mesh with
TYPE,1 ! Sets the element type to mesh to type 1 (BEAM188)
MSHAPE,0,2D ! Shape of elements are Quad elements
MSHKEY,1 ! Sets to a mapped Mesh
LMESH, all ! Meshs all lines
Finish ! Ends preprocessor
! Solution processor
/SOLU ! Enters the solution processor
ANTYPE,STATIC ! Sets the analysis type to static analysis
! Boundary Conditions
KSEL,S,,,1 ! Selects node on bottom left
NSLK,S ! Selects node on bottom left
D,All,UX,0 ! Applies a pinned constraint to left hand side
D,All,UY,0 ! Applies a pinned constraint to left hand side
D,All,UZ,0 ! Applies a pinned constraint to left hand side
D,All,ROTX,0 ! Applies a pinned constraint to left hand side
D,All,ROTY,0 ! Applies a pinned constraint to left hand side
KSEL,S,,,9 ! Selects node on bottom right
NSLK,S ! Selects node on bottom right
D,All,UY,0 ! Applies a roller constraint to right hand side
68
D,All,UZ,0 ! Applies a roller constraint to right hand side
D,All,ROTX,0 ! Applies a roller constraint to right hand side
D,All,ROTY,0 ! Applies a roller constraint to right hand side
ALLSEL,ALL ! Reselects everything
! Dead and Live Loads

KSEL,S,,,1 ! Selects KP for node a
NSLK,S ! Selects node a
F,all,FY,-(1.5*m+2*ga) ! Applies force to node a
KSEL,S,,,2 ! Selects KP for node b
NSLK,S ! Selects node b
F,all,Fy,-(2*m+2*gb) ! Applies force to node b
KSEL,S,,,3 ! Selects KP for node c
NSLK,S ! Selects node c
F,all,Fy,-(2.5*m+2*gc+P/3) ! Applies force to node c
KSEL,S,,,4 ! Selects KP for node d
NSLK,S ! Selects node d
F,all,Fy,-(2.5*m+2*gc) ! Applies force to node d
KSEL,S,,,5 ! Selects KP for node e
NSLK,S ! Selects node e
F,all,Fy,-(2.5*m+2*gc+P/3) ! Applies force to node e
KSEL,S,,,6 ! Selects KP for node f
NSLK,S ! Selects node f
F,all,Fy,-(2.5*m+2*gc) ! Applies force to node f
KSEL,S,,,7 ! Selects KP for node g
NSLK,S ! Selects node g
F,all,Fy,-(2.5*m+2*gc+P/3) ! Applies force to node g
KSEL,S,,,8 ! Selects KP for node h
NSLK,S ! Selects node h
F,all,Fy,-(2*m+2*gb) ! Applies force to node h
KSEL,S,,,9 ! Selects KP for node i
69
NSLK,S ! Selects node i
F,all,Fy,-(1.5*m+2*ga) ! Applies force to node i
ALLSEL,ALL ! Reselects everything
! Solve
SOLVE ! Solves the current load step
FINISH ! Ends solution processor
! Post processor
/POST1 ! Enters the post processor
/ESHAPE,1.0 ! Plots beam elements
PLNSOL,S,X,0,1.0 ! Plots stress in the x direction
10.2 Appendix B – MATLAB Composite Laminate Stiffness Calculator

% Clears the screen and variables
clear all; clc;
% Material properties for Graphite

E1 = 23.8E6;
E2 = 1.7E6;
v12 = 0.32;
G12 = .750E6;
thickness = 0.006;
% Computes the Q Matrix

Q(1,1) = E1/(1-v12*v12*E2/E1);
Q(1,2) = v12*E2/(1-v12*v12*E2/E1);
Q(1,3) = 0;
Q(2,1) = Q(1,2);
70
Q(2,2) = E2/(1-v12*v12*E2/E1);
Q(2,3) = 0;
Q(3,1) = Q(1,3);
Q(3,2) = Q(2,3);
Q(3,3) = G12;
% # of plies in layup
Num_plies = 336;
theta_1 = 30;
theta_2 = -30;
theta_3 = 90;
theta_4 = 0;
% Creates a matrix of plies of size equal to previous input

for i = 1:Num_plies/8
Ply(i,1) = theta_1;
end
for i = Num_plies/8+1:2*Num_plies/8
Ply(i,1) = theta_2;
end
for i = 2*Num_plies/8+1:3*Num_plies/8
Ply(i,1) = theta_3;
end
Ply(i,1) = theta_4;
end
71
Ply(i,1) = theta_3;
end
Ply(i,1) = theta_2;
end
for i = 7*Num_plies/8+1:Num_plies
Ply(i,1) = theta_1;
end
% Laminate Thickness
H = Num_plies * thickness;
% Creates the z matrix

for i = 1:Num_plies + 1
z(i,1) = -H/2 + (i - 1) * thickness;
end
% Zeroes out the A,B,D,a,b,d matrices

for i = 1:3
for j = 1:3
A(i,j) = 0;
B(i,j) = 0;
D(i,j) = 0;
a(i,j) = 0;
b(i,j) = 0;
d(i,j) = 0;
end
end
72
% Calculates the stresses for each ply
for i = 1:Num_plies
% Calculates m and n for each ply
m = cos(Ply(i,1)/180*pi);
n = sin(Ply(i,1)/180*pi);
% Calculates the Qbar matrix based on Q, m, and n

QBar(1,1,i) = Q(1,1) * m^4 + 2 * (Q(1,2) + 2* Q(3,3)) * n^2 * m^2 + Q(2,2) * n^4;
QBar(1,2,i) = (Q(1,1) + Q(2,2) - 4 * Q(3,3)) * n^2 * m^2 + Q(1,2) * (n^4+m^4);
QBar(1,3,i) = (Q(1,1) - Q(1,2) - 2 * Q(3,3)) * n * m^3 + (Q(1,2) - Q(2,2) + 2 *
Q(3,3)) * n^3 * m;
QBar(2,1,i) = QBar(1,2,i);
QBar(2,2,i) = Q(1,1) * n^4 + 2 * (Q(1,2) + 2* Q(3,3)) * n^2 * m^2 + Q(2,2) * m^4;
QBar(2,3,i) = (Q(1,1) - Q(1,2) - 2 * Q(3,3)) * n^3 * m + (Q(1,2) - Q(2,2) + 2 *
Q(3,3)) * n * m^3;
QBar(3,1,i) = QBar(1,3,i);
QBar(3,2,i) = QBar(2,3,i);
QBar(3,3,i) = (Q(1,1) + Q(2,2) - 2 * Q(1,2) - 2 * Q(3,3)) * n^2 * m^2 + Q(3,3) * (n^4
+ m^4);
% Calculates the ABD matrices

for j = 1:3
for k = 1:3
A(j,k) = A(j,k) + QBar(j,k,i) * (z(i+1) - z(i));
B(j,k) = B(j,k) + QBar(j,k,i) * (z(i+1)^2 - z(i)^2);
D(j,k) = D(j,k) + QBar(j,k,i) * (z(i+1)^3 - z(i)^3);
end
end
% Calculates the transformation matrix
73
T(1,1,i) = m^2;
T(1,2,i) = n^2;
T(1,3,i) = 2*m*n;
T(2,1,i) = n^2;
T(2,2,i) = m^2;
T(2,3,i) = -2*m*n;
T(3,1,i) = -m*n;
T(3,2,i) = m*n;
T(3,3,i) = m^2 - n^2;
end
% Applies the correction coefficient to fully calculate the B & D matrix

B = B/2;
D = D/3;
% Calcutes the 6x6 ABD matrix

for i = 1:3
for j = 1:3
ABD(i,j) = A(i,j);
ABD(i+3,j) = B(i,j);
ABD(i,j+3) = B(i,j);
ABD(i+3,j+3) = D(i,j);
end
end
% Calculates the 6x6 abd matrix

abd = inv(ABD);
% Calculates the a, b, and d matrices

for i = 1:3
for j = 1:3
74
a(i,j) = abd(i,j);
b(i,j) = abd(i,j+3);
d(i,j) = abd(i+3,j+3);
end
end
% Calculates the material properties of the laminate

E_x = 1 / (a(1,1) * H);
E_y = 1 / (a(2,2) * H);
E_z = E_y;
nu_xy = -a(1,2)/a(1,1);
nu_yz = -a(1,2)/a(2,2);
nu_xz = nu_xy;
G_xy = 1 / (a(3,3) * H);
G_xz = G_xy;
G_yz = E_y / (2 * (1 + nu_yz));
% Prints out the properties of the laminate

fprintf('Ex = %.2E Msi\n',E_x/1E6)
fprintf('Ey = %.2E Msi\n',E_y/1E6)
fprintf('Ez = %.2E Msi\n\n',E_z/1E6)
fprintf('nu_xy = %.4f \n',nu_xy)

fprintf('nu_xz = %.4f \n',nu_xz)
fprintf('nu_yz = %.4f \n\n',nu_yz)
fprintf('Gxy = %.2E Msi\n',G_xy/1E6)

fprintf('Gxz = %.2E Msi\n',G_xz/1E6)
fprintf('Gyz = %.2E Msi\n\n',G_yz/1E6)
fprintf('H = % in\n\n',H)
75
10.3 Appendix C – MATLAB Composite Laminate Global Failure
Calculator
% Clears the screen and variables
clear all; clc;
% Length of Laminate in axial direction

L = 10*4;
% Material properties for Graphite

E1 = 23.8E6;
E2 = 1.7E6;
v12 = 0.32;
G12 = .75E6;
thickness = .006;
sigma_1_T = 395E3;
sigma_1_C = -245E3;
sigma_2_T = 16.1E3;
sigma_2_C = -32.3E3;
Tau_12_F = 17.4E3;
% Computes the Q Matrix

Q(1,1) = E1/(1-v12*v12*E2/E1);
Q(1,2) = v12*E2/(1-v12*v12*E2/E1);
Q(1,3) = 0;
Q(2,1) = Q(1,2);
Q(2,2) = E2/(1-v12*v12*E2/E1);
Q(2,3) = 0;
Q(3,1) = Q(1,3);
Q(3,2) = Q(2,3);
Q(3,3) = G12;
76
% # of plies in layup
Num_plies = 336;
theta_1 = 45;
theta_2 = -45;
theta_3 = 90;
theta_4 = 0;

for i = 1:Num_plies/8
Ply(i,1) = theta_1;
end
for i = Num_plies/8+1:2*Num_plies/8
Ply(i,1) = theta_2;
end
Ply(i,1) = theta_3;
end
Ply(i,1) = theta_4;
end
Ply(i,1) = theta_3;
end
Ply(i,1) = theta_2;
end
for i = 7*Num_plies/8+1:Num_plies
Ply(i,1) = theta_1;
77
end
% Information for the Forces

N_M_matrix(1,1) = 1/L;
N_M_matrix(2,1) = 0;
% Laminate Thickness
H = Num_plies * thickness;
% Creates the z matrix

for i = 1:Num_plies + 1
z(i,1) = -H/2 + (i - 1) * thickness;
end
% Zeroes out the A,B,D,a,b,d matrices

for i = 1:3
for j = 1:3
A(i,j) = 0;
B(i,j) = 0;
D(i,j) = 0;
a(i,j) = 0;
b(i,j) = 0;
d(i,j) = 0;
end
end
% Calculates the stresses for each ply
78
for i = 1:Num_plies
% Calculates m and n for each ply

m = cos(Ply(i,1)/180*pi);
n = sin(Ply(i,1)/180*pi);
% Calculates the Qbar matrix based on Q, m, and n

QBar(1,1,i) = Q(1,1) * m^4 + 2 * (Q(1,2) + 2* Q(3,3)) * n^2 * m^2 + Q(2,2) * n^4;
QBar(1,2,i) = (Q(1,1) + Q(2,2) - 4 * Q(3,3)) * n^2 * m^2 + Q(1,2) * (n^4+m^4);
QBar(1,3,i) = (Q(1,1) - Q(1,2) - 2 * Q(3,3)) * n * m^3 + (Q(1,2) - Q(2,2) + 2 *
Q(3,3)) * n^3 * m;
QBar(2,1,i) = QBar(1,2,i);
QBar(2,2,i) = Q(1,1) * n^4 + 2 * (Q(1,2) + 2* Q(3,3)) * n^2 * m^2 + Q(2,2) * m^4;
QBar(2,3,i) = (Q(1,1) - Q(1,2) - 2 * Q(3,3)) * n^3 * m + (Q(1,2) - Q(2,2) + 2 *
Q(3,3)) * n * m^3;
QBar(3,1,i) = QBar(1,3,i);
QBar(3,2,i) = QBar(2,3,i);
QBar(3,3,i) = (Q(1,1) + Q(2,2) - 2 * Q(1,2) - 2 * Q(3,3)) * n^2 * m^2 + Q(3,3) * (n^4
+ m^4);
% Calculates the ABD matrices

for j = 1:3
for k = 1:3
A(j,k) = A(j,k) + QBar(j,k,i) * (z(i+1) - z(i));
B(j,k) = B(j,k) + QBar(j,k,i) * (z(i+1)^2 - z(i)^2);
D(j,k) = D(j,k) + QBar(j,k,i) * (z(i+1)^3 - z(i)^3);
end
end
% Calculates the transformation matrix

T(1,1,i) = m^2;
79
T(1,2,i) = n^2;
T(1,3,i) = 2*m*n;
T(2,1,i) = n^2;
T(2,2,i) = m^2;
T(2,3,i) = -2*m*n;
T(3,1,i) = -m*n;
T(3,2,i) = m*n;
T(3,3,i) = m^2 - n^2;
end
% Applies the correction coefficient to fully calculate the B & D matrix

B = B/2;
D = D/3;
% Calcutes the 6x6 ABD matrix

for i = 1:3
for j = 1:3
ABD(i,j) = A(i,j);
ABD(i+3,j) = B(i,j);
ABD(i,j+3) = B(i,j);
ABD(i+3,j+3) = D(i,j);
end
end
% Calculates the 6x6 abd matrix

abd = inv(ABD);
% Calculates the a, b, and d matrices

for i = 1:3
for j = 1:3
80
a(i,j) = abd(i,j);
b(i,j) = abd(i,j+3);
d(i,j) = abd(i+3,j+3);
end
end
% Calculates the epsilon_kappa matrix

epsilon_Kappa_matrix = abd * N_M_matrix;
% Calculates the global strains at the top and bottom of each layer
for i = 1:Num_plies
for j = 1:3
epsilon_global_top(j,:,i) = epsilon_Kappa_matrix(j) + z(i) *
epsilon_Kappa_matrix(j+3);
epsilon_global_bot(j,:,i) = epsilon_Kappa_matrix(j) + z(i+1) *
epsilon_Kappa_matrix(j+3);
end
end
% Calculates the global stresses at the top and bottom of each layer
for i = 1:Num_plies
sigma_global_top(:,:,i) = QBar(:,:,i) * epsilon_global_top(:,:,i);
sigma_local_top(:,:,i) = T(:,:,i) * sigma_global_top(:,:,i);
sigma_global_bot(:,:,i) = QBar(:,:,i) * epsilon_global_bot(:,:,i);

sigma_local_bot(:,:,i) = T(:,:,i) * sigma_global_bot(:,:,i);
end
% Calcualtes the Tsai-Wu Failure Criterion Coefficients

F_1 = 1 / sigma_1_T + 1 / sigma_1_C;
F_2 = 1 / sigma_2_T + 1 / sigma_2_C;
81
F_11 = -1 / (sigma_1_T * sigma_1_C);
F_22 = -1 / (sigma_2_T * sigma_2_C);
F_66 = (1 / Tau_12_F)^2;
count = 1;
for i = 1:Num_plies
p = eval(solve('F_1 * x * sigma_local_top(1,1,i) + F_2 * x * sigma_local_top(2,1,i) +
F_11 * (x * sigma_local_top(1,1,i))^2 + F_22 * (x * sigma_local_top(2,1,i))^2 + F_66 *
(x * sigma_local_top(3,1,i))^2 - sqrt(F_11 * F_22) * x * sigma_local_top(1,1,i) * x *
sigma_local_top(2,1,i) = 1'));
Answer(count,1) = p(1);
Answer(count + 1,1) = p(2);
count = count +2;
end
for i = 1:Num_plies
Ply_Num(i,1) = i;
end
% Creates table of bottom sigma x, sigma y, and tauxy for each ply
Table_Top_Stress_global(:,1) = Ply_Num;
Table_Top_Stress_global(:,2) = Ply;
count = 1;
for i = 1:Num_plies
Table_Top_Stress_global(i,3) = Answer(count)/1E6;
Table_Top_Stress_global(i,4) = Answer(count+1)/1E6;
count = count + 2;
end
disp('Failure Load of Each Ply (Mlb)')
82
disp(' Ply # Angle Tension Compression ')
disp(Table_Top_Stress_global)
% Creates vector of ply numbers

for i = 1:Num_plies
Ply_Num(i,1) = i;
end
% Creates table of bottom sigma x, sigma y, and tauxy for each ply
Table_Top_Stress_global(:,1) = Ply_Num;
Table_Top_Stress_global(:,2) = Ply;
for i = 1:Num_plies
for j = 1:3
Table_Top_Stress_global(i,j+2) = sigma_global_top(j,:,i) / 1E6;
end
end
% Creates table of top sigma 1, sigma 2, and tau12 for each ply
Table_Bot_Stress_global(:,1) = Ply_Num;
Table_Bot_Stress_global(:,2) = Ply;
for i = 1:Num_plies
for j = 1:3
Table_Bot_Stress_global(i,j+2) = sigma_global_bot(j,:,i) / 1E6;
end
end
% Creates table of bottom sigma 1, sigma 2, and tau12 for each ply
Table_Top_Stress_local(:,1) = Ply_Num;
Table_Top_Stress_local(:,2) = Ply;
for i = 1:Num_plies
for j = 1:3
83
Table_Top_Stress_local(i,j+2) = sigma_local_top(j,:,i) / 1E6;
end
end
% Creates table of top sigma 1, sigma 2, and tau12 for each ply
Table_Bot_Stress_local(:,1) = Ply_Num;
Table_Bot_Stress_local(:,2) = Ply;
for i = 1:Num_plies
for j = 1:3
Table_Bot_Stress_local(i,j+2) = sigma_local_bot(j,:,i) / 1E6;
end
end
% Displays the tables

%disp(' Global Stress Top of Plys (Msi)')
%disp(' Ply # Angle Sigmax Sigmay Tauxy')
%disp(Table_Top_Stress_global)
%disp(' Global Stress Bottom of Plys (Msi)')

%disp(' Ply # Angle Sigmax Sigmay Tauxy')
%disp(Table_Bot_Stress_global)
%disp(' Local Stress Top of Plys (Msi)')

%disp(' Ply # Angle Sigma1 Sigma2 Tau12')
%disp(Table_Top_Stress_local)
%disp(' Local Stress Bottom of Plys (Msi)')

%disp(' Ply # Angle Sigma1 Sigma2 Tau12')
%disp(Table_Bot_Stress_local)
84

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Structural Comparison of a Composite and Steel Truss Bridge

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute

Figure 1.1 - Warren Truss

1.1 Truss Geometry

A wireframe schematic of these dimensions can be seen in Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2 - Truss Wireframe Schematic

1.2 Truss Member Geometry

Figure 1.3 - Truss Member Cross Section

1.3 Truss Gusset Plate Geometry

Figure 1.4 - Node Gusset Plate Type

Figure 1.6 - Gusset Plate Type b

Figure 1.7 - Gusset Plate Type c

2.1 Steel Material Selection

The full material properties of 5Cr-Mo-V are shown in Table 2.2.

2.2 Composite Material Selection

Figure 3.1 - Composite Ply

3.1 CLT Assumptions

Equation 3.1 - Q Matrix [3.1]

Figure 3.2 - Through Thickness Coordinate System [4]

The matrix can then be computed using equation [3.4].

Equation 3.4 - Matrix [3.4]

Equation 3.5 - [A] Matrix [3.5]

Equation 3.6 - [B] Matrix [3.6]

Equation 3.7 - [D] Matrix [3.7]

3.3 Laminate Stress and Strain

Equation 3.10 - Global Ply

Equation 3.11 - Global Ply

Equation 3.12 - Local Ply

Equation 3.13 - Local Ply

3.4 Laminate Failure Criterion

Equation 3.15 - Tsai-Wu

Figure 3.3 - Tsai Wu Failure Criterion Ellipsoid [4]

3.5 Laminate Material Properties

Equation 3.16 - Laminate 0º Tensile Modulus Ex

Equation 3.17 - Laminate 90º Tensile Modulus Ey

Equation 3.18 - Laminate Through Thickness Tensile Ez

Equation 3.19 - Laminate In-plane Poisson’s Ratio xy

Equation 3.20 - Laminate xz Poisson’s Ratio xz

Equation 3.21 - Laminate yz Poisson’s Ratio yz

Equation 3.22 - Laminate In-plane Shear modulus Gxy

Equation 3.23 - Laminate xz Shear Modulus Gxz

Equation 3.24 - Laminate yz Shear Modulus Gyz

Table 3.1 - Laminate Material Properties

3.6 Member Laminate Layup

Table 3.2 - Candidate Composite Laminates

4.1 Dead Load

4.3 Dynamic Load

4.4 Truss Free Body Diagram

1.5m 2.5m 2.5m 2.5m 1.5m

2ga 2gc 2gc 2gc 2gc

Figure 4.1 - Dead and Live Truss Load FBD

FDm 2FDm 2FDm 2FDm FDm

Figure 4.2 - Dynamic Truss Load FBD

5.1 2D ANSYS Finite Element Model

5.1.1 Model Geometry, Element Type, and Mesh

Figure 5.2 - BEAM188 Element [5]

Figure 5.3 - 2D ANSYS FEM Mesh

5.1.2 Material Properties, Loads, and Boundary Conditions

5.2.1 Naming Convention

Figure 5.4 - Member and Node Designation

Fiii Fii Fiii Fii

5.2.3 Matrix Equation

0 0 0 0 0 0 sin(60) 0 sin(60) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 [5.3]